Rewilding Europe is a non-profit organization based in Nijmegen , the Netherlands , dedicated to creating rewilded landscapes throughout Europe. The group's efforts have contributed to increasing the stock of previously endangered species such as the European bison and the Iberian lynx .
186-591: Rewilding Europe was formally established on June 28, 2011, as an independent, non-profit foundation (ANBI status) registered in the Netherlands . The four co-founders of Rewilding Europe are Frans Schepers, Staffan Widstrand , Neil Birnie, and Wouter Helmer. The organization has received funding from the European Investment Bank and the Endangered Landscapes Programme. Rewilding Europe
372-526: A pars pro toto for the entire country. Many Dutch people object to the country being referred to as Holland instead of the Netherlands , on much the same grounds as many Welsh or Scottish people object to the United Kingdom being referred to as England. In particular, those from regions other than Holland find it undesirable or misrepresentative to use the term Holland for the whole country, as
558-662: A żubrobizon . The products of a German interbreeding programme were destroyed after the Second World War. This programme was related to the impulse which created the Heck cattle . The cross-bred individuals created at other zoos were eliminated from breed books by the 1950s. A Russian back-breeding programme resulted in a wild herd of hybrid animals, which presently lives in the Caucasian Biosphere Reserve (550 animals in 1999). Wisent-cattle hybrids also occur, similar to
744-478: A matriarchy , as it is the cows of the herd that lead it, and decide where the entire group moves to graze. Although larger and heavier than the females, the oldest and most powerful male bulls are usually satellites that hang around the edges of the herd to protect the group. Bulls begin to serve a more active role in the herd when a danger to the group's safety appears, as well as during the mating season – when they compete with each other. Territory held by bulls
930-572: A water buffalo herd as a proxy for Bubalus murrensis ; and 2020, of a Turkmenian kulan herd (a species present in European Russia until the 18th or 19th century, and close relative of the Western European wild ass that became extinct in the Chalcolithic ). The Southern Carpathians were considered a good place for nature conservation work. Rewilding Europe has concentrated on part of
1116-616: A 20 square mile grasslands area in the Țarcu Mountains of Romania in 2014 was found to have resulted in an additional 54,000 tons of carbon draw-down annually. The Wilder Blean project, headed up by the Wildwood Trust and Kent Wildlife Trust , introduced European bison to the UK for the first time in 6000 years (although there was an unsuccessful attempt in Scotland in 2011, and the European bison
1302-1286: A 6 million euro loan finance contract. It is the first project of the “Bank on Nature Initiative”, set up by the European Commission . The signing ceremony took place in the Berlaymont Building , the headquarters of the European Commission in Brussels. REC forms part of the enterprise component of Rewilding Europe, which is working to build a business case for wild nature in Europe. REC was established to positively stimulate enterprise economies connected to natural landscapes and their wildlife. REC achieves this by providing commercial business loans to businesses that can: positively address negative socio-economic impacts caused by rural land abandonment; directly and indirectly support rewilding processes and activities in Europe and to those that deliver economic returns from nature and wildlife-related sectors that also work to conserve natural landscapes, capital, and rural cultures and heritage connected to them. By 2018 Rewilding Europe in total loaned out to 18 enterprises
1488-452: A Spanish prisoner, nailed it on a vessel's prow, and invited the townsmen to come and fasten their teeth in it, which many did with savage satisfaction. The Duke of Alba attempted to suppress the Protestant movement in the Netherlands. Netherlanders were "burned, strangled, beheaded, or buried alive" by his " Blood Council " and Spanish soldiers. Bodies were displayed along roads to terrorise
1674-481: A biosphere reserve, several hiking trails, old-growth forests, deep canyons, ancient open lands and wildlife like Balkan chamois , red deer , brown bear , wolf , and lynx . Many local inhabitants have moved out of the area towards the coast. As a result, many areas of this region are now characterized by land abandonment, rural exodus and fading cultural tradition. Rewilding Europe is working with its partners to transform challenges into opportunities. This has seen
1860-443: A breed intended to resemble the extinct aurochs . An experimental release of Iberian lynx is planned for the end of 2023. Local rabbit populations have fallen significantly due to the use of disease as pest control. As rabbits are the lynx's primary source of food, the release is intended to determine whether the lynxes will be able to switch to a different source of prey, such as young deer. A proposal has been made to establish
2046-411: A cattle breed that resembles the aurochs by establishing viable free-ranging populations of cattle in several European locations. Due to translocations in 2016 and 2017, the number of Tauros cattle grazing near Sfântu Gheorghe, Tulcea is now 18 animals. Rewilding Europe works to create new opportunities for delta communities by supporting the development of nature-based business. 2019 saw the release of
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#17330859207062232-399: A coalition to restore Europe's rivers and streams to their natural state. Since its establishment, Rewilding Europe has published annual reviews covering its activities, achievements in rewilding areas, specific ten-year objectives, news about rewilding, nature-based economies, nature-based tourism, wild nature, and more. Rewilding Europe engages with many European universities, as rewilding
2418-424: A database for all the animals in the bank. This includes information on births and deaths in all relevant areas across Europe, the start and end dates of contracts, the yearly availability of animals, and the demand for animals from new rewilding areas. By 2018 Rewilding Europe signed 16 contracts with partner organisations in nine countries. Titled "Making Space for Rewilding: Creating an enabling policy environment"
2604-512: A day. European bison in the Białowieża Forest in Poland have traditionally been fed hay in the winter for centuries, and large herds may gather around this diet supplement. European bison need to drink every day, and in winter can be seen breaking ice with their heavy hooves. Although superficially similar, a number of physical and behavioural differences are seen between the European bison and
2790-546: A definition for Bíson ( Early Modern English : "a wilde oxe, great eied, broad-faced, that will neuer be tamed" ). In the 18th century the name of the European animal was applied to the closely related American bison (initially in Latin in 1693, by John Ray ) and the Indian bison (the gaur, Bos gaurus ). Historically the word was also applied to Indian domestic cattle, the zebu ( B. indicus or B. primigenius indicus ). Because of
2976-650: A distinct governmental structure of their own. They were utilized as a buffer zone between the Republic and the Spanish-controlled Southern Netherlands . In the Dutch Golden Age , spanning much of the 17th century, the Dutch Empire grew to become one of the major seafaring and economic powers. Science, military and art (especially painting ) were among the most acclaimed in the world. By 1650,
3162-441: A gestation period of 264 days, and typically give birth to one calf at a time. On average, male calves weigh 27.6 kg (60.8 lb) at birth, and females 24.4 kg (53.8 lb). Body size in males increases proportionately to the age of 6 years. While females have a higher increase in body mass in their first year, their growth rate is comparatively slower than that of males by the age of 3–5. Bulls reach sexual maturity at
3348-486: A growl-like sound, known in Polish as chruczenie ( [xrutʂɛɲɛ] ). This sound can also be heard from wisent males during the mating season. The similar skeletal morphology of the wisent with the steppe bison ( Bison priscus ) which also formerly inhabited Europe complicates the understanding of the early evolution of the European bison. Genetic evidence indicates that European bison were present across Europe, from France to
3534-534: A landscape scale. Revitalised and self-governing natural processes, particularly flooding and natural grazing, will govern landscape formation, driving other natural processes, wildlife comeback, increased biodiversity, and the development of a nature-based economy. The Danube Delta rewilding area is part of the Tauros breeding programme , managed by the Taurus Foundation and Rewilding Europe. The programme aims to breed
3720-546: A local nature-based economy and reduce human-wildlife conflict. The Iberian Highlands rewilding landscape is located in the Alto Tajo Nature Reserve and the Serranía de Cuenca mountains in central Spain, forming an 850,000 hectares (2,100,000 acres) mountainous area consisting of river canyons, steppe prairie, pine, oak, and juniper forests, and farmland. The selected area had undergone significant land abandonment as
3906-508: A long record of social tolerance , having legalised prostitution and euthanasia , along with maintaining a liberal drug policy . The Netherlands allowed women's suffrage in 1919 and was the first country to legalise same-sex marriage in 2001. Its mixed-market advanced economy has the eleventh-highest per capita income globally. The Hague holds the seat of the States General , Cabinet , and Supreme Court . The Port of Rotterdam
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#17330859207064092-542: A mercantile middle class began to develop in these urban areas, especially in Flanders, and later Brabant. Wealthy cities started to buy certain privileges for themselves from the sovereign. Around 1100 AD, farmers from Flanders and Utrecht began draining and cultivating uninhabited swampy land in the western Netherlands, making the emergence of the County of Holland as the centre of power possible. The title of Count of Holland
