Misplaced Pages

#807192

123-685: The University of Vienna participated in National Socialism. Eduard Pernkopf (rector 1943–1945) compiled a "Topographical Anatomy of the Human Species". Hans Sedlmayr, a declared National Socialist, led an art institute throughout the war. The first Reichsuniversität began operations in Prague on November 4, 1939. The University of Poznań was closed by the German Occupation in 1939, and reopened on April 27, 1941 as Reichsuniversität Posen,

246-479: A Diplomarbeit thesis of 50-100 pages. Research doctorates in medicine (Dr. scient. med. or PhD ) can also be obtained after a three year full-time post-graduate study programme at a medical university. All doctors may be addressed as "Doktor _____"; the title is usually contracted to "Dr. _____", oftentimes they are just addressed as "Herr/Frau Doktor" (Mr/Ms Doctor), omitting the family name unless they are being introduced to someone. Contrary to popular belief in

369-438: A Dr. to a PhD. These degrees take 3–4 years full-time and are organised in doctoral schools. In addition, the academic degree Doktor (ISCED 7) is granted to physicians (Dr. med. univ.) and dentists (Dr. med. dent.), who since 2002 do not obtain doctoral degrees (ISCED 8) but instead follow a master's level six-year training (360 ECTS ) programme, similar to an American MD or DDS . For these degrees, students have to write

492-532: A Dutch academic title that was replaced with the master title with the introduction of the master system. In English, Dr is not usually combined with other titles, except for The Reverend in "The Revd Dr" before the surname of a minister of religion, e.g., "The Revd Dr Smith" or "The Revd John Smith, DD", and similarly "Rabbi Dr". In Caribbean English , the usage "Dr. the Honourable" is common for politicians holding doctoral degrees. Usage in many other languages

615-454: A Grenzlanduniversität aligned with Nazi ideology. Its faculty included historian Reinhard Wittram  [ de ] and anatomist Hermann Voss . The German university ceased operations in 1944, and the University of Poznań reopened in 1945. The University of Strasbourg was transferred to Clermont-Ferrand in 1939 and Reichsuniversität Straßburg existed from November 23, 1941 until

738-466: A publica libraria in the Foundation Deed of 12 March 1365, where the valuable books bequeathed by deceased members of the university should be collected. Through many legacies, this collection was subsequently greatly increased and became the basis of the old Libreye that was accommodated in the same building as the student infirmary. In addition, there were libraries in the separate Faculties and in

861-707: A 2006 amendment that would allow practitioners of Traditional Chinese Medicine to use the title has not, as of 1 August 2016 , entered into force. As of 2022, in Alberta, Doctors of Acupuncture may use the doctor title. The usage of the French Docteur and Docteure , and their abbreviated forms Dr , Dre , D and D , is controlled by the Code des professions . As a pre-nominal title it can be used without any further explication by physicians, veterinarians, and dentists. It can also be used prenominally, when accompanied by

984-438: A Ph.D. addressed on the envelope as Dr., and as a consequence, deviation from convention has become acceptable." The 2017 book Etiquette Rules! gives identical forms for addressing a "doctor of medicine (MD), dental surgery (DDS), veterinary medicine (DVM), etc.", and the holder of a PhD, advising in both cases the use of initials after the name for formal correspondence and Dr. before the name for social correspondence. Although

1107-524: A decision by The Globe and Mail newspaper in Canada to update its style guide so as to restrict the use of the title Doctor to medics led to a backlash on Twitter , particularly by women with PhDs, using the #ImmodestWomen hashtag . This was widely reported on internationally and led to The Globe and Mail reverting to its earlier style of using Doctor for both physicians and PhD holders. The Canadian University of Calgary also announced that it would adopt

1230-571: A degree of Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS or MBChB). An attempt by their professional body to prevent chiropractors from calling themselves "Doctor" failed in the courts, in part because it was pointed out that practicing chiropractors may hold an academic doctorate in their discipline, and it would be anomalous to prevent them using the title when holders of doctorates in non-medical disciplines faced no such restriction. In India , medical practitioners are legally referred to as registered medical practitioners . The title of doctor

1353-506: A degree to be granted to someone who had undertaken original research in the sciences or humanities. Prior to the formal degree, the contemporary doctorate (PhD), arguably, arose in Leipzig as a successor to the Master's degree in 1652 (Dr. habil). In some European countries, such as Italy and Portugal, "Doctor" became a title given to all or most degree holders, not just those with doctorates. As

SECTION 10

#1732863365808

1476-513: A doctoral title, one may use the plural contraction "Drs" (or "Drs." in American English ) – or in some languages (for example, German) "Dres." (from the Latin doctores ) may be used – for example, instead of Dr. Miller and Dr. Ahmed: Drs. Miller and Ahmed. When referring to relatives with the same surname the form "The Doctors Smith" can be used. The abbreviation Drs. can also refer to doctorandus ,

1599-434: A doctorate and are licensed to practice medicine, and there is a requirement that the field of the doctorate be disclosed. Some other jurisdictions require the practitioner to hold a doctorate and to disclose the field, but make no stipulations as to licensing. Some states require name badges to be worn in medical facilities giving first name, licensure status, and staff position, although these laws may not explicitly address

1722-648: A doctorate. When university degrees became more common for those wanting to qualify as a lawyer in England, the degree awarded was the Bachelor of Laws (LLB). Similarly in the US, even though degrees became standard for lawyers much earlier, the degree was again the LLB, only becoming the Juris Doctor (JD) generally in the latter half of the 20th century. In many English-speaking countries, it

