Misplaced Pages

#8991

62-716: René Edward De Russy was born into a family of ethnic French planters in the French colony of Saint-Domingue (now Haiti ) on February 22, 1789. Two years later, soon after the birth of his younger brother Lewis , the De Russy family fled the violence of the slave revolution and settled in Old Point Comfort , Virginia . At the age of 18, De Russy enrolled in the United States Military Academy at West Point , New York on March 20, 1807; he graduated on June 10, 1812, at

124-433: A cane field, most of them naked or dressed in rags. The sun beat down on their heads; sweat ran from all parts of their bodies. Their arms and legs, worn out by excessive heat, by the weight of their picks and by the resistance of the clayey soil become so hardened that it broke their tools, the slaves nevertheless made tremendous efforts to overcome all obstacles. A dead silence reigned among them. In their faces, one could see

186-418: A complaint that was repeated in 1743. The system was consequently abandoned, and with it the plans for colonisation. In the later half of the 18th century, it became common and accepted that a Frenchman during his stay of a few years would cohabitate with a local black female. An early death among Europeans was very common due to diseases and conflicts; the French soldiers that Napoleon sent in 1802 to quell

248-619: A hill in Brooklyn, which the Brooklyn Eagle referred to as "The Lookout" because of its position above New York harbor, on a ridge that became known as Dyker Heights at the end of the 19th century. On July 1, 1833, De Russy was assigned as Superintendent of the United States Military Academy , which he led for five years. He was next assigned to supervising fort construction in Virginia and Delaware . Because of this experience, De Russy served as

310-404: A kind of common-law marriage with slave or free mistresses, and provided for them with a dowry, sometimes freedom, and often education or apprenticeships for their children. Some such descendants of planters inherited considerable property. While the French controlled Saint-Domingue, they maintained a class system which covered both whites and free people of color. These classes divided up roles on

372-408: A list of who he thought were the different African peoples found in that French colony. Thus, the following list, taken from his 1814 Memoir , should be read as representative of European bias and second-hand knowledge: Planters took care to treat slaves well in the beginning of their time on the plantation, and they slowly integrated slaves into the plantation's labor system. On each plantation there

434-973: A majority of slaves in the colony were African-born, as specific conditions of slavery and exposure to tropical diseases such as yellow fever prevented the population from experiencing growth through natural increase. Slave traders ventured along the Atlantic coast of Africa, buying slaves for plantation labor; most of the slaves they bought were war-captives and enslaved by an opposing African ethnic group. The slaves that they purchased came from hundreds of different tribes; their languages often were mutually incomprehensible, and they learned Creole French to communicate. The slave population around 1789 totaled to 406,000 (according to Jacques Pierre Brissot ) or 465,000, while there were 28,000 to 32,000 affranchis (ex-slaves) and Creole of color population who numbered about 28,000 or 32,000. Whites totaled to be around 40,000 to 45,000 whites which included its largest group being

496-707: A member of the Atlantic Coast Defense Board from 1849 until 1854, when he was sent to San Francisco . He continued to build military forts and was named to the Pacific Coast Defense Board. In 1857, he was reassigned to the Atlantic Coast, returning to San Francisco in 1861. He died in San Francisco in 1865. De Russy was credited with inventing the barbette depressing gun carriage. In recognition of his service, on July 17, 1866, De Russy

558-459: A present to the master;... if my father received little money from his slaves, he wanted little, and fared sumptuously in consequence to the presents he received, and these were always given to him with pride." To regularize slavery, in 1685 Louis XIV had enacted the Code Noir , which accorded certain rights to slaves and responsibilities to the master, who was obliged to feed, clothe and provide for

620-525: A rural police, due to Saint-Domingue's rough terrain and isolation away from French administration, the Code Noir's protections were sometimes ignored on remote sugar plantations. Justin Girod-Chantrans , a famous contemporary French traveler and naturalist of the time noted one such sugar plantation: "The slaves numbered roughly one hundred men and women of different ages, all engaged in digging ditches in