4278-468: A natural park around the gorges formed by the Tagus River , which would prohibit hunting, fishing, and logging but permit traditional agriculture. This has faced resistance from hunters and municipalities who depend on wild game and hunting permits, respectively, as sources of revenue. The rewilding programs are planned to cooperate with local communities to establish sustainable farming and ecotourism. This
4464-551: A new conservation approach emerging from the inter-disciplinary conservation science interacting with currents in culture and society, 2) positioning rewilding as a complementary approach with the potential to extend the scope and impact of the EU nature policy cost-effectively, supporting better implementation of the Nature Directives, and 3) undertakings to support and invest in rewilding initiatives and studies and engage in dialogue with
4650-421: A result of rural depopulation , which reduced both the local population density, which dropped to fewer than two people per square kilometre, and the numbers of the sheep herds that had been historically grazed in the area. The lowered human footprint favoured the reestablishment of roe , fallow , and red deer , wild boar , European mouflon , and small herds of Iberian ibex , alongside griffon vultures and
4836-518: A rich diversity of ecosystems and therefore also wildlife species. The work of Rewilding Europe and its partners in Central Apennines focuses on developing large "coexistence corridors" by connecting the local economy with wilder nature in four corridors collectively covering more than 40,000 hectares. In the protected areas (the Abruzzo and Majella National Parks and Sirente-Velino Regional Park )
5022-501: A small rise in calf mortality. Genetic variability continues to shrink. From five initial bulls, all current European bison bulls have one of only two remaining Y chromosomes . Beginning in 1951, European bison have been reintroduced into the wild, including some areas where they were never found wild. Free-ranging herds are currently found in Poland, Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine, Bulgaria, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, Latvia, Switzerland, Kyrgyzstan, Germany, and in forest preserves in
5208-433: A state of almost continual war or paradoxically formed personal unions. As Frankish settlement progressed from Flanders and Brabant, the area quickly became Old Low Franconian (or Old Dutch). Around 1000 AD, due to several agricultural developments, the economy started to develop at a fast pace, and the higher productivity allowed workers to farm more land or become tradesmen. Towns grew around monasteries and castles , and
5394-497: A total area of 41,543 km (16,040 sq mi), including water bodies, and a land area of 33,481 km (12,927 sq mi). The Caribbean Netherlands has a total area of 328 km (127 sq mi) It lies between latitudes 50° and 54° N , and longitudes 3° and 8° E . The Netherlands is geographically very low relative to sea level and is considered a flat country, with about 26% of its area and 21% of its population below sea level. The European part of
5580-467: Is Dutch, with West Frisian as a secondary official language in the province of Friesland . Dutch, English, and Papiamento are official in the Caribbean territories . Netherlands literally means "lower countries" in reference to its low elevation and flat topography, with 26% below sea level . Most of the areas below sea level, known as polders , are the result of land reclamation that began in
5766-515: Is a borrowing from Polish : żubr [ʐubr] , previously also used to denote one race of the European bison. The Polish żubr is similar to the word for the European bison in other modern Slavic languages , such as Upper Sorbian : žubr and Russian : зубр . The noun for the European bison in all living Slavonic tongues is thought to be derived from Proto-Slavic : *zǫbrъ ~ *izǫbrъ , which itself possibly comes from Proto-Indo-European : *ǵómbʰ- for tooth, horn or peg. The European bison
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5952-604: Is a country in Northwestern Europe , with overseas territories in the Caribbean . It is the largest of the four constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands . The Netherlands consists of twelve provinces ; it borders Germany to the east and Belgium to the south, with a North Sea coastline to the north and west. It shares maritime borders with the United Kingdom , Germany, and Belgium. The official language
6138-575: Is a future-oriented, long-term conservation approach, which requires raising awareness of the younger generations. Some of the universities with which Rewilding Europe has good connections are Oxford, Cambridge, Leipzig, Madrid, Amsterdam, Zagreb, and Warsaw. Official website Netherlands – in Europe (light green & dark grey) – in the European Union (light green) The Netherlands , informally Holland ,
6324-607: Is a policy brief written by Paul Jepson, Course Director at the School of Geography and Environment at the University of Oxford and Frans Schepers, Managing Director of Rewilding Europe. The brief was written to make rewilding widely acceptable and recognizable as an innovative conservation method. The brief communicates that rewilding as such represents a growing movement in Europe and has attained scientific, practical, and media presence. The interviews have been conducted with ten experts from
6510-742: Is a possibility that the species' range extended to East Thrace during the 7th–8th century AD. Its population in Gaul was extinct in the 8th century AD. The species survived in the Ardennes and the Vosges Mountains until the 15th century. In the Early Middle Ages , the wisent apparently still occurred in the forest steppes east of the Urals, in the Altai Mountains , and seems to have reached Lake Baikal in
6696-497: Is a unique combination of a rich mosaic of large and wild continental, marine, and freshwater ecosystems in Germany and Poland. The transboundary region stretches over more than 250,000 hectares, of which nearly 70,000 hectares are the open waters of the lagoon . Rewilding Europe, nature conservation organisations and local partners have started working on several pilot conservation and sustainable development projects here in 2013, based on
6882-553: Is a virtual bridge set up in hopes to close the gap between the needs of the vast numbers of rewilding initiatives with students and volunteers searching to gain experience by working in nature conservation and rewilding. Direct access to Rewilding Europe Capital (REC), Europe's first ‘rewilding enterprise’ funding facility that provides financial loans to new and existing businesses that catalyse, support and achieve positive environmental and socio-economic outcomes that support rewilding in Europe. ERN members are eligible for direct access to
7068-568: Is actively engaged in ten rewilding areas located in 12 European countries. The Greater Côa Valley rewilding area is located in Portugal , in the Côa Valley , along the border with Spain . Here, Rewilding Europe is trying to increase the number of semi-wild livestock , such as feral horses and cows. Due to depopulation and land abandonment, there has been a significant decrease in grazing, which has caused natural succession and more plant cover in
7254-549: Is also occupied with promoting ecotourism , advocacy to convince the Portuguese government to set aside more land to create a biological corridor , and a project to increase the number of wolves in the area. The 580,000-hectare Danube Delta is home to massive amounts of water birds , most notably pelicans of two species, herons , storks , cormorants , and terns . It is a favourite staging area for passage migrants and wintering grounds for masses of migrating water birds from
7440-445: Is correlated by age, with young bulls aged between five and six tending to form larger home ranges than older males. The European bison does not defend territory, and herd ranges tend to greatly overlap. Core areas of territory are usually sited near meadows and water sources. The rutting season occurs from August through to October. Bulls aged 4–6 years, though sexually mature, are prevented from mating by older bulls. Cows usually have
7626-400: Is dependent on environmental factors, though on average, they number eight to 13 animals per herd. Herds consisting solely of bulls are smaller than mixed ones, containing two individuals on average. European bison herds are not family units. Different herds frequently interact, combine, and quickly split after exchanging individuals. Bison social structure has been described by specialists as
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7812-585: Is documented only from the Pre-Boreal . It is not recorded from the British Isles , nor from Italy or the Iberian Peninsula , although prehistorical absence of the species among British Isles is debatable; bison fossils of unclarified species have been found on Doggerland or Brown Bank, and Isle of Wight and Oxfordshire , followed by fossil records of Pleistocene woodland bison and steppe bison from
7998-411: Is hoped to both bolster the local economy and form goodwill with established societies. Rewilding Europe uses several tools to support its activities. European Rewilding Network (ERN) is an online network set up to connect areas in the continent where rewilding efforts are taking place, including both the core Rewilding Europe locations as well as many other sites with externally run projects. Promoting
8184-519: Is lighter in body mass, and yet slightly taller at the shoulder, than its American relatives, the wood bison ( Bison bison athabascae ) and the plains bison ( Bison bison bison ). Compared to the American species, the wisent has shorter hair on the neck, head, and forequarters, but longer tail and horns. See differences from American bison . The European bison makes a variety of vocalisations depending on its mood and behaviour, but when anxious, it emits
8370-504: Is not confirmed to be native to England while the British Isles once used to be inhabited by now-extinct Steppe bison and Pleistocene woodland bison ). The herd of 3 females, with plans to also release a male in the following months, was set free in July 2022 within a 2,500-acre conservation area in West Blean and Thornden Woods , near Canterbury. Unknown to the rangers, one of the females
8556-682: Is now the southern Netherlands: the Menapii and the Eburones . Under Augustus , the Roman Empire would conquer the entirety of the modern day Netherlands, incorporating it into the province of Germania Antiqua in 7 BC, but would be repelled back across the Rhine after the Battle of Teutoburg Forest in 9 AD, with the Rhine becoming fixed as Rome's permanent northern frontier around 12 AD. Notable towns would arise along