1845-574: A fee. The Third Council of the Lateran of 1179 guaranteed the access — now largely free of charge — of all able applicants, who were, however, still tested for aptitude by the ecclesiastic scholastic. This right remained a bone of contention between church authorities and the slowly emancipating universities, but was granted by the pope to the University of Paris in 1213, when it became a universal license to teach ( licentia ubiquie docendi ). However, while

1968-546: A former student while ascending the steps of the university for a class. His murderer was later released by the Nazi regime. Following the Anschluss , the annexation of Austria into Greater Germany by the Nazi regime , in 1938 the University of Vienna was reformed under political aspects, and a huge number of teachers and students were dismissed for political and "racial" reasons. In April 1945,

2091-460: A full ethics opinion that maintained the ban on using the title in legal practice as a form of self-laudation (except when dealing with countries where the use of "Doctor" by lawyers was standard practice), but allowed the use of the title in academia "if the school of graduation thinks of the J.D. degree as a doctor's degree". These opinions led to further debate. The introduction of the new Code of Professional Responsibility in 1969 seemed to settle

2214-402: A general term for academic studies, not the specific academic discipline of philosophy), but are now classified as humanities and sciences , respectively. The historical usage survives in the degree of Doctor of Philosophy ). The Doctor of Philosophy was originally a degree granted by a university to learned individuals who had achieved the approval of their peers and who had demonstrated

2337-526: A license to teach (Latin: licentia docendi ) at a medieval university . Its roots can be traced to the early church , when the term "doctor" referred to the Apostles , church fathers and other Christian authorities who taught and interpreted the Bible . The right to grant a licentia docendi was originally reserved to the church which required the applicant to pass a test, take an Oath of allegiance and pay

2460-464: A long and productive career in the field of philosophy (in the broad sense of the term, meaning the pursuit of knowledge). The appellation "Doctor" (from Latin: teacher) was usually awarded only when the individual was in middle age. It indicated a life dedicated to learning, knowledge, and the spread of knowledge. The PhD entered widespread use in the 19th century at Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin as

2583-506: A motion instructing their council "to take the necessary steps in conjunction with the Royal College of Physicians to ensure that all persons who pass the Conjoint examination shall be legally entitled to call themselves Doctors". The council of the surgeons' College felt it to be impractical to secure the legal right to the title as this would mean gaining the right to award MDs, but noted that

SECTION 20

#1732863365808

2706-487: A research doctorate, but a "State Diploma of Doctor of Medicine" ( Diplôme d'État de docteur en médecine ). The law in France allows the title of Dr to be used professionally by holders of research doctorates, with the field of their speciality being mentioned after the name. The courts have ruled that stating the specialisation is not necessary except in circumstances specifically related to professional practice; at other times

2829-643: A result, the title is now used by many professionals in these countries, including those such as lawyers who are not normally granted the title elsewhere. The title is also used for lawyers in South America, where they have traditionally earned doctoral degrees, as well as in the former Portuguese territories of Goa in India and Macau in China. The primary meaning of Doctor in English has historically been with reference to

2952-469: A separate doctoral thesis, and is not taken by all medical graduates. Regardless, in Finnish usage, the use of titles is uncommon and restricted to only the most formal of contexts. In France , the title of Docteur is only used generally for physicians ( médecin ) but can also be used by holders of research doctorates. Medical professionals do not normally hold a doctorate , which in France always refers to

3075-552: A suffix accompanied by the prefix PT. The usage by pharmacists is legally disputed, while the Supreme Court of India has ruled against the use of the title as a prefix by physiotherapists. The Indonesian titles "dr." is used in front of the name of medical doctor who holds a specification as general practitioner, also when the doctor already holds his specialization to ___, such as "Sp.THT" or "Spesialis Telinga, Hidung, Tenggorokan" (ENT or Ear, Nose, and Throat Specialist). Dr.

3198-467: A system of democratic representation. Power in the university was divided equally among three groups: students (the largest group), junior faculty, and full professors. All groups had the right to send representatives to boards, who then voted on almost every issue. From 2002 on, the government of Austria, headed by chancellor Wolfgang Schüssel , reformed the university system, transforming the institutions into legal entities, but also concentrating power in

3321-635: A university degree and were trained by other lawyers by apprenticeship or in the Inns of Court. The exception being those areas where, up to the 19th century, civil law rather than common law was the governing tradition, including admiralty law , probate and ecclesiastical law: such cases were heard in the Doctor's Commons , and argued by advocates who held degrees either of doctor of civil law at Oxford or doctor of law at Cambridge. As such, lawyers practicing common law in England were not doctoral candidates and had not earned

3444-608: Is a public research university located in Vienna , Austria . Founded by Duke Rudolph IV in 1365, it is the oldest university in the German-speaking world and among the largest institutions of higher learning in Europe. The university is associated with 17 Nobel Prize winners and has been the home to many scholars of historical and academic importance. The university was founded on March 12, 1365, by Rudolf IV, Duke of Austria , hence

3567-572: Is abbreviated usually as " Dra. "; others, however, some being Anglophones who wish to sound modern and Westernised (or were raised in an almost exclusively English-speaking family environment), or some who advocate gender equality, would dispense with the distinction altogether. There does exist in Filipino an equivalent, gender-neutral term for the professional that carries the more general notion of "healer", traditional (for example, an albuláryo ) or otherwise: manggagámot . Contracted "Dr" or "Dr.", it

3690-414: Is addressed as "Aacharya" (ආචාර්ය). It is a common practice for married female medical practitioners to use the title "Dr (Mrs)" in a both professional and social capacity. The usage of Doctor (ดอกเตอร์) or Dr (ดร.) has been borrowed from English. It can be seen as a title in academic circles and in the mass media. In contrast to other academic titles (Professor, Associate Professor and assistant professor),