682-522: A slave? Q. Ah! well; when you you arrive in your country, you won't be free then? R. Not at all; i'm a slave of war; when I arrive there, they will take me again and sell me. When I die, I will go to my country, that's all. African folklore, such as the widespread tales of Compère Lapin and Compère Bouqui , has been recorded throughout Haiti. Charles Malenfant , a French Captain of Dragoons who arrived in St. Domingue in 1792, after fighting had begun, compiled

SECTION 10

#1732858601009

744-590: A small exclusive group of Grands blancs (white nobles; lit: big whites ) of whom the majority lived or were born in France, and the slave population totalled between 406,000 and 465,000. While many of the Gens de couleur libres were affranchis (ex-slaves), most members of this class were Creoles of color , i.e. free born blacks and mulattoes . As in New Orleans, a system of plaçage developed, in which white men had

806-603: A third of the entire Atlantic slave trade . In addition, some Native Americans were enslaved in Louisiana and sent to Saint-Domingue, particularly in the wake of the Natchez revolt . Between 1764 and 1771, the average annual importation of African slaves varied between 10,000 and 15,000; by 1786 it was about 28,000, and from 1787 onward, the colony received more than 30,000 slaves a year. The inability to maintain slave numbers without constant resupply from Africa meant that at all times,

868-605: Is a historic cemetery on the grounds of the United States Military Academy in West Point , New York . It overlooks the Hudson River , and served as a burial ground for Continental Army soldiers during the American Revolutionary War , and for early West Point residents prior to its designation as a military cemetery in 1817. Northwest of the cadet area, it was known as "German Flats" before its formal designation as

930-404: The gens de couleur libres (free people of color). These classes inhabited Saint Domingue and held a lot of local political power and control of the militia. Petits blancs shared the same societal level as gens de couleur libres . The Gens de couleur libres class was made up of affranchis (ex-slaves), free-born blacks, and mixed-race people, and they controlled much wealth and land in

992-593: The American Civil War . All of the forts were named for two brothers, René Edward and his younger brother Louis Gustave De Russy . Louis (also known as Lewis) graduated in 1814 from the United States Military Academy, two years after René but on an accelerated schedule. An engineer and career officer, he was assigned to Red River outposts in Louisiana in 1826 and made much of his career in that state. At advanced ages, they served on opposite sides of

1054-670: The Petits blancs (white commoners; lit: little whites ) and Creoles of lighter complexions; French subjects: engagés (white indentured servants), foreign European immigrants or refugees, and a small exclusive group of Grands blancs (white nobles; lit: big whites ) of whom the majority lived or were born in France. There were numerous kinds of plantations in Saint-Domingue. Some planters produced indigo, cotton, and coffee; these plantations were small in scale, and usually only had 15–30 slaves, creating an intimate work environment. However,

1116-522: The Treaty of Ryswick of 1697, Spain formally recognized French control of Tortuga Island and the western third of the island of Hispaniola. In 1791, slaves and some Creoles took part in a Vodou ceremony at Bois Caïman and planned the Haitian Revolution . The slave rebellion later allied with Republican French forces following the abolition of slavery in the colony in 1793, although this alienated

1178-518: The "Pearl of the Antilles " – one of the richest colonies in the world in the 18th-century French empire . It was the greatest jewel in imperial France's mercantile crown. By the 1780s, Saint-Domingue produced about 40 percent of all the sugar and 60 percent of all the coffee consumed in Europe. By 1789, Saint Domingue was made up of about 8,000 plantations ..., producing one-half of all the sugar and coffee that

1240-482: The 17th century, when French pirates began establishing bases on the western side of the island. The official name was La Española , meaning "The Spanish (Island)". It was also called Santo Domingo , after Saint Dominic . The western part of Hispaniola was neglected by the Spanish authorities, and French buccaneers began to settle first on the island of Tortuga, then on the northwest of Hispaniola. Spain later ceded

1302-690: The Civil War: René on the Union side and Lewis as a colonel in the Confederate Army; he was the oldest West Point graduate to serve on the Confederate side. Saint-Domingue Saint-Domingue ( French pronunciation: [sɛ̃.dɔ.mɛ̃ɡ] ) was a French colony in the western portion of the Caribbean island of Hispaniola , in the area of modern-day Haiti , from 1697 to 1804. The name derives from