8742-575: Is the busiest in Europe . Schiphol is the busiest airport in the Netherlands , and the fourth busiest in Europe . Being a developed country , the Netherlands is a founding member of the European Union , Eurozone , G10 , NATO , OECD , and WTO , as well as a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. It hosts intergovernmental organisations and international courts , many of which are in The Hague. The countries that comprise
8928-718: Is the heaviest surviving wild land animal in Europe. Similar to their American cousins, European bison were potentially larger historically than remnant descendants; modern animals are about 2.8 to 3.3 m (9.2 to 10.8 ft) in length, not counting a tail of 30 to 92 cm (12 to 36 in), 1.8 to 2.1 m (5.9 to 6.9 ft) in height, and 615 to 920 kg (1,356 to 2,028 lb) in weight for males, and about 2.4 to 2.9 m (7.9 to 9.5 ft) in body length without tails, 1.69 to 1.97 m (5.5 to 6.5 ft) in height, and 424 to 633 kg (935 to 1,396 lb) in weight for females. At birth, calves are quite small, weighing between 15 and 35 kg (33 and 77 lb). In
9114-421: Is working to reintroduce wild and semi-wild grazers. Since it began in 2015 the project has doubled in size and now extends across 1000 hectares. On 10 December 2014 experienced Croatian hiker Zdenko Đanić was killed by a Sayaguesa bull which the project had imported. The shepherd was present but rescuers reached the injured hiker too late due to the remote location. The Central Apennines are characterized by
9300-513: Is working with partners to boost biodiversity in the delta by improving habitats and their connectivity, rewilding rivers, restoring sensitive peatlands and alluvial areas, supporting sustainable wildlife comeback, and a local nature-based economy. Currently working in collaboration with fishing associations on both the Råne and Piteå , Rewilding Lapland is now working hard to boost fish migration through activities such as spawning ground restoration and
9486-712: The Batavian rebellion of 69 AD but were eventually defeated. The Batavi later merged with other tribes into the confederation of the Salian Franks, whose identity emerged in the first half of the third century. Salian Franks appear in Roman texts as both allies and enemies. They were forced by the confederation of the Saxons from the east to move over the Rhine into Roman territory in the fourth century. From their new base in West Flanders and
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#17330859207069672-506: The Eighty Years' War between the Provinces and their Spanish ruler began. The level of ferocity exhibited by both sides can be gleaned from a Dutch chronicler's report: On more than one occasion men were seen hanging their own brothers, who had been taken prisoners in the enemy's ranks... A Spaniard had ceased to be human in their eyes. On one occasion, a surgeon at Veer cut the heart from
9858-629: The European Economic Community and European Atomic Energy Community . In 1993, the former two were incorporated into the European Union . Government-encouraged emigration efforts to reduce population density prompted some 500,000 Dutch to leave the country after the war. The 1960s and 1970s were a time of great social and cultural change, such as rapid de- pillarisation . Students and other youth rejected traditional mores and pushed for change in matters such as women's rights , sexuality , disarmament and environmental issues . In 2002
10044-515: The European wood bison , also known as the wisent ( / ˈ v iː z ə n t / or / ˈ w iː z ə n t / ), the zubr ( / ˈ z uː b ə r / ), or sometimes colloquially as the European buffalo , is a European species of bison . It is one of two extant species of bison, alongside the American bison . The European bison is the heaviest wild land animal in Europe , and individuals in
10230-566: The Hellenistic period , Aristotle referred to bison as βόνασος , bónasos . He also noted that the Paeonians called it μόναπος ( monapos ). Claudius Aelianus , writing in the late 2nd or early 3rd centuries AD, also referred to the species as βόνασος , and both Pliny the Elder 's Natural History and Gaius Julius Solinus used Latin : bĭson and bonāsus . Both Martial and Seneca
10416-563: The Hilversum culture . Iron ore brought a measure of prosperity and was available throughout the country. Smiths travelled from settlement to settlement with bronze and iron, fabricating tools on demand. The King's grave of Oss (700 BC) was found in a burial mound, the largest of its kind in Western Europe. The deteriorating climate in Scandinavia from 850 BC and 650 BC might have triggered
10602-662: The Holland region only comprises two of the twelve provinces, and 38% of Dutch citizens. As of 2019, the Dutch government officially has preferred the Netherlands instead of Holland when talking about the country . Often Holland or Hollanders is used by the Flemish to refer to the Dutch in the Netherlands, and by the Southern Dutch (Dutch living " below the great rivers ", a natural cultural, social and religious boundary formed by
10788-721: The Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies . In 1944–45, the First Canadian Army liberated much of the Netherlands. Soon after VE Day , the Dutch fought a colonial war against the new Republic of Indonesia . In 1954, the Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands reformed the political structure as a result of international pressure to carry out decolonisation . The Dutch colonies of Surinam and Curaçao and Dependencies and
10974-585: The King James Version gives "bison" as a gloss for the Biblical animal called the " pygarg " mentioned in the Book of Deuteronomy . Randle Cotgrave 's 1611 French–English dictionary notes that French : bison was already in use, and it may have influenced the adoption of the word into English, or alternatively it may have been borrowed direct from Latin. John Minsheu 's 1617 lexicon, Ductor in linguas , gives
11160-404: The Limes Germanicus : Nijmegen and Voorburg . In the first part of Gallia Belgica , the area south of the Limes became part of the Roman province of Germania Inferior . The area to the north of the Rhine, inhabited by the Frisii, remained outside Roman rule, while the Germanic border tribes of the Batavi and Cananefates served in the Roman cavalry . The Batavi rose against the Romans in
11346-455: The Nordwestblock culture. The first author to describe the coast of Holland and Flanders was the geographer Pytheas , who noted in c. 325 BC that in these regions, "more people died in the struggle against water than in the struggle against men." During the Gallic Wars , the area south and west of the Rhine was conquered by Roman forces under Julius Caesar from 57 BC to 53 BC. Caesar describes two main Celtic tribes living in what
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#173308592070611532-467: The Rhine - Meuse river estuary . In the east of the Netherlands, remains are found of the last ice age , which ended approximately ten thousand years ago. As the continental ice sheet moved in from the north, it pushed moraine forward. The ice sheet halted as it covered the eastern half of the Netherlands. After the ice age ended, the moraine remained in the form of a long hill-line. The cities of Arnhem and Nijmegen are built on these hills. Over
11718-428: The Russian tsars retained old Polish-Lithuanian laws protecting the European bison herd in Białowieża. Despite these measures and others, the European bison population continued to decline over the following century, with only Białowieża and Northern Caucasus populations surviving into the 20th century. The last European bison in Transylvania died in 1790. During World War I , occupying German troops killed 600 of
11904-428: The Southern Carpathians rewilding area to reintroduce this iconic species. The major objective of this ongoing project is to create a demographically and genetically viable population in the Southern Carpathians, comprising free-roaming sub-populations in the Țarcu Mountains and nearby Poiana Ruscă Mountains . So far, following bison releases in 2014 and 2015, in June 2016, a third bison release took place as part of
12090-454: The States General , was headquartered in The Hague and comprised representatives from each of the seven provinces. The sparsely populated region of Drenthe was part of the republic, albeit not considered a province in its own right. Moreover, during the Eighty Years' War , the Republic came to occupy a number of Generality Lands located in Flanders , Brabant and Limburg . These areas were primarily inhabited by Roman Catholics and lacked
12276-444: The Union of Lublin became part of the Polish Crown. In the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , at first European bison in the Białowieża Forest were legally the property of the Grand Dukes of Lithuania and later belonged to the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland . Polish-Lithuanian rulers took measures to protect the European bison, such as King Sigismund II Augustus who instituted the death penalty for poaching bison in Białowieża in
12462-420: The Western Caucasus . The Białowieża Primeval Forest, an ancient woodland that straddles the border between Poland and Belarus, continues to have the largest free-living European bison population in the world with around 1000 wild bison counted in 2014. Herds have also been introduced in Moldova (2005), Spain (2010), Denmark (2012), the Czech Republic (2014), and Portugal (2024) Reintroduction of bison to
12648-418: The euro was introduced as fiat money , and in 2010 the Netherlands Antilles was dissolved . Referendums were held on each island. As a result, Bonaire , Sint Eustatius and Saba (the BES islands) were incorporated as special municipalities upon the dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles. The special municipalities are collectively known as the Caribbean Netherlands . The European Netherlands has
12834-463: The steppes , the boreal forests , and the tundras further north. The region has some of Europe's few remaining grazed mosaic forest landscapes, kept in their natural state by the wild horses and wild cattle still present. Working with partners, the Rewilding Danube Delta team is working to significantly improve the ecological integrity and natural functioning of 40,000 hectares of wetland and terrestrial delta habitat, using rewilding principles on