3813-471: Is also a professor is usually known as "Professor" and, similarly, a surgeon who has been ennobled, knighted, created a baronet or appointed a dame uses the corresponding title (Lord, Sir, Dame). Physicians , on the other hand, when they pass their " MRCP(UK) " examinations, or equivalent, do not drop Dr but retain it, even as consultants. The status and rank of consultant surgeons, addressed as "Mister" or "Ms.", and consultant physicians, addressed as "Doctor",

Universities in Nazi Germany - Misplaced Pages Continue

3936-401: Is also used as a designation for a person who has obtained a doctorate degree (e.g. PhD, EdD , DPA). In Sri Lanka the title doctor "Dr." is used for PhD holders and medical practitioner such as physicians, surgeons, dental surgeons and veterinarians. However, when addressing in native Sinhalese a medical practitioner is addressed as "Vaidya" (වෛද්ය) or "Dosthara" (දොස්තර) while a PhD holder

4059-507: Is an academic title that originates from the Latin word of the same spelling and meaning. The word is originally an agentive noun of the Latin verb docēre [dɔˈkeːrɛ] 'to teach'. It has been used as an academic title in Europe since the 13th century, when the first doctorates were awarded at the University of Bologna and the University of Paris . Having become established in European universities , this usage spread around

4182-463: Is common to refer to physicians by the title of doctor, even when they do not hold a doctoral level qualification. The word Doctor has long had a secondary meaning in English of physician , e.g., in Johnson's Dictionary , which quotes its use with this meaning by Shakespeare . In the US, the medical societies established the proprietary medical colleges in the 19th century to award their own MDs, but in

4305-445: Is equivalent. In Bangladesh , use of the title of doctor (or Dr) is permitted for PhD degree holders and registered medical practitioners. For registered medical practitioners, only MBBS and BDS degree holders are allowed to use the title and be called "medical doctors". Registered veterinary practitioners may use the title after earning a Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (DVM) degree. However, registered homeopathic practitioners also use

4428-438: Is frequently used by qualified professional medical practitioners in the fields of Allopathic medicine (MBBS) and dentistry (BDS), as well as by other practitioners like Siddha (BSMS), Yoga and Naturopathy (BNYS), Ayurveda (BAMS), Unani medicine (BUMS) and Homeopathy (BHMS), Veterinarians (BVSc) and holders of doctoral degrees, including PhDs and pharmacists with PharmDs . Physiotherapists (BPT) use 'Doctor' as

4551-488: Is given. The expansion of professional doctorates in clinical fields in the late 20th and early 21st centuries has led to disputes between physicians and other medical professions over who can use the title in a clinical context. This has been interpreted by some as part of larger battles within medicine, such as who gets to treat patients first and who has prescribing authority. The American Medical Association calls for non-physicians (those not holding an MD or DO) who use

4674-801: Is rated high in academic reputation and number of international students, but low in terms of faculty-to-student ratio and citations per faculty. An overview of the QS World University Rankings by subjects: The Times Higher Education World University Rankings by subjects: The Shanghai-Ranking in Mathematics: Nobel Prize Laureates who taught at the University of Vienna include Robert Bárány , Julius Wagner-Jauregg , Hans Fischer , Karl Landsteiner , Erwin Schrödinger , Victor Franz Hess , Otto Loewi , Konrad Lorenz and Friedrich Hayek . The University of Vienna

4797-525: Is similar to English but some, notably German, allow for the stacking of titles. In the United Kingdom , India , Pakistan , Hong Kong , Trinidad and Tobago , South Africa , Australia , New Zealand , Ghana , and other countries whose cultures were recently linked to the UK, the title Dr is generally used both for those who hold doctoral degrees and for registered medical practitioners . History has dictated

4920-415: Is to the members of the university; however, the library's 350 staff members also provide access to the public. Use of the books in the reading halls is open to all persons without the need for identification, which is only required for checking out books. The library's website provides direct access to information such as electronic journals, online indices, and databases. Rudolf IV had already provided for

5043-709: Is unusual for those who hold honorary doctorates to use the title "Doctor". Publications from the office of the President of the United States of America also refer to PhD holders as Dr. Soandso, and Jill Biden , who holds an EdD , used the style "Dr. Jill Biden" as second lady and has continued to do so as first lady . For addresses (defined as "the conventional forms of address as determined by social and official custom"), NASA uses "Dr. (full name)" in addresses for PhD holders while for physicians it uses "(full name), MD", although both are addressed as "Dr. (surname)" in

Universities in Nazi Germany - Misplaced Pages Continue

5166-497: Is used in front of the name as the title "Doktor" for doctorate title, the same level as PhD title. In Pakistan , the title of Doctor (Dr.) can be used by PhD degree holders as well as medical, dental, optometry and veterinary doctors with MBBS , BDS , OD and DVM degrees respectively. Usage by physiotherapists DPT degree respectively is disputed, with the Pakistan Medical and Dental Council saying they should not use

5289-489: The AP Stylebook and reserve the title for physicians in their house styles; notable exceptions include The New York Times , which follows the preference of the individual when referring to PhD holders (although the title is not used for those with honorary doctorates), and The Wall Street Journal , which similarly prefers "Dr." for PhD holders and physicians (if this is the person's choice) while stating explicitly that

5412-444: The BMJ noting in 1876 that "We have again a sort of flood of letters for and against the use of the title of Doctor by physicians" and in 1882 that "There is not any other subject which appears to excite so wide spread an interest as this". In February 1876, a report recommended that the Royal College of Physicians should use the courtesy title of Doctor for all fellows and members, but this