SECTION 20

#1732858601009

1364-599: The Harbor's defenses, specifically Fort Hamilton . The Brooklyn Eagle reported that De Russy was the "engineer under whose direction Fort Hamilton was built, the corner stone of which was laid on June 11, 1825, and which was first garrisoned by troops on November 1, 1831." During his assignment in New York City, De Russy supervised the construction of the New Utrecht Reformed Church . He built his own residence on

1426-511: The Pyrenees . The people of the eastern part of Saint-Domingue ( French Santo Domingo ) were opposed to the arrangements and hostile toward the French. The islanders revolted against their new masters and a state of anarchy ensued, leading to more French troops being brought in. Until the mid-18th century, there were efforts made by the French Crown to found a stable French-European population in

1488-624: The Spanish main city on the island, Santo Domingo , which came to refer specifically to the Spanish-held Captaincy General of Santo Domingo , now the Dominican Republic . The borders between the two were fluid and changed over time until they were finally solidified in the Dominican War of Independence in 1844. The French had established themselves on the western portion of the islands of Hispaniola and Tortuga by 1659. In

1550-411: The ability to go into town, and liberté des savanes (savannah liberty), a sort of freedom with certain rules. Slaves were considered to be valuable property, and slaves were attended by doctors who gave medical care when they were sick. Here is a description of how the liberté des savanes (savannah liberty) Creole custom worked: "My parent, like most Creoles, was an indulgent master, and more under

1612-416: The bank every year, they accumulate huge capital sums and become arrogant because they are rich, and their arrogance increases in proportion to their wealth. They bid on properties that are for sale in every district and cause their prices to reach such astronomical heights that the whites who have not so much wealth are unable to buy, or else ruin themselves if they do persist. In this manner, in many districts

1674-1164: The best land is owned by Creoles of color." Although the Creoles of color and affranchis held considerable power, they eventually became the subject of racism and a system of segregation due to the introduction of divisionist policies by the royal government , as the Bourbon regime feared the united power of the Creoles. Starting in the early 1760s, and gaining much impetus after 1769, Bourbon royalist authorities began attempts to cut Creoles of color out of Saint-Domingue's society, banning them from working in positions of public trust or as respected professionals. They were made subject to discriminatory colonial legislation. Statutes forbade Gens de couleur from taking up certain professions, wearing European clothing, carrying swords or firearms in public, or attending social functions where whites were present. The regulations did not restrict their purchase of land, and many had already accumulated substantial holdings and became slave-owners. By 1789, they owned one-third of

1736-714: The bottom of his class. After West Point , De Russy worked as the assistant engineer for New York State 's defenses and helped to build Fort Montgomery , Rouses Point on the Canada–US border . In the late 1810s, he became the Superintending Engineer of the defenses of New York Harbor . He was next assigned to the South, where he oversaw construction of forts along the Gulf of Mexico , serving from 1821 to 1825. In 1825, De Russy returned to New York City , where he continued to build

1798-453: The buccaneers' settlements several times, on each occasion they returned, drawn by the abundance of natural resources: hardwood trees, wild hogs and cattle, and fresh water. The settlement on Tortuga was officially established in 1659 under the commission of King Louis XIV . In 1665, French colonization of the islands of Hispaniola and Tortuga entailed slavery-based plantation agricultural activity such as growing coffee and cattle farming. It

1860-474: The colony, a difficult task because there were few European women there. From the 17th century to the mid-18th century, the Crown attempted to remedy this by sending women from France to Saint-Domingue and Martinique to marry the settlers. However, these women were rumoured to be former prostitutes from La Salpêtrière and the settlers complained about the system in 1713, stating that the women sent were not suitable,

1922-405: The colony. The Code Noir sanctioned corporal punishment but had provisions intended to regulate the administration of punishments. Some sugar planters, bent on earning high sugar yields, worked their slaves very hard. Costs to start a sugar cane plantation were very high, compared to every other plantation type, often causing the proprietor of the sugar plantation to go into deep debt. Despite