13020-414: The western Caucasus . By that year, 48 remained, all held by zoos. The International Society for the Preservation of the Wisent was founded on 25 and 26 August 1923 in Berlin, following the example of the American Bison Society . The first chairman was Kurt Priemel, director of the Frankfurt Zoo , and among the members were experts like Hermann Pohle, Max Hilzheimer and Julius Riemer . The first goal of
13206-404: The "Netherlands" lost their original deictic meaning . In most Romance languages , the term "Low Countries" is officially used as the name for the Netherlands. The term Holland has frequently been used informally to refer to the whole of the modern country of the Netherlands in various languages, including Dutch and English. In some languages, Holland is used as the formal name for
13392-616: The 14th century . In the Republican period , which began in 1588, the Netherlands entered a unique era of political, economic, and cultural greatness, ranked among the most powerful and influential in Europe and the world; this period is known as the Dutch Golden Age . During this time, its trading companies, the Dutch East India Company and the Dutch West India Company , established colonies and trading posts all over
13578-761: The 15th and 18th centuries, those in the forest of Białowieża were protected and their diet supplemented. Efforts to restore this species to the wild began in 1929, with the establishment of the Bison Restitution Centre at Białowieża, Poland. Subsequently, in 1948, the Bison Breeding Centre was established within the Prioksko-Terrasny Biosphere Reserve . The modern herds are managed as two separate lines – one consisting of only Bison bonasus bonasus (all descended from only seven animals) and one consisting of all 12 ancestors, including
13764-539: The 490s, Clovis I had conquered and united all these territories in the southern Netherlands in one Frankish kingdom , and from there continued his conquests into Gaul . During this expansion, Franks migrating to the south (modern territory of France and Walloon part of Belgium) eventually adopted the Vulgar Latin of the local population. A widening cultural divide grew with the Franks remaining in their original homeland in
13950-537: The 72 km (28 sq mi) Biesbosch tidal floodplains. The huge North Sea flood of February 1953 caused the collapse of several dikes in the southwest Netherlands; more than 1,800 people drowned. The Dutch government subsequently instituted a large-scale programme, the " Delta Works ", to protect the country against future flooding, which was completed over a period of more than 40 years. European bison Bos bonasus Linnaeus, 1758 The European bison ( pl. : bison) ( Bison bonasus ) or
14136-407: The American bison. The bison has 14 pairs of ribs, while the American bison has 15. Adult European bison are (on average) taller than American bison, and have longer legs. European bison tend to browse more, and graze less than their American relatives; to accommodate this their necks are set differently. Compared to the American bison, the nose of the European bison is set further forward than
14322-408: The American ones, and breed with domestic cattle less readily. The European bison is less shaggy, with a more lanky body shape. In terms of behavioural capability, European bison runs slower and with less stamina yet jumps higher and longer than American bisons, showing signs of more developed adaptations into mountainous habitats. The protection of the European bison has a long history; between
14508-461: The Balkans in the area of modern borderline between Greece , North Macedonia and Bulgaria date to the 3rd century AD. In northern Bulgaria , the wisent was thought to have survived until the 9th or 10th century AD, but more recent data summary shows that the species survived up to 13th - 14th century AD in eastern Bulgaria and up to 16th - 17th century AD in the northern part of the country. There
14694-759: The Caucasus during the Last Glacial Period , where they co-existed alongside steppe bison. Late Pleistocene European bison belong to two mitochondrial lineages, which are estimated to have split over 400,000 years ago, Bb1 (also known as Bison X) and Bb2. Bb1 became extinct at the end of the Late Pleistocene, with all modern European bison belonging to the Bb2 lineage. At the end of the Last Glacial Period steppe bison became extinct in Europe, leaving European bison as
14880-603: The Dutch Republic was attacked by France, England and three German Bishoprics simultaneously, in what would become known as the Franco-Dutch War . At sea , it could successfully prevent the English and French navies from blockading the western shores. On land, however, it was almost taken over by the advancing French and German armies from the east. It managed to turn the tide by inundating parts of Holland . From 1672 to 1712,
15066-641: The Dutch established a presence in India , the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia ), Formosa (now Taiwan ), and the only western trading post in Japan, Dejima . During the period of Proto-industrialisation , the empire received 50% of textiles and 80% of silks import from the India's Mughal Empire . Many economic historians regard the Netherlands as the first thoroughly capitalist country. In early modern Europe, it had
15252-650: The Dutch owned 16,000 merchant ships. The Dutch East India Company and the Dutch West India Company established colonies and trading posts all over the world. The Dutch settlement in North America began with the founding of New Amsterdam in 1614. In South Africa, the Dutch settled the Cape Colony in 1652. Dutch colonies in South America were established along the many rivers in the fertile Guyana plains, among them Colony of Surinam (now Suriname ). In Asia,
15438-703: The European Commission-funded LIFE Bison project, with a fourth release of nine animals taking place in April 2017. Rewilding Europe and WWF Romania have been working together to create one of the largest contiguous wild areas in Europe. Situated on a mountain chain on the Adriatic coast in Croatia , the Velebit rewilding area is one of the wildest areas of the whole Mediterranean. The area hosts two national parks,
15624-553: The European Wildlife Bank, a tool designed to facilitate the reintroduction and restocking of herbivores to rewilding areas across the European continent. Rewilding Europe Capital (REC) is the first ‘rewilding enterprise’ funding facility that provides financial loans to new and existing businesses that catalyse, support and achieve positive environmental and socio-economic outcomes that support rewilding in Europe. European Investment Bank provided Rewilding Europe Capital with
15810-400: The European bison in the Białowieża Forest for sport, meat, hides and horns. A German scientist informed army officers that the European bison were facing imminent extinction, but at the very end of the war, retreating German soldiers shot all but nine animals. The last wild European bison in Poland was killed in 1921. The last wild European bison in the world was killed by poachers in 1927 in
15996-623: The European country all became countries within the Kingdom, on a basis of equality. Indonesia had declared its independence in August 1945. Suriname followed in 1975. The Netherlands was one of the founding members of Benelux and NATO . In the 1950s, the Netherlands became one of the six founding countries of the European Communities , following the 1952 establishment of the European Coal and Steel Community , and subsequent 1958 creations of
16182-714: The Frisians were defeated after a series of wars . With the approval of the Franks, the Anglo-Saxon missionary Willibrord converted the Frisian people to Christianity and established the Archdiocese of Utrecht . However, his successor Boniface was murdered by the Frisians in 754. The Frankish Carolingian empire controlled much of Western Europe. In 843, it was divided into three parts— East , Middle , and West Francia . Most of present-day Netherlands became part of Middle Francia, which
16368-529: The LIFE project "Conservation of black and griffon vultures in the cross-border Rhodope mountains". Rewilding Europe's main focus is to help vultures and other scavenging species by boosting the availability of wild herbivore carcasses, thereby closing the circle of life. Together with local partners Rewilding Europe is increasing the number of local ungulates through several annual red deer and fallow deer releases, with reintroduced animal behaviour monitored through
16554-613: The Low Countries from 1384 to 1581. The new rulers defended Dutch trading interests. The fleets of the County of Holland defeated the fleets of the Hanseatic League several times. Amsterdam grew and in the 15th century became the primary trading port in Europe for grain from the Baltic region . Amsterdam distributed grain to the major cities of Belgium, Northern France and England. This trade
16740-523: The Low Countries south of the great rivers. These tribes would eventually develop into the Salian Franks . The Celtic La Tène culture (c. 450 BC to the Roman conquest) expanded over a wide range, including the southern area of the Low Countries . Some scholars have speculated that even a third ethnic identity and language, neither Germanic nor Celtic, survived in the Netherlands until the Roman period,
16926-505: The Meuse. These rivers functioned as a natural barrier between fiefdoms and hence historically created a cultural divide, as is evident in some phonetic traits that are recognisable on either side of what the Dutch call their "Great Rivers" ( de Grote Rivieren ). Another significant branch of the Rhine, the IJssel river, discharges into Lake IJssel , the former Zuiderzee ('southern sea'). Just like
17112-502: The Netherlands are Amsterdam , Rotterdam , The Hague and Utrecht . Amsterdam is the country's most populous city and the nominal capital , though the primary national political institutions are located in the Hague. The Netherlands has been a parliamentary constitutional monarchy with a unitary structure since 1848. The country has a tradition of pillarisation (separation of citizens into groups by religion and political beliefs) and
17298-586: The Netherlands to the brink of bankruptcy. However, the Cultivation System was introduced in 1830; in the Dutch East Indies, 20% of village land had to be devoted to government crops for export. The policy brought the Dutch enormous wealth and made the colony self-sufficient. The Netherlands abolished slavery in its colonies in 1863. Enslaved people in Suriname would be fully free only in 1873. The Netherlands remained neutral during World War I, in part because