5535-711: The International Standard Classification of Education 2011 classifications (ISCED 2011) or level 6 of the ISCED 1997 classifications. Beyond academia (but specifically in the anglophone world, Italy, and France), Doctor as a noun normally refers to a medical practitioner, who would usually hold a qualification at level 7 of ISCED 2011/level 5 of ISCED 1997 such as the British MBBS or the American MD or DO . When addressing several people, each of whom holds

5658-664: The Lisbon Recognition Convention , recognition of a foreign degree allows "the use of an academic title, subject to the laws and regulations of the country in which recognition is sought". According to the Explanatory report , this means that: "The competent authorities of the Parties may grant the right to use the title in the exact form in which it was awarded in the Party concerned or in any other form. They may alternatively grant

5781-1080: The Medical University of Vienna . Students at the university can select from 181 degree programs: 55 bachelor programs , 110 master programs , 3 diploma programs , and 13 doctoral programmes . In the academic year 2013/14, the university awarded 7,745 first degrees (Bachelors and Diplomas ), 1,424 Master's degrees, and 568 Doctoral degrees. The university offers a number of Master's programs in English, including quantitative economics, management and finance, science-technology-society, environmental sciences, Middle European interdisciplinary master programme in cognitive science, European master in health and physical activity, English language and linguistics, Anglophone literature and culture, East Asian economy and society, economics, botany, ecology and ecosystems, molecular biology, microbial ecology and immunobiology, European master in urban studies, masters in European and international business law, mathematics, etc. Some 6,900 scholars undertake research and teaching activities at

5904-493: The Royal College of Physicians resolved that it would "regard in the same light, and address by the same appellation, all who have obtained its diploma, whether they have graduated elsewhere or not." The Medical Act 1858 made it illegal for anyone not qualified in medicine to use a title that implied they were. This led to prosecutions of people making unauthorised use of the title "Dr". However, it also called into question

6027-450: The 1940s, the widespread usage of the title in the US was under threat. A 1944 article claimed that "the Ph.D. has immediate and far-reaching value of social as well as economic nature" due to America's "national fondness for the tinsel of titles", but went on to note that some universities were moving away from using the title, concluding that "it is ungracious in most environments not to render unto

6150-650: The Allied recapture of the city in 1944. It was notably the site of medical experimentation on and murder of Jews and other concentration camp inmates led by the Dean of the Medical School, August Hirt . This intellectual history article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article related to Nazi Germany is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . University of Vienna The University of Vienna ( German : Universität Wien )

6273-660: The Bangladesh Unani & Ayurvedic Practitioners Ordinance 1983, practitioners of the Unani system are called "Tabib" or "Hakim" and practitioners of Ayurvedic system are called "Vaid" or "Kabiraj"; both are prohibited from using the title of doctor. Currently, medical practitioners having an MBBS degree or dental surgeons having a BDS are legally permitted to use Dr as a prefix; its use by other medical practitioners remains controversial. Hong Kong follows British practice in calling physicians "Doctor" even though many of them hold only

SECTION 50

#1732863365808

6396-502: The College shall assume the title of Doctor of Medicine, or use any other name, title, designation or distinction implying that he is a Graduate in Medicine of an University, unless he be a Graduate in Medicine of an University". In Ireland, the question of whether the license of the Royal College of Physicians of Ireland granted the title of Doctor of Medicine led to a court case in 1861, with

6519-542: The Doctor of Philosophy his 'Doctor' title". The same writer noted in a letter to the Journal of Higher Education in 1948 that Alfred University had banned the use of the title for faculty (while retaining it for the president and deans) "in a strange move professedly designed to uphold and promote 'democracy' and 'Americanism ' ". However, it was noted in 1959 that professors with PhDs were now generally addressed as "Doctor", with

6642-569: The Duke's College. From the 17th century onwards, interest in the old library, with its manuscripts and incunabulae, went into decline and the modern library in the Jesuit College came to the fore. In 1756, the oldest university library was finally closed down and its books, 2,787 volumes, were incorporated into the Court Library, of which Gerard van Swieten was then director. After the dissolution of

6765-672: The Faculty of Law (Juridicum) and others. The Botanical Garden of the University of Vienna is housed in the Third District, as are the Department of Biochemistry and related research centers. Also worth mentioning is the Vienna Observatory , which belongs to the university, and the Institute for University Sports (USI), which offers training and recreational possibilities to all students of

6888-515: The Jesuit order (1773), the new "Academic Library" was created out of the book collections of the five Lower Austrian Colleges and many duplicates from the Court Library. This was opened on 13 May 1777, the birthday of Maria Theresa of Austria, in the building of the Academic College. Initially, the stock consisted of some 45,000 books, and during Emperor Joseph II's dissolution of the monasteries, this

7011-532: The Ringstraße constitutes the university's center and is commonly referred to as "die Uni". Most other larger university facilities and lecture halls are located nearby in the area of Vienna's First and Ninth District : the so-called new Lecture Hall Complex (Neues Institutgebäude, NIG), the lecture hall complex Althanstraße (UZA), the campus on the premises of the Historical General Hospital of Vienna ,

7134-467: The UK and the British Empire, where degree granting was strictly controlled, this was not an option. The usage of the title to refer to medical practitioners, even when they did not hold doctoral degrees, was common by the mid 18th century. However, the first official recognition of Doctor being applied as a title to medical practitioners regardless of whether they held a doctoral degree was in 1838, when

7257-638: The US, many of them taking entrants directly from high school, and ranging from the Doctor of Chiropractic (DC), which (at the time) required only two or three years of college-level education, up to the PhD. All doctoral degree holders, with the exception of the JD, were customarily addressed as "Doctor", but the title was also regularly used, without doctoral degrees, by pharmacists, ministers of religion, teachers and chiropodists, and sometimes by other professions such as beauty practitioners, patent medicine manufacturers, etc. By