René Edward De Russy - Misplaced Pages Continue

1984-523: The colony. In fact, deaths were outpacing births. The population of the colony only remained constant due to the constant influx of enslaved people. A majority of slaves only lived for a few years after their arrival. Many people in the colony were outraged by the death of many slaves and the brutality occurring. They proposed reforms that would help the population growth including allowing pregnant women and mothers more time off. United States Military Academy Post Cemetery West Point Cemetery

2046-575: The entire western coast of the island to France, retaining the rest of the island, including the Guava Valley , today known as the Central Plateau . The French called their portion of Hispaniola Saint-Domingue , the French equivalent of Santo Domingo . The Spanish colony on Hispaniola remained separate, and eventually became the Dominican Republic , the capital of which is still named Santo Domingo . When Christopher Columbus took possession of

2108-454: The example of neighboring Caribbean colonies in coercive treatment of the slaves. More cattle and slave agricultural holdings, coffee plantations and spice plantations were implemented, as well as fishing, cultivation of cocoa, coconuts, and snuff. Saint-Domingue quickly came to overshadow the previous colony in both wealth and population. Nicknamed the "Pearl of the Antilles," Saint-Domingue became

2170-432: The general well-being of his slaves. The Code Noir also conferred affranchis (ex-slaves) full citizenship and gave complete civil equality with other French subjects. Saint Domingue's Code Noir never outlawed interracial marriage, nor did it limit the amount of property a free person could give to affranchis . Creoles of color and affranchis used the colonial courts to protect their property and sue whites in

2232-624: The highest mountain range in the Caribbean. In the parish of Jérémie , the gens de couleur libres formed the majority of the population. Many lived in Port-au-Prince as well, which became an economic center in the South of the island. The vast majority of the slaves in Saint-Domingue were war-captives who had lost a war with another ethnic group. Most slaves came from ethnic tension between different tribes and kingdoms, or religious wars between pagans and Muslim-pagan interreligious wars . Many of

2294-400: The human suffering and pain they endured, but the time for rest had not yet come. The merciless eye of the plantation steward watched over the workers while several black commanders, dispersed among the workers and armed with long whips, delivered harsh blows to those who seemed too weary to sustain the pace and were forced to slow down. Men, women, young and old alike – none escaped the crack of

2356-712: The influence of his bondservants than he himself was aware of. A number of servants belonged to him, who either hired themselves in the capital or on estates, or became fishermen, chip-chip finders, or land-crab catchers. These people gave my father what they pleased out of their earnings; he scarcely took any account of what his slaves paid him: sufficient for him was it, that one part of them supplied him with enough to satisfy his immediate wants. The rest waited on him, or waited on each other, or, most properly speaking, waited for each other to work. Thirteen adult slaves and three boys lived in his house: their united labour might have been performed by two or three paid domestics. Their time

2418-433: The island and established a hierarchy. The highest class, known as the grands blancs (white noblemen), was composed of rich nobles , including royalty , and mainly lived in France. These individuals held most of the power and controlled much of the property on Saint-Domingue. Although their group was very small and exclusive, they were quite powerful. Below the grands blancs were the petits blancs (white commoners) and

2480-693: The island in 1492, he named it Insula Hispana , meaning "the Spanish island" in Latin . As Spain conquered new regions on the mainland of the Americas ( Spanish Main ), its interest in Hispaniola waned, and the colony's population grew slowly. By the early 17th century, the island and its smaller neighbors, notably Tortuga, had become regular stopping points for Caribbean pirates . In 1606, the king of Spain ordered all inhabitants of Hispaniola to move close to Santo Domingo, to avoid interaction with pirates. Rather than securing

2542-453: The island's dominant slave-owning class. France controlled the entirety of Hispaniola from 1795 to 1802, when a renewed rebellion began. The last French troops withdrew from the western portion of the island in late 1803, and the colony later declared its independence as Haiti, the Taino name for the island, the following year. Spain controlled the entire island of Hispaniola from the 1490s until

René Edward De Russy - Misplaced Pages Continue

2604-420: The island, however, this resulted in French, English and Dutch pirates establishing bases on the now-abandoned north and west coasts of the island. French buccaneers established a settlement on the island of Tortuga in 1625 before going to Grande Terre (the mainland). At first they survived by pirating ships, eating wild cattle and hogs, and selling hides to traders of all nations. Although the Spanish destroyed