17484-469: The Netherlands) and upstream Germania Superior . Thus, in the case of the Low Countries and the Netherlands, the geographical location of this lower region is more or less downstream and near the sea, compared to that of the upper region of Germania Superior. The designation 'Low' returned in the 10th-century Duchy of Lower Lorraine , which covered much of the Low Countries. The Dukes of Burgundy used
17670-546: The Netherlands. However, Holland is a region within the Netherlands that consists of the two provinces of North and South Holland . Formerly these were a single province, and earlier the County of Holland , which included parts of present-day Utrecht . The emphasis on Holland during the formation of the Dutch Republic , the Eighty Years' War , and the Anglo-Dutch Wars in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries, made Holland
17856-522: The North American beefalo . Cattle and European bison hybridise fairly readily. First-generation males are infertile. In 1847, a herd of wisent-cattle hybrids named żubroń ( / ˈ ʒ uː b r ɒ nj / ) was created by Leopold Walicki. The animals were intended to become durable and cheap alternatives to cattle. The experiment was continued by researchers from the Polish Academy of Sciences until
18042-520: The Northern Netherlands in 1839 as the Kingdom of the Netherlands was created by decree), while the personal union between Luxembourg and the Netherlands was severed in 1890, when William III died with no surviving male heirs. Ascendancy laws prevented his daughter Queen Wilhelmina from becoming the next Grand Duchess. The Belgian Revolution and the Java War in the Dutch East Indies brought
18228-700: The Republic, led by William III of Orange and Anthonie Heinsius would regularly clash with France in what some historians have come to call the Forty Years' War . In the Nine Years' War and the War of the Spanish Succession , the Republic was at the centre of anti-French coalitions. The Dutch ultimately successfully defended the Spanish Netherlands , established a barrier there, and their troops proved central to
18414-664: The Silent in driving out Spanish troops and forming a new government for the Netherlands. Don Juan of Austria , the new Spanish governor, was forced to concede initially, but within months returned to active hostilities. The Dutch looked for help from the Protestant Elizabeth I of England, but she initially stood by her commitments to the Spanish in the Treaty of Bristol of 1574. When the next large-scale battle occurred at Gembloux in 1578,
18600-702: The Southwest Netherlands, they were raiding the English Channel . Roman forces pacified the region but did not expel the Franks, who continued to be feared at least until the time of Julian the Apostate (358) when Salian Franks were allowed to settle as foederati in Texandria . After the Roman government in the area collapsed in roughly the year 406, the Franks expanded their territories into numerous kingdoms. By
18786-515: The Spanish forces won easily. In light of the defeat at Gembloux , the southern states of the Seventeen Provinces distanced themselves from the rebels in the north with the 1579 Union of Arras . Opposing them, the northern half of the Seventeen Provinces forged the Union of Utrecht in which they committed to support each other against the Spanish. The Union of Utrecht is seen as the foundation of
18972-524: The Spanish in the Netherlands under the Duke of Parma in a series of largely indecisive actions that tied down significant numbers of Spanish troops and bought time for the Dutch to reorganise their defences. The war continued until 1648, when Spain under King Philip IV recognised the independence of the seven north-western provinces in the Peace of Münster . Parts of the southern provinces became de facto colonies of
19158-534: The United Provinces consistently possessed one of Europe's largest and most capable armies. However, following the conclusion of the War of the Spanish Succession , other major powers such as Prussia, Austria, Britain, and Russia significantly expanded their military forces. The Republic struggled to match these developments, and gradually assumed the status of a mid-tier power. However, historians have sometimes overstated
19344-663: The Younger mention bison ( pl . bisontes ). Later Latin spellings of the term included visontes , vesontes , and bissontes . John Trevisa is the earliest author cited by the Oxford English Dictionary as using, in his 1398 translation of Bartholomeus Anglicus 's De proprietatibus rerum , the Latin plural bisontes in English, as "bysontes" ( Middle English : byſontes and bysountes ). Philemon Holland 's 1601 translation of Pliny's Natural History , referred to "bisontes". The marginalia of
19530-556: The affiliation between wisent and cattle nuclear genomes (in contrast to mitochondrial ones). Alternatively, genome sequencing completed on remains attributed to the Pleistocene woodland bison ( B. schoetensacki ), and published in 2017, posited that genetic similarities between the Pleistocene woodland bison and the wisent suggest that B. schoetensaki was the ancestor of the European wisent. However, other studies have disputed
19716-507: The age of two, while cows do so in their third year. European bison have lived as long as 30 years in captivity, but in the wild their lifespan is usually between 18 and 24 years, with females living longer than males. Productive breeding years are between four and 20 years of age in females, and only between six and 12 years of age in males. European bison feed predominantly on grasses, although they also browse on shoots and leaves; in summer, an adult male can consume 32 kg of food in
19902-526: The alliance which halted French territorial expansion in Europe until a new cycle began in 1792 with the French Revolutionary Wars . However, the wars left them effectively bankrupt, and inflicted permanent damage on the Dutch merchant navy; while they remained the dominant economic power in the Far East, Britain took over as the pre-eminent global commercial and maritime power. Between 1590 and 1713,
20088-578: The area. The Rhodope Mountains are the only breeding area for griffon vultures in Bulgaria and also the most important breeding site for the globally threatened Egyptian vulture on the Balkan peninsula . The work of Rewilding Europe focuses on restoring food chains in the Rhodope Mountains . Restoring natural food chains is a flagship project of Rewilding Europe, supported by the European Commission through
20274-616: The armed support of revolutionary France , Dutch republicans proclaimed the Batavian Republic , modelled after the French Republic and rendering the Netherlands a unitary state on 19 January 1795. The stadtholder William V of Orange had fled to England. From 1806 to 1810, the Kingdom of Holland was set up by Napoleon Bonaparte as a puppet kingdom governed by his brother Louis Bonaparte . However, King Louis Bonaparte tried to serve Dutch interests instead of his brother's, and he
20460-420: The attribution of the remains to this species, otherwise known from remains hundreds of thousands of years older, instead referring them to an unnamed lineage of bison closely related to B. bonasus . A 2018 study proposed that the lineage leading to the wisent and to the lineage ancestral to both the American bison and Bison priscus had split over 1 million years ago, with the mitochondrial DNA discrepancy being
20646-529: The bison and bovine species diverged from about 1.7 to 0.85 Mya, through a speciation process involving limited gene flow. These data further support the occurrence of more recent secondary contacts, posterior to the divergence between Bos primigenius primigenius and B. p. namadicus (ca. 150,000 years ago), between the wisent and (European) taurine cattle lineages. An independent study of mitochondrial DNA and autosomal markers confirmed these secondary contacts (with an estimate of up to 10% of bovine ancestry in
20832-502: The breeding line, Lutz Heck planned to grow the population faster by cross-breeding with American bison in a separate breeding project in Munich, in 1934. Heck gained the support of then Reichsjägermeister Hermann Göring , who hoped for huntable big game. Heck promised his powerful supporter in writing: "Since surplus bulls will soon be set, the hunting of the Wisent will be possible again in
21018-418: The centuries, the Dutch coastline has changed considerably as a result of natural disasters and human intervention. On 14 December 1287, St. Lucia's flood affected the Netherlands and Germany, killing more than 50,000 people in one of the most destructive floods in recorded history. The St. Elizabeth flood of 1421 and the mismanagement in its aftermath destroyed a newly reclaimed polder , replacing it with
21204-570: The corridors are intended to benefit the wildlife populations and the quality of nature and nature-related experiences. The 10-year project's goal is to reduce bear mortality and conflict by installing traffic accident prevention measures, removing old fencing, restoring and improving signage, and distributing new mobile electric fences. Furthermore, Rewilding Europe and its partners work on supporting nature-based enterprises in and around corridor areas, and raising awareness about wildlife and nature conservation amongst local communities and people visiting
21390-540: The country is for the most part flat, with the exception of foothills in the far southeast, up to a height of no more than 322 m (1,056 ft) at the Vaalserberg , and some low hill ranges in the central parts. Most of the areas below sea level are caused by peat extraction or achieved through land reclamation . Since the late 16th century, large polder areas are preserved through elaborate drainage systems that include dikes , canals and pumping stations. Much of
21576-674: The country was originally formed by the estuaries of three large European rivers: the Rhine ( Rijn ), the Meuse ( Maas ) and the Scheldt ( Schelde ), as well as their tributaries . The south-western part of the Netherlands is a river delta of these rivers, the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta . The European Netherlands is divided into north and south parts by the Rhine, the Waal , its main tributary branch, and