7380-403: The United States, the use of the title "Doctor" is dependent upon the setting. The title is commonly used socially by physicians and those holding doctoral degrees; however, there was formerly a division between Letitia Baldrige and Miss Manners on its social usage by those who are not physicians. Baldrige saw this usage as acceptable, while in contrast, Miss Manners wrote that "only people of

7503-499: The University of Vienna. A large degree of participation by students and university staff was realized in 1975, however, the University Reforms of 1993 and 2002 largely re-established the professors as the main decision-makers. However, also as part of the 2002 reform, the university, after more than 250 years of being largely under governmental control, finally regained its full legal capacity. The number of faculties and centers

SECTION 60

#1732863365808

7626-399: The admission of the first female students, Elise Richter became the first woman to receive habilitation , becoming professor of Romance languages in 1907; she was also the first female distinguished professor. In the late 1920s, the university was in steady turmoil because of anti-democratic and anti-Semitic activity by parts of the student body. Professor Moritz Schlick was killed by

7749-504: The bottom. The Magister and Doctors constituted the four faculties and elected the academic officials from amidst their ranks. The students, but also all other Supposita (university members), were divided into four Academic Nations . Their elected board members, mostly graduates themselves, had the right to elect the Rector. He presided over the Consistory which included procurators of each of

7872-469: The city, leading to a sharp decline in enrollment. For Emperor Ferdinand I , this meant that the university should be tied to the church to an even stronger degree, and in 1551 he installed the Jesuit Order there. As time went on, conflicts between the Jesuit school and the university arose. This led Emperor Ferdinand II , in 1623, to pass a law that incorporated the Jesuit College into the university. It

7995-579: The compulsory language of instruction the year later. Significant changes were instituted in the wake of the Revolution in 1848 , with the Philosophical Faculty being upgraded into equal status as Theology, Law and Medicine. Led by the reforms of Leopold, Count von Thun und Hohenstein , the university was able to achieve a larger degree of academic freedom. The current main building on the Ringstraße

8118-452: The conclusion that it did not. The British Medical Journal ( BMJ ) observed, however, that anyone wanting the right to the title of "Doctor" could gain it "with a five-shilling degree of Doctor of Philosophy" from abroad, or could simply assume the title, as only "Doctor of Medicine" was actually protected. Debate continued as to the use of "Doctor" as a courtesy title by those who did not use it by right as holders of doctoral degrees, with

8241-442: The country, the title "Dr." is not part of a person's name or a specific honour but simply a degree like BSc/BA, Mag (MA/MSc) or Dipl.-Ing. (MEng). It is not mandatory to use it, although it may be added to official documents (e.g. driver's licence, passport), if desired In Finland, the title of tohtori or doktor denotes holder of a research doctorate comparable to a PhD. Getting the doctorate requires advanced studies after

8364-406: The credentials of their caregivers, including the use of the title "doctor"." The American Medical Association launched a campaign in 2011 for states to adopt "truth in advertising" legislation. As a result, many states now have laws in place that protect the title of doctor when offering medical services. In some jurisdictions, the use of the title in health care is limited to those who have both

8487-583: The deed of foundation that had been sanctioned by Rudolf IV, specifically in relation to the department of theology. This was presumably due to pressure exerted by Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor , who wished to avoid competition for the Charles University in Prague . The pope later granted an endowment to the university in 1365, while papal assent was finally received in 1384. This led to the University of Vienna and its Faculty of Catholic Theology being granted

8610-491: The degree was not awarded in the UK until 1917. However, the title, not being protected by law, was adopted by quacks . As a result, by the mid 19th century, it was normal in the UK to omit the title "Dr" when addressing letters to those holding doctoral degrees, and instead write the abbreviated form of the degree after the name, e.g., "The Reverend Robert Phelps, D.D.", "Thomas Elliotson, Esq. M.D.", or "John Lindsey, Esq. Ph.D.", in order to avoid classing academic doctors "with

8733-512: The face of the rising number of "discount doctorates" was linked to professors at prestigious universities wanting to be called "mister". In the late 1960s the rising number of American law schools awarding Juris Doctor (JD) degrees led to debate over whether lawyers could ethically use the title "Doctor". Initial informal ethics opinions, based on the Canons of Professional Ethics then in force, came down against this. These were then reinforced with

8856-407: The field of religious and biblical studies. American professional doctorates are not generally considered doctoral level degrees internationally, instead being classified as bachelor's or master's level. The ISCED mapping for these degrees, developed collaboratively between the US and UNESCO , places them at master's level. As a result, holders of MD, JD, PharmD, etc. may not be permitted to use

8979-458: The hands of the full professors. The reform also introduced a board of governors and tuition fees. In 2013, those amounted to about €381 per semester for students from Austria, the European Union as well as some non-EU countries, while students from developed non-EU countries usually pay double that amount. The reforms also separated the medical departments into separate medical schools, such as

9102-632: The highest ranking in Mathematics and in Arts and Humanities . In Mathematics it is placed 29th in the world according to the Shanghai-Ranking . In Arts and Humanities it is placed 35th and 54th in the world according to the THE and QS ranking respectively. Outstanding subjects include Geography (ranked 28th globally in 2013), Linguistics and Philosophy (both 46th globally) and Law (ranked 73rd globally). It

9225-462: The holder of a doctoral degree. These particularly referred to the ancient faculties of divinity, law and medicine, sometimes with the addition of music, which were the only doctoral degrees offered until the 19th century. During the 19th century, PhDs became increasingly common in Britain, although to obtain the degree it was necessary to travel to continental Europe or (from 1861) to the United States, as