2666-555: The largest and wealthiest free population of color in the Caribbean ; they were known as the Gens de couleur libres (free people of color). Population estimations in 1789 indicate 28,000 to 32,000 affranchis and Creoles of color and 40,000 to 45,000 whites , which included its largest group being the Petits blancs (white commoners; lit: little whites ) and Creoles of lighter complexions; French subjects: engagés (white indentured servants), foreign European immigrants or refugees, and

2728-436: The most valuable plantations produced sugar. The average sugar plantation employed 300 slaves, and the largest sugar plantation on record employed 1400 slaves. These plantations took up only 14% of Saint-Domingue's cultivated land; comparatively, coffee was 50% of all cultivated land, indigo was 22%, and cotton only 5%. Because of the comparative investment requirement between sugar plantations and all other plantation types, there

2790-416: The official cemetery in 1817. Until that time several small burial plots scattered in mid-post also served as places of interment. The graves from these plots and the remains subsequently found during building excavations were removed to the new site. An improved road to the cemetery was constructed in 1840, and the caretaker's cottage was erected in 1872. The cemetery is home to several monuments, including

2852-1008: The oldest graduate of the Military Academy on active duty." He was originally buried at the Lone Mountain Cemetery on November 25, 1865. During the decommissioning of that cemetery, De Russy's remains were moved to Cypress Lawn Memorial Park in 1901 and then reburied at the United States Military Academy Post Cemetery on October 24, 1907. There are five Forts DeRussy in the United States: Fort DeRussy Military Reservation in Honolulu , two in Louisiana, one in Kentucky, and one in Washington, D.C. The latter four were all built during

2914-467: The plantation property and one-quarter of the slaves of Saint-Domingue. Central to the rise of the Gens de couleur planter class was the growing importance of coffee, which thrived on the marginal hillside plots to which they were often relegated. The largest concentration of Gens de couleur was in the southern peninsula. This was the last region of the colony to be settled, owing to its distance from Atlantic shipping lanes and its formidable terrain, with

2976-400: The planting of tobacco, which turned a population of buccaneers and freebooters, who had not acquiesced to royal authority until 1660, into a sedentary population. D'Ogeron also attracted many colonists from Martinique and Guadeloupe, including Jean Roy, Jean Hebert and his family, and Guillaume Barre and his family, who were driven out by the land pressure which was generated by the extension of

3038-654: The revolt in Saint-Domingue were attacked by yellow fever during the Haitian Revolution , and more than half of the French army died of disease. Prior to the Seven Years' War (1756–1763), the economy of Saint-Domingue gradually expanded, with sugar and, later, coffee becoming important export crops. After the war, which disrupted maritime commerce, the colony underwent rapid expansion. In 1767, it exported 72 million pounds of raw sugar and 51 million pounds of refined sugar , one million pounds of indigo , and two million pounds of cotton. Saint-Domingue became known as

3100-487: The richest and most prosperous French colony in the West Indies, cementing its status as an important port in the Americas for goods and products flowing to and from France and Europe. Thus, the income and the taxes from slave-based sugar production became a major source of the French budget. Among the first buccaneers was Bertrand d'Ogeron (1613–1676), who played a big part in the settlement of Saint-Domingue. He encouraged

3162-429: The same way as petits blancs ; they held full citizenship and civil equality with other French subjects. Race was initially tied to culture and class, and some "white" Creoles had non-white ancestry. "These men are beginning to fill the colony... their numbers continually increasing amongst the whites, with fortunes often greater than those of the whites... Their strict frugality prompting them to place their profits in

SECTION 50

#1732858601009

3224-583: The slaves who came to Saint-Domingue could not return to Africa, as their home was controlled by an opposing African ethnic group, and they stayed as affranchis in Saint-Domingue. R. Hé! hé! mô n'a pas pense ça, moi, qui mô va faire dans mo paye? mô n'a pas saclave? Q. Ah! bin; quand vous arrive dans vous paye, vous n'a pas libe donc? R. Non va; mô saclave la guerre; quand mô arrive là; zotte prend moi encore pour vendé moi. Quand mô fini mort, mô va allé dans mon paye, à v'là tout. R. Hey! Hey! I don't think so, what am I going to do in my country? I won't be