21762-613: The countryside was plundered for food. Although there were thousands of Dutch who risked their lives by hiding Jews from the Germans, over 20,000 Dutch fascists joined the Waffen SS . Political collaborators were members of the fascist NSB , the only legal political party in the occupied Netherlands. On 8 December 1941, the Dutch government-in-exile in London declared war on Japan, but could not prevent
21948-683: The east. The northern boundary in the Holocene was probably around 60°N in Finland. European bison survived in a few natural forests in Europe, but their numbers dwindled. In 1513 the Białowieża Forest , at this point one of the last areas on Earth where the European bison still roamed free, was transferred from the Troki Voivodeship of Lithuania to the Podlaskie Voivodeship , which after
22134-432: The end of the Ice Age , the nomadic late Upper Palaeolithic Hamburg culture (13,000–10,000 BC) hunted reindeer in the area, using spears. The later Ahrensburg culture (11,200–9,500 BC) used bow and arrow . From Mesolithic Maglemosian-like tribes (c. 8000 BC), the world's oldest canoe was found in Drenthe . Indigenous late Mesolithic hunter-gatherers from the Swifterbant culture (c. 5600 BC), related to
22320-446: The establishment of the 17,000-hectare Velebit Nature Reserve, situated between two large national parks. Here rewilding is offering a fresh approach to wildlife management and underpinning the development of a local nature-based economy, creating a wildlife and ecological corridor in the Velebit mountains. Wildlife-watching hides are constructed and it is planned that new ones will be built in future to create job opportunities benefiting
22506-578: The exploration of nature-based economic opportunities. A professional non-profit organization in the form of a registered association Rewilding Oder Delta e.V. has been established and registered in Germany in 2019 to facilitate this cooperation and to develop further projects for the benefit of nature and people in the region. The eventual aim is to restore and safeguard regional nature and to develop alternative, sustainable and nature-friendly models of land, freshwater and sea use with local landowners, entrepreneurs, communities and residents. The Oder Delta team
22692-409: The extent of this decline, especially when considering the period up to the 1750s. In the 18th century the Dutch Republic had seen a state of a general decline, with economic competition from England and long-standing rivalries between the two main factions in Dutch society, the republican Staatsgezinden and the supporters of the stadtholder the Prinsgezinden as main political factions. With
22878-438: The field of EU nature and legislation and in rewilding to explore the opportunities to create a policy environment that would support fuller expression of rewilding visions and principles. With the help of this brief, Rewilding Europe works on getting support to enable the environment for rewilding in its nature conservation and land-use policies. Four main targets to be implemented in the EU policy are: 1) recognizing rewilding as
23064-432: The forehead when the neck is in a neutral position. The body of the wisent is less hairy, though its tail is hairier than that of the American species. The horns of the European bison point forward through the plane of their faces, making them more adept at fighting through the interlocking of horns in the same manner as domestic cattle, unlike the American bison, which favours charging. European bison are less tameable than
23250-445: The foreseeable future". Göring himself took over the patronage of the German Professional Association of Wisent Breeders and Hegers, founded at Heck's suggestion. Kurt Priemel, who had since resigned as president of the International Society for the Preservation of the Wisent, warned in vain against "manification". Heck answered by announcing that Göring would take action against Priemel if he continued to oppose his crossing plans. Priemel
23436-474: The free-ranging population of the Białowieża Forest of Belarus and Poland, body masses among adults (aged 6 and over) are 634 kg (1,398 lb) on average in the cases of males, and 424 kg (935 lb) among females. An occasional big bull European bison can weigh up to 1,000 kg (2,200 lb) or more with old bull records of 1,900 kg (4,200 lb) for lowland wisent and 1,000 kg (2,200 lb) for Caucasian wisent. On average, it
23622-552: The import of goods through the Netherlands proved essential to German survival until the blockade by the British Royal Navy in 1916. That changed in World War II, when Germany invaded the Netherlands on 10 May 1940. The Rotterdam Blitz forced most of the Dutch army to surrender. During the occupation, over 100,000 Dutch Jews were transported to Nazi extermination camps ; only a few survived. Dutch workers were conscripted for forced labour in Germany, civilians who resisted were killed in reprisal for attacks on German soldiers, and
23808-528: The international herd book. The first two bison were released into the wild in the Białowieża Forest in 1929. By 1964 more than 100 existed. Over the following decades, thanks to Polish and international efforts, the Białowieża Forest regained its position as the location with the world's largest population of European bison, including those in the wild. In 2005–2007, a wild bison nicknamed Pubal became renowned in southeast Poland due to his friendly interactions with humans and unwillingness to reintegrate into
23994-801: The isles. Furthermore, a 16-kyr-old specimen belonging to the ancient Bison X group of European bison has been found in Northern Italy. The extinct steppe bison ( B. priscus ) is known from across Eurasia and North America, last occurring 7,000 BC to 5,400 BC, and is depicted in the Cave of Altamira and Lascaux . The Pleistocene woodland bison ( B. schoetensacki ) has been proposed to have last existed around 36,000 BC. But other authors restrict B. schoetensacki to remains that are hundreds of thousands of years older. Cave paintings appear to distinguish between B. bonasus and B. priscus . Within mainland Europe, its range decreased as human populations expanded and cut down forests. They seemed to be common in Aristotle 's period on Mount Mesapion (possibly
24180-402: The landscapes. The organization promotes grazing as a tool to lower the risk of fire. The organization claims more "wild" livestock will lead to more diverse "mosaic landscapes", which may improve conditions for populations of roe deer and other species , including some that are extinct in the region , such as the Iberian ibex . Besides the promotion of conservation grazing , the organization
24366-424: The largest population of Egyptian vultures in Europe. Rewilding Europe's programs in this area are primarily focused on the introduction of large grazers and predators. In 2021, 17 cinereous vultures , which vanished from the area in the 1920s, were reintroduced to forested areas within the highlands. In September 2023, a herd of ten Przewalski's horses obtained from Monts d'Azur Biological Reserve in France
24552-407: The late 1980s. Although the program resulted in a quite successful animal that was both hardy and could be bred in marginal grazing lands, it was eventually discontinued. Currently, the only surviving żubroń herd consists of just a few animals in Białowieża Forest, Poland and Belarus. In 2016, the first whole genome sequencing data from two European bison bulls from the Białowieża Forest revealed that
24738-418: The local community. In collaboration with the University of Zagreb's Faculty of Forestry, the Rewilding Velebit team are working to have the Ramino Korito old-growth beech forest, located in the southern part of Velebit Mountains, designated a special woodland reserve, highlighting its rarity and biological value. On the Lika Plains, a grassland located in the foothills of the Velebit Mountains, Rewilding Europe
24924-402: The mid-16th century. Wild European bison herds existed in the forest until the mid-17th century. In 1701, King Augustus II the Strong greatly increased protection over the forest; the first written sources mentioning the use of some forest meadows for the production of winter fodder for the bison come from this period. In the early 19th century, after the partitions of the Polish Commonwealth ,
25110-427: The migration of Germanic tribes from the North. By the time this migration was complete, around 250 BC, a few general cultural and linguistic groups had emerged. The North Sea Germanic Ingaevones inhabited the northern part of the Low Countries . They would later develop into the Frisii and the early Saxons . The Weser–Rhine Germanic (or Istvaeones ) extended along the middle Rhine and Weser and inhabited
25296-456: The modern Ograzhden ). In the same wider area Pausanias calling them Paeonian bulls and bison , gives details on how they were captured alive; adding also the fact that a golden Paeonian bull head was offered to Delphi by the Paeonian king Dropion (3rd century BC) who lived in what is today Tikveš . The last references ( Oppian , Claudius Aelianus ) to the animal in the transitional Mediterranean / Continental biogeographical region in
25482-450: The modern Netherlands. Spanish troops sacked Maastricht in 1579, killing over 10,000 civilians. In 1581, the northern provinces adopted the Act of Abjuration , the declaration of independence in which the provinces officially deposed Philip II. Against the rebels Philip could draw on the resources of the Spanish Empire . Elizabeth I sympathised with the Dutch struggle and sent an army of 7,600 soldiers to aid them. English forces faced
25668-403: The modern wisent genome) leading the authors to go further in their conclusions by proposing the wisent to be a hybrid between steppe bison and aurochs with a hybridisation event originating before 120,000 years ago. However, other studies considered the 10% estimate for aurochs gene flow a gross overstimate and based on flawed data, and not supported by the data from the full nuclear genome of
25854-423: The new republican-mercantile empire. Following the declaration of independence, the provinces of Holland , Zeeland , Groningen , Friesland , Utrecht , Overijssel , and Gelderland entered into a confederation . All these duchies, lordships and counties enjoyed a significant degree of autonomy and was governed by its own administrative body known as the States-Provincial . The confederal government, known as
26040-571: The north (i.e. the southern Netherlands and Flanders), who kept on speaking Old Frankish , which by the ninth century had evolved into Old Low Franconian or Old Dutch. A Dutch-French language boundary hence came into existence. To the north of the Franks, climatic conditions improved, and during the Migration Period Saxons , the closely related Angles , Jutes , and Frisii settled the coast. Many moved on to England and came to be known as Anglo-Saxons , but those who stayed would be referred to as Frisians and their language as Frisian . Frisian