9348-490: The law since the imperial times. The law was enacted by the second Brazilian emperor, Dom Pedro II, to attract more medics and lawyers from other countries in imperial times when there was very few practitioners of both professions in the country for the crescent population of that time. The law still is enacted. Canada lies somewhere between British and American usage of the degree and terminology of "doctor". Holders of research doctorates – PhDs and similar degrees – commonly use

9471-556: The licentia continued to hold more prestige than the bachelor's degree ( Baccalaureus ), it was eventually positioned below the magister and the doctorate , which became the only titles with which one could teach. The earliest doctoral degrees — in theology, law, and medicine — reflected the historical separation of university study into these three fields. Over time, the Doctor of Divinity has become less common, whereas studies in law and medicine have become more common. These areas were historically referred to as "philosophy" (used as

9594-458: The master's degree, writing a thesis , nowadays often a thesis by publication , and publicly defending the thesis. Customary doctorates do not exist even in the field of medicine: physicians hold the degree of lääketieteen lisensiaatti ( Licentiate of Medicine), and are referred to simply as lääkäri (physician); "tohtori" would be rustic or old-fashioned. A research doctorate in medicine, lääketieteen tohtori , requires further research work and

9717-569: The medical profession correctly use the title of doctor socially," but supports those who wish to use it in social contexts in the spirit of addressing people according to their wishes. Miss Manners has since softened her approach, noting in her The Washington Post column that there are two approaches: "having been earned, it should be used" and "that level of education being assumed, it need not be expressly mentioned"; while she maintains that everyone should be addressed according to their wishes, she no longer states that only medical professionals use

9840-593: The name "Alma Mater Rudolphina". After the Charles University in Prague (1347) and Jagiellonian University in Kraków (1364), the University of Vienna is the third oldest university in Central Europe and the oldest university in the contemporary German-speaking world; it remains a question of definition as the Charles University in Prague was German-speaking when founded, too. However, Pope Urban V did not ratify

9963-407: The name of the profession immediately after the name, by professionals who require a doctorate for their professional licence, such as psychology, and chiropractic, e.g. Dr X, psychologue or Dr Y, chiropraticien . Academic doctors, where the doctorate is not required to practice, bear the title only after their name; this is not abbreviated, e.g. M. Z, docteur en philosophie not M. Z, PhD In

10086-581: The nations and the faculty deans, as well as over the University Assembly, in which all university teachers participated. Complaints or appeals against decisions of the faculty by the students had to be brought forward by a Magister or Doctor. Being considered a Papal Institution, the university suffered a setback during the Reformation . In addition, epidemics, economic stagnation, and the first Siege of Vienna by Ottoman forces had devastating effects on

10209-444: The new Code, and some omitted the clause permitting the use of the title, confusion over whether lawyers could ethically use the title "Doctor" continued. The introduction of further professional doctorates in the US at ISCED level 7, the same as the MD and JD, has led to continuing debate about the use of the title by holders of such degrees, particularly in medical contexts. In 2018,

10332-779: The pages of the New Yorker , Time , the Saturday Review , and the New York Times ." In 1965, the League of Women Voters designated MDs "Dr." and PhDs "Mr." at a hustings in Princeton, leading to a letter of protest in Science ; it was reported that the League believed PhDs would be embarrassed by the title, and that etiquette writers differed in whether PhDs used the title. In 1970, reverse snobbism in

10455-460: The question – in states where this was adopted – in favour of allowing the use of the title. There was some dispute over whether only the PhD-level Doctor of Juridical Science should properly be seen as granting the title, but ethics opinions made it clear that the new Code allowed JD-holders to be called "Doctor", while reaffirming that the older Canons did not. As not all state bars adopted

10578-403: The right to use the corresponding title of the country in which recognition is sought." In Austria, the degree Doktor is granted to holders of research degrees (ISCED 8) with a denoting Latin particle being added ( Dr. techn. , Dr. phil. , Dr. rer. nat. , Dr.iur. , Dr.theol. etc.). Newer study programmes award a PhD , but these exist alongside the older degrees since many prefer obtaining

10701-407: The salutation (which is described as "informal"). The National Institutes of Health similarly use "Dr. (surname)" in salutations for people with an MD, PhD or DDS. They advise using full name followed by degrees in addresses, explicitly stating not to use the title "Dr.", although an example in the following paragraph does use the title rather than giving degrees. Most newspapers in the US follow

10824-408: The same manner as other professions. 2. The proper title protection and use of accurate credentials is appropriate in the clinical setting. 3. When being addressed or introduced as doctor in the clinical environment, it is responsible practice for all healthcare providers to clarify their professional role. 4. Patients, families and the general public have a right and expectation to be informed regarding

10947-536: The status of a full university. The first university building opened in 1385. It grew into the biggest university of the Holy Roman Empire , and during the advent of Humanism in the mid-15th century was home to more than 6,000 students. In its early years, the university had a partly hierarchical, partly cooperative structure, in which the Rector was at the top, while the students had little say and were settled at

11070-717: The surplus space was soon filled. Book storage space had to be extended continuously. One hundred years later, the complete library, including departmental and subject libraries, comprised more than 4.3 million volumes. Today, Vienna's University Library is the largest collection of books in Austria, still facing problems of space. In addition to the Main Library, which alone has to cope with an annual growth of 40,000 volumes, it includes three Faculty Libraries, 32 Subject Libraries and 26 Departmental Libraries. The University of Vienna, like all universities and academies in Austria, once featured

11193-450: The then 22-year-old Kurt Schubert, later acknowledged doyen of Judaic Studies at the University of Vienna, was permitted by the Soviet occupation forces to open the university again for teaching, which is why he is regarded as the unofficial first rector in the post-war period. On 25 April 1945, however, the constitutional lawyer Ludwig Adamovich senior was elected as the official rector of