3286-441: The sugar plantations in those colonies. But in 1670, shortly after Cap-Français (later Cap-Haïtien ) had been established, the crisis of tobacco intervened and a great number of places were abandoned. The rows of freebooting grew bigger; plundering raids, like those of Vera Cruz in 1683 or of Campêche in 1686, became increasingly numerous, and Jean-Baptiste Colbert , Marquis de Seignelay , elder son of Jean Baptist Colbert and at

3348-496: The time Minister of the Navy, brought back some order by taking a great number of measures, including the creation of plantations of indigo and of cane sugar . The first sugar windmill was built in 1685. On 22 July 1795, Spain ceded to France the remaining Spanish part of the island of Hispaniola, Santo Domingo (now the Dominican Republic ), in the second Treaty of Basel , ending the War of

3410-447: The whip if they could not keep up pace." Work in the fields was often difficult, and life expectancy was low. Some owners deep in debt concluded that it was more economically profitable to work their slaves to death and import replacements than to provide their slaves with adequate food, clothing and medical care. Some 5–10 percent of slaves died every year, from disease and overworking, and even more when epidemics of disease swept through

3472-578: Was Isaac Denniston De Russy (1840–1923), who became a brigadier general. He married Laura Requa (1859–1929). Their son Rene Edward De Russy, Jr (1844–1895) served in the Army Artillery 1863-1874. Ann died in March 1849 at Fortress Munroe. After Ann's early death, De Russy married Helen Augusta Maxwell (1832–1908). Together, they were the parents of the following: The senior De Russy "died while on active duty at San Francisco on November 23, 1865, aged 75 years,

3534-485: Was a big economic gap between normal planters and sugar "lords." While grands blancs owned 800 large scale sugar plantations, the petits blancs and gens de couleur (people of color) owned 11,700 small scale plantations, of which petits blancs owned 5,700 plantations, counting 3,000 indigo, 2,000 coffee, and 700 cotton; the affranchis and Creoles of color owned 6,000 plantations that mainly produced coffee of which they held an economic monopoly. Saint-Domingue had

3596-405: Was a black commander who supervised the other slaves on behalf of the planter, and the planter made sure not to favor one African ethnic group over others. Most slaves who came to Saint-Domingue worked in fields or shops; younger slaves could become household servants, and old slaves were employed as surveillants. Some slaves became skilled workmen, and they received privileges such as better food,

3658-478: Was chiefly spent in eating wangoo (boiled Indian cornflour), fish, land-crabs, and yams; sleeping; beating the African drum, composed of a barrel covered with a goat's skin; dancing, quarrelling, and love-making after their own peculiar amusement. If a fine chicken-turtle, a large grouper, or delicious rock-hynd was caught by any of our fishermen, no price would tempt them to sell it; no, it must be sent or brought as

3720-470: Was consumed in Europe and the Americas. This single colony, roughly the size of Hawaiʻi or Belgium, produced more sugar and coffee than all of the British West Indies colonies combined, generating enormous revenue for the French government and enhancing its power. Between 1681 and 1791 the labor for these plantations was provided by an estimated 790,000 or 860,000 slaves, accounting in 1783–1791 for

3782-469: Was officially recognized by King Louis XIV . Spain tacitly recognized the French presence in the western third of the island in the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick ; the Spanish deliberately omitted direct reference to the island from the treaty, but they were never able to reclaim this territory from the French. The economy of Saint-Domingue became focused on slave-based agricultural plantations. Saint-Domingue's Black population quickly increased. They followed

SECTION 60

#1732858601009

3844-577: Was posthumously nominated by President Andrew Johnson for appointment to the grade of brevet brigadier general in the Regular US Army , to rank from March 13, 1865, and the United States Senate approved the appointment on July 26, 1866. De Russy was married to Harriet Elizabeth Taylor (1805–1834). Together, they were the parents of the following: De Russy then married Ann Alida Denniston, daughter of Isaac Denniston (1767-1852.) Their son

#8991