26226-464: The north to create a strong country on the northern border of France. William Frederick raised this United Netherlands to the status of a kingdom and proclaimed himself as King William I in 1815. William became hereditary Grand Duke of Luxembourg in exchange for his German possessions. However, the Southern Netherlands had been culturally separate from the north since 1581, and rebelled . The south gained independence in 1830 as Belgium (recognised by
26412-400: The one B. b. caucasicus bull. The latter is generally not considered a separate subspecies because they contain DNA from both B. b. bonasus and B. b. caucasicius , although some scientists classify them as a new subspecies, B. b. montanus . Only a limited amount of inbreeding depression from the population bottleneck has been found, having a small effect on skeletal growth in cows and
26598-466: The only bison species in the region. Historically, the lowland European bison's range encompassed most of the lowlands of northern Europe, extending from the Massif Central to the Volga River and the Caucasus . It may have once lived in the Asiatic part of what is now the Russian Federation , reaching to Lake Baikal and Altai Mountains in east. The European bison is known in southern Sweden only between 9500 and 8700 BP , and in Denmark similarly
26784-445: The past may have been even larger than their modern-day descendants. During late antiquity and the Middle Ages , bison became extinct in much of Europe and Asia , surviving into the 20th century only in northern-central Europe and the northern Caucasus Mountains . During the early years of the 20th century, bison were hunted to extinction in the wild . By the late 2010s, the species numbered several thousand and had been returned to
26970-443: The past, especially during the Middle Ages, humans commonly killed bison for their hide and meat. They used their horns to make drinking horns . European bison were hunted to extinction in the wild in the early 20th century, with the last wild animals of the B. b. bonasus subspecies being shot in the Białowieża Forest (on today's Belarus–Poland border ) in 1921. The last of the Caucasian wisent subspecies ( B. b. caucasicus )
27156-449: The people", akin to Old Dutch Dietsch or Old English þeodisc , meaning "(of) the common ( Germanic ) people". At first, the English language used Dutch to refer to any or all speakers of West Germanic languages . Gradually its meaning shifted to the West Germanic people they had the most contact with. The oldest human ( Neanderthal ) traces in the Netherlands, believed to be about 250,000 years old, were found near Maastricht . At
27342-406: The population into submission. Alba boasted of having executed 18,600; this figure does not include those who perished by war and famine. The first great siege was Alba's effort to capture Haarlem and thereby cut Holland in half. It dragged on from December 1572 to the next summer, when Haarlemers finally surrendered on 13 July upon the promise that the city would be spared from being sacked. It
27528-402: The previous, this river forms a linguistic divide: people to the northeast of this river speak Dutch Low Saxon dialects (except for the province of Friesland , which has its own language). The Netherlands is mostly composed of deltaic , coastal and aeolian derived sediments during the Pleistocene glacial and interglacial periods. Almost the entire west Netherlands is composed of
27714-400: The project is to strengthen the EU restoration agenda and ensure that specific actions are taken to create a coherent ecological network in Europe, by promoting and using rewilding principles. Similarly, in 2020, the WWF, The Rivers Trust , The Nature Conservancy , The European Rivers Network, Rewilding Europe, Wetlands International Europe, and The World Fish Migration Foundation have formed
27900-473: The region called the Low Countries (Netherlands, Belgium , and Luxembourg ) all have comparatively the same toponymy . Place names with Neder , Nieder , Nedre , Nether , Lage(r) or Low(er) (in Germanic languages ) and Bas or Inferior (in Romance languages ) are in use in low-lying places all over Europe. The Romans made a distinction between the Roman provinces of downstream Germania Inferior (nowadays part of Belgium and
28086-483: The region which counts more than 1 million hectares of protected areas already in place, rich wildlife, large intact forests, a high concentration of biodiversity, relatively intact wild landscapes, wild rivers, and large areas of mosaic vegetation largely shaped by traditional farming and grazing practices. The work of Rewilding Europe and its partners is focused on bringing back the European bison . Since 2013, Rewilding Europe and WWF Romania have been working together in
28272-684: The removal of artificial obstacles. Sonar -based fish counters are used on both rivers to measure results. Together with river restoration, Rewilding Lapland is exploring new nature-based business opportunities, providing support to enterprises involved in fishing and otter watching on the lower Råne River . Rewilding Lapland and local partners support guided reindeer migration, raising awareness of these threats and supporting Sami communities in their fight for traditional grazing rights. Rewilding Lapland collaborates with Sami communities to develop wildlife-watching businesses and guided reindeer tourism. The Rewilding Lapland team and partners are working to grow
28458-444: The result of incomplete lineage sorting. The authors also proposed that during the late Middle Pleistocene there had been interbreeding between the ancestor of the wisent and the common ancestor of Bison priscus and the American bison. The European bison is a herd animal , which lives in both mixed and solely male groups. Mixed groups consist of adult females, calves, young aged 2–3 years, and young adult bulls. The average herd size
28644-529: The rewilding movement in preparation for the 2030 biodiversity strategy. In March 2017, a coalition of five organisations kicked off a new initiative to promote and strengthen the EU ecological restoration agenda. By signing a Memorandum of Understanding, Rewilding Europe, BirdLife Europe, and Central Asia, WWF European Policy Office, the European Environmental Bureau , and the German Institute for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv), launched this 3-year initiative funded by WWF Netherlands. The overall aim of
28830-491: The rivers Rhine and Meuse ) to refer to the Northern Dutch (Dutch living North of these rivers). In the Southern province of Limburg, the term is used for the Dutch from the other 11 provinces. The use of the term in this context by the Southern Dutch is in a derogatory fashion. Dutch is used as the adjective for the Netherlands, as well as the demonym . The origins of the word go back to Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz , Latinised into Theodiscus , meaning "popular" or "of
29016-413: The scarcity of the European bison the word 'bison' was most familiar in relation to the American species. By the time of the adoption of 'bison' into Early Modern English, the early medieval English name for the species had long been obsolete: the Old English : wesend had descended from Proto-Germanic : * wisand , * wisund and was related to Old Norse : vísundr . The word 'wisent'
29202-418: The sharing of knowledge and experience between the many projects and locations is the main goal of the network. The tools ERN uses are Online Seminars (webinars) held quarterly on various rewilding topics. ERN forum, open and free to all members, this online platform is used to post questions and information, interact at any time, and view previous webinars on a wide range of rewilding-related topics. ERN Bridge,
29388-445: The society was to take stock of all living bison, in preparation for a breeding programme. Important members were the Polish Hunting Association and the Poznań zoological gardens, as well as a number of Polish private individuals, who provided funds to acquire the first bison cows and bulls. The breeding book was published in the company's annual report from 1932. While Priemel aimed to grow the population slowly with pure conservation of
29574-405: The southern Scandinavian Ertebølle culture , were strongly linked to rivers and open water. Between 4800 and 4500 BC, the Swifterbant people started to adopt from the neighbouring Linear Pottery culture the practice of animal husbandry , and between 4300 and 4000 BC agriculture. The Funnelbeaker culture (4300–2800 BC) erected the dolmens , large stone grave monuments found in Drenthe . There
29760-431: The sum of 520,000 euros. European Wildlife Bank (EWB) a tool Rewilding Europe uses to help bring back more natural numbers of the original native herbivores in our rewilding areas. These big grazers and browsers play key roles in the natural functioning of Europe's ecosystems. Tauros cattle, native horses and European bison are examples of the species involved in the European Wildlife Bank. European Wildlife Bank developed
29946-419: The term les pays de par deçà ("the lands over here") for the Low Countries. Under Habsburg rule , this became pays d'embas ("lands down-here"). This was translated as Neder-landen in contemporary Dutch official documents. From a regional point of view, Niderlant was also the area between the Meuse and the lower Rhine in the late Middle Ages. From the mid-sixteenth century, the "Low Countries" and
30132-417: The tribe Bovini : Y chromosome analysis associated wisent and American bison. An earlier study, using amplified fragment-length polymorphism fingerprinting, showed a close association of wisent and American bison and probably with yak. It noted the interbreeding of Bovini species made determining relationships problematic. European bison can crossbreed with American bison. This hybrid is known in Poland as
30318-461: The use of GPS collars. Rewilding Europe is boosting biodiversity through mosaic landscape creation. Together with partners, Rewilding Europe is creating space for natural processes like forest regeneration, free-flowing rivers, herbivory, and carnivory to impact ecosystems. Rewilding Europe and Rewilding Rhodope extends its efforts to restore steppe habitat, and increase the population of the endangered European ground squirrel. The Oder Delta region