11316-612: The three cycles of bachelor's–master's–doctorate across the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) is being carried out through the Bologna process , although not all EHEA member states have fully conformed to the 1999 Bologna declaration in favour of their own historic customs. With respect to the title "doctor", the Bologna process makes no prescriptions regarding the names of degrees nor the titles they may confer. However, under

11439-656: The title "Doctor" and are in direct contact with patients to clarify that they are not physicians and to "define the nature of their doctorate degree", while the American Osteopathic Association opposes the use of the title by non-physicians in clinical settings absolutely as (in their view) "such use deceives the public". Contrary to this, the Emergency Nurses Association has adopted as a position statement that "1. Nurses are entitled to have their educational degrees recognized and acknowledged in

11562-402: The title "doctor" in conjunction with professional practice. Some professionals earn degrees with the title of doctor but which are considered, despite their name, to be at bachelor's-level, e.g. DDS , MD , JD . In Ontario, registered naturopathic doctors may only use the title "doctor" in written format if they also use the phrase, "naturopathic doctor" immediately following their name, while

11685-466: The title "doctor". A number of regulated healthcare professionals can also use the title "doctor"; in Ontario these are limited by law (in the provision of health care) to physicians, dentists, optometrists, chiropractors, doctorate-level psychologists and social workers who are members of the relevant Ontario college. In Alberta, Registered Nurses or Nurse Practitioners with an earned doctoral degree may use

11808-428: The title and that dentists and veterinarians frequently did. The Etiquette of To-day , published in 1913, recommended addressing letters to physicians "(full name), M.D." and those to other people holding doctorates "Dr. (full name)", although both were "Dr." in the salutation and only physicians were explicitly said to include their title on their visiting card . By the 1920s there were a great variety of doctorates in

11931-528: The title correctly but instead acknowledges that the title has been earned by those with PhDs. The Emily Post Institute similarly advises that "Socially as well as professionally, medical doctors, dentists, and other professionals are addressed by, and introduced with, their titles. People who have earned a Ph.D. or any other academic, nonmedical doctoral degree have the choice of whether to use "Dr." both professionally and socially." Other advice columns have also noted that "it has become common to see someone with

12054-421: The title had been used by the public to refer to medics for generations and was used without any legal right by Bachelors of Medicine – the only obstacle to licentiates of both colleges doing the same was the prohibition in the physicians' bylaws. On this occasion the College of Physicians refused to act, but they did finally relent in 1912, removing the clause forbidding the assumption of the title of Doctor. This

12177-427: The title is not used for lawyers with JDs or people with honorary doctorates. Until 1989, The Washington Post used the title for "practitioners of the healing arts (including chiropractors and osteopaths) but not for holders of PhDs or honorary degrees", after which it dropped its use entirely. Some sources state that AP style allows the use of Dr. for holders of non-medical doctoral degrees as long as their speciality

12300-646: The title of "Professor" sometimes being substituted for those without doctorates, leading to a decline in the perceived value of that title. In the 1960s the inconsistent usage at American universities and colleges was mentioned in the New York Times Book Review and the editor of Science noted that: "In some universities, administrators call all Ph.D.'s 'Mister,' but students and colleagues call them 'Doctor.' Often, but not always, Ph.D.'s are 'Misters' socially. In industry and government, both socially and professionally, they are 'Doctors,' as they are also in

12423-668: The title of Doctor in countries such as Germany where this is strictly controlled. In the European Union, the title of doctor refers primarily to holders of post-graduate research doctorates, such as the PhD. In many European languages the term doctor is distinct from a medical practitioner, which can be referred to as e.g. läkare in Swedish, Arzt in German, dokter or arts in Dutch, or lääkäri in Finnish. Standardisation of degrees into

12546-552: The title of doctor even though, according to the Homeopathic Practitioners Ordinance 1983, they are only permitted to use "homeopath". Physiotherapy has no separate council and no act of parliament at present permits the use of the title for physiotherapist, but the High Court has given an interim order that permits physiotherapy graduates to use the title, pending the formation of a separate council. According to

12669-589: The title, but the Pharmacy Council of Pakistan (the regulatory body for pharmacists) and the Higher Education Commission permitting and encouraging its use. In the Philippines , titles and names of occupations usually follow Spanish naming conventions which utilize gender-specific terms. " Doktór " is the masculine form, which retains the abbreviation Dr. ; the feminine form is " Doktóra ", and

12792-2352: The university as follows: Some of the university's better-known students include: Kurt Adler , Franz Alt , Wilhelm Altar , Maria Anwander , Napoleon Baniewicz , Bruno Bettelheim , Rudolf Bing , Lucian Blaga , Hedda Bolgar , Michael Brainin , Josef Breuer , F. F. Bruce , Elias Canetti , Ivan Cankar , Otto Maria Carpeaux , Friedrich Cerha , Felix Ehrenhaft , Olga Ehrenhaft-Steindler , Mihai Eminescu , Stephen Ferguson , Paul Feyerabend , Heinz Fischer , O. W. Fischer , Ivan Franko , Sigmund Freud , Adolf Albrecht Friedländer , Alcide De Gasperi , Hilda Geiringer , Kurt Gödel , Ernst Gombrich , Franz Grillparzer , Karina Grömer , Werner Gruber , Karl Samuel Grünhut , Pamela Gutman , Hans Hahn , Jörg Haider , Friedrich Hayek , Leo-Ferdinand Henckel von Donnersmarck , Theodor Herzl , Anneliese Hitzenberger , Hugo von Hofmannsthal , Edmund Husserl , Marie Jahoda , Max Jammer , Elfriede Jelinek , Percy Julian , Karl Kautsky , Elisabeth Kehrer , Leon Kellner , Hans Kelsen , Hryhoriy Khomyshyn , Jan Kickert , Rudolf Kirchschläger , Arthur Koestler , Jernej Kopitar , Karl Kordesch , Arnold Krammer , Karl Kraus , Bruno Kreisky , Richard Kuhn , Hermann F. Kvergić , Paul Lazarsfeld , Ignacy Łukasiewicz , Gustav Mahler , Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk , Lise Meitner , Gregor Mendel , Karl Menger , Franz Mesmer , Egon Orowan , Franz Miklosich , Alois Mock , Wolf-Dieter Montag , Matija Murko , Paul Niel , Joachim Oppenheim , Eduard Pernkopf , Anton Piëch , Ioan Nicolidi of Pindus , Pope Pius III , Hans Popper , Karl Popper , Otto Preminger , Wilhelm Reich , Peter Safar , Monika Salzer , Mordecai Sandberg , Mordkhe Schaechter , Karl Schenkl , Max Schloessinger , Marianne Schmidl , Andreas Schnider , Arthur Schnitzler , Albin Schram , Joseph Schumpeter , Wolfgang Schüssel , Peter Schuster , John J. Shea, Jr. , Mihalj Šilobod Bolšić , Maria Simon , Felix Somary , Marian Smoluchowski , Adalbert Stifter , Countess Stoeffel , Yemima Tchernovitz-Avidar , Eric Voegelin , Kurt Waldheim , Calvin Edouard Ward , Otto Weininger , Slavko Wolf , Eduard Zirm , Stefan Zweig , and Huldrych Zwingli . Doctor (title) Doctor

12915-521: The university. In addition, the University of Vienna maintains facilities outside of Vienna in the Austrian provinces of Lower Austria , Upper Austria , and Carinthia . These are mainly research and experimental departments for Biology, Astrophysics and Sports. The University Library of the University of Vienna comprises the Main Library and the 50 departmental libraries at various university locations throughout Vienna . The library's primary responsibility

13038-543: The university. Of these, approximately 1,000 engage actively in projects financed by third parties. The main fields of research at the university cover a wide spectrum of subjects: Catholic and Protestant theology, law, economic sciences and computer science, philological-cultural studies and historical-cultural studies, social sciences and psychology, life sciences and natural sciences, mathematics, sports sciences, and teacher education. The University of Vienna consists of 15 faculties and 5 centers: The University of Vienna has

13161-410: The usage of the title by Ph.D. graduates has become common, its use socially by holders of professional doctorates (other than those noted) is neither explicitly endorsed nor explicitly discouraged by writers on etiquette. Miss Manners has, however, stated that a physician who has had their license revoked should be addressed by their former preferred honorific (i.e. not according to their MD degree). It

13284-660: The use of Doctor as a title has not been recognized by the Royal Institute of Thailand . Therefore, this title, in theory, cannot be used officially. For example, in court of justice where strictly formal Thai language is used, Dr cannot be mentioned as a person's title. The 'doctor' title is used by individuals holding a PhD degree. 'Doctor' is also used as a deferential title in Brazilian Portuguese. The title “Doctor” can also be used in Brazil to address medics and lawyers by

13407-653: The use of Doctor for those with doctoral degrees, breaking with the style recommended by the Canadian Press . Throughout much of the academic world, the term Doctor refers to someone who has earned a doctoral degree (highest degree) from a university. This is normally the Doctor of Philosophy , abbreviated PhD (sometimes Ph.D. in North America) from the Latin Philosophiae Doctor or DPhil from its English name, or equivalent research doctorates at level 8 of

13530-513: The use of the courtesy title Dr by physicians and general practitioners. However, surgeons do not use the title of Dr and, due to the origins of surgery with the barber surgeons , instead use Mr , Mrs , Ms , Miss , etc. This custom applies to surgeons of any grade who have passed the appropriate exams and is not the exclusive province of consultant-level surgeons. In recent times, other surgically orientated specialists, such as gynaecologists , have also adopted these prefixes. A surgeon who

13653-404: The use of the title "Doctor". Although lawyers in the United States do not customarily use the title, the law degree in that country is the Juris Doctor , a professional doctorate. Some JD holders in the United States use the title of doctor in professional situations, although ethics board decisions have varied on whether this is permissible or might mislead the public into believing the lawyer

13776-630: The use of the title by licentiates of the Colleges of Physicians – all of whom were, under the new act, allowed to practice throughout the UK. In 1859, the London College reversed its earlier decision, resolving "That the title of Doctor shall not be given in any official document issued from this College to any person who is not possessed of the Degree of Doctor of Medicine". This was followed up in 1860 by new bylaws that stated "No Fellow, Member, or Licentiate of

13899-573: The village apothecary and the farrier" and various "quacks in literature, science, or art". In the US it similarly became customary to use post-nominals rather than the title of Doctor when addressing letters. All those with doctoral degrees continued to use the title professionally and socially. Despite being historically associated with doctorates in law, the title of doctor for lawyers has not customarily been used in English-speaking countries, where lawyers were traditionally not required to have

14022-431: The world. Contracted "Dr" or "Dr.", it is used as a designation for a person who has obtained a doctorate (commonly a PhD ). In past usage, the term could be applied to any learned person. In many parts of the world today it is also used by medical practitioners, regardless of whether they hold a doctoral-level degree . The doctorate ( Latin : doceō , lit.   'I teach') appeared in medieval Europe as

14145-736: Was built between 1877 and 1884 by Heinrich von Ferstel . The previous main building was located close to the Stuben Gate (Stubentor) on Iganz Seipel Square, the current home of the old University Church ( Universitätskirche ) and the Austrian Academy of Sciences ( Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften ). Women were admitted as full students in 1897, although their studies were limited to Philosophy. The remaining