30504-409: The wealthiest trading city in Amsterdam , and the first full-time stock exchange . The inventiveness of the traders led to insurance and retirement funds as well as phenomena such as the boom-bust cycle , the world's first asset-inflation bubble , the tulip mania of 1636–1637, and the world's first bear raider , Isaac le Maire . In 1672 – known in Dutch history as the Rampjaar (Disaster Year) –
30690-445: The wild by captive breeding programmes. It is no longer in immediate danger of extinction, but remains absent from most of its historical range. It is not to be confused with the aurochs ( Bos primigenius ), the extinct ancestor of domestic cattle , with which it once co-existed. Besides humans, bison have few predators. In the 19th century, there were scattered reports of wolves , lions , tigers , and bears hunting bison. In
30876-501: The wild. As of 2014 there were 1,434 wisents in Poland, out of which 1,212 were in free-range herds and 522 belonged to the wild population in the Białowieża Forest . Compared to 2013, the total population in 2014 increased by 4.1%, while the free-ranging population increased by 6.5%. Bison from Poland have also been transported beyond the country's borders to boost the local populations of other countries, among them Bulgaria, Spain, Romania, Czechia and others. Poland has been described as
31062-450: The wild. Its status has improved since then, changing to vulnerable and later to near-threatened . European bison were first scientifically described by Carl Linnaeus in 1758. Some later descriptions treat the European bison as conspecific with the American bison. Three subspecies of the European bison existed in the recent past, but only one, the nominate subspecies ( B. b. bonasus ), survives today. The ancestry and relationships of
31248-404: The wisent to fossil bison species remain controversial and disputed. The European bison is one of the national animals of Poland and Belarus. The ancient Greeks and ancient Romans were the first to name bison as such; the 2nd-century AD authors Pausanias and Oppian referred to them as Hellenistic Greek : βίσων , romanized: bisōn . Earlier, in the 4th century BC, during
31434-436: The wisent. Some of the authors however support the hypothesis that similarity of wisent and cattle ( Bos ) mitochondrial genomes is result of incomplete lineage sorting during divergence of Bos and Bison from their common ancestors rather than further post- speciation gene flow (ancient hybridisation between Bos and Bison ). But they agree that limited gene flow from Bos primigenius taurus could account for
31620-590: The world's breeding centre of the European bison, where the bison population doubled between 1995 and 2017, reaching 2,269 by the end of 2019 – the total population has been increasing by around 15% to 18% yearly. In July 2022 a small population was released into woodland by Canterbury in Kent to trial their reintroduction into the UK. In May 2024, a small population was released in central Portugal. In 2012 and 2019 bisons were released in protected areas on Bornholm and Northern Jutland, Denmark. A 2003 study of mitochondrial DNA indicated four distinct maternal lineages in
31806-559: The world. With a population of over 18 million people, all living within a total area of 41,850 km (16,160 sq mi)—of which the land area is 33,500 km (12,900 sq mi)—the Netherlands is the 33rd most densely populated country, with a density of 535 people per square kilometre (1,390 people/sq mi). Nevertheless, it is the world's second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products by value, owing to its fertile soil , mild climate, intensive agriculture , and inventiveness . The four largest cities in
31992-438: Was Gerolf of Holland , who assumed lordship in Frisia, and Viking rule came to an end. The Holy Roman Empire ruled much of the Low Countries in the 10th and 11th century but was not able to maintain political unity. Powerful local nobles turned their cities, counties and duchies into private kingdoms that felt little sense of obligation to the emperor. Holland , Hainaut , Flanders , Gelre , Brabant , and Utrecht were in
32178-562: Was a quick transition from the Funnelbeaker farming culture to the pan-European Corded Ware pastoralist culture (c. 2950 BC). In the southwest, the Seine-Oise-Marne culture —related to the Vlaardingen culture (c. 2600 BC)—survived well into the Neolithic period, until it too was succeeded by the Corded Ware culture. The subsequent Bell Beaker culture (2700–2100 BC) introduced metalwork in copper, gold and later bronze and opened new international trade routes, reflected in copper artefacts . Finds of rare bronze objects suggest that Drenthe
32364-516: Was a stipulation Don Fadrique was unable to honour, when his soldiers mutinied, angered over pay owed and the miserable conditions of the campaign. On 4 November 1576, Spanish tercios seized Antwerp and subjected it to the worst pillage in the Netherlands' history. The citizens resisted but were overcome; seven thousand were killed and a thousand buildings were torched. Following the sack of Antwerp , delegates from Catholic Brabant, Protestant Holland and Zeeland agreed to join Utrecht and William
32550-433: Was a trading centre in the Bronze Age (2000–800 BC). The Bell Beaker culture developed locally into the Barbed-Wire Beaker culture (2100–1800 BC) and later the Elp culture (1800–800 BC), a Middle Bronze Age culture marked by earthenware pottery. The southern region became dominated by the related Hilversum culture (1800–800 BC). From 800 BC onwards, the Iron Age Celtic Hallstatt culture became influential, replacing
32736-500: Was a weak kingdom and subject to numerous partitions and annexation attempts by its stronger neighbours. It comprised territories from Frisia in the north to the Kingdom of Italy in the south. Around 850, Lothair I of Middle Francia acknowledged the Viking Rorik of Dorestad as ruler of most of Frisia. When the kingdom of Middle Francia was partitioned in 855, the lands north of the Alps passed to Lothair II and subsequently were named Lotharingia . After he died in 869, Lotharingia
32922-405: Was forced to abdicate on 1 July 1810. The Emperor sent in an army and the Netherlands became part of the French Empire until November 1813, when Napoleon was defeated in the Battle of Leipzig . William Frederick , son of the last stadtholder, returned to the Netherlands in 1813 and proclaimed himself Sovereign Prince . Two years later, the Congress of Vienna added the southern Netherlands to
33108-483: Was fought over in the Hook and Cod Wars between 1350 and 1490. The Cod faction consisted of the more progressive cities, while the Hook faction consisted of the conservative noblemen. These noblemen invited Duke Philip the Good of Burgundy to conquer Holland. Most of the Imperial and French fiefs in what is now the Netherlands and Belgium were united in a personal union by Philip the Good in 1433. The House of Valois-Burgundy and their Habsburg heirs would rule
33294-473: Was introduced. The horses are intended to fill a niche similar to that of the extinct European wild horse by opening the landscape through low-intensity grazing and browsing, thus enhancing biodiversity and lowering the risk of forest fires . Future introductions are planned to supplement the starting herd's genetic diversity and the species' low rate of reproduction. Other areas of the park are being used to host semi-wild Serrano horses alongside Tauros cattle ,
33480-453: Was partitioned, into Upper and Lower Lotharingia , the latter comprising the Low Countries that became part of East Francia in 870. Around 879, another Viking expedition led by Godfrid, Duke of Frisia , raided the Frisian lands. Resistance to the Vikings, if any, came from local nobles, who gained in stature as a result, and that laid the basis for the disintegration of Lower Lotharingia into semi-independent states. One of these local nobles
33666-461: Was pregnant and gave birth to a calf in October 2022, marking the first wild bison born in the UK for the first time in millennia. As below-mentioned, there are established herds in Spain , Portugal and Italy , however European bison has not been recorded naturally from the Iberian and Italian Peninsulas , while these regions were once inhabited by Pleistocene woodland bison and Steppe bison. The total worldwide population recorded in 2019
33852-410: Was shot in the northwestern Caucasus in 1927. The Carpathian wisent ( B. b. hungarorum ) had been hunted to extinction by 1852. The Białowieża or lowland European bison was kept alive in captivity, and has since been reintroduced into several countries in Europe. In 1996, the International Union for Conservation of Nature classified the European bison as an endangered species , no longer extinct in
34038-399: Was spoken along the entire southern North Sea coast. By the seventh century, a Frisian Kingdom (650–734) under King Aldegisel and King Redbad emerged with Traiectum ( Utrecht ) as its centre of power, while Dorestad was a flourishing trading place. Between 600 and around 719 the cities were often fought over between the Frisians and the Franks. In 734, at the Battle of the Boarn ,
34224-421: Was then banned from publishing in relation to bison breeding, and the regular bookkeeper of the International Society, Erna Mohr, was forced to hand over the official register in 1937. Thus, the older society was effectively incorporated into the newly created Professional Association. After the Second World War, therefore, only the pure-blooded bison in the game park Springe near Hanover were recognised as part of
34410-432: Was then borrowed in the 19th century from modern German : Wisent [ ˈviːzɛnt ], itself related to Old High German : wisunt , wisent , wisint , and to Middle High German : wisant , wisent , wisen , and ultimately, like the Old English name, from Proto-Germanic. The Proto-Germanic root: * wis- , also found in weasel , originally referred to the animal's musk . The word 'zubr' in English
34596-443: Was vital because Holland could no longer produce enough grain to feed itself. Land drainage had caused the peat of the former wetlands to reduce to a level that was too low for drainage to be maintained. Under Habsburg Charles V , all fiefs in the current Netherlands region were united into the Seventeen Provinces , which included most of present-day Belgium, Luxembourg, and parts of France and Germany. In 1568, under Phillip II,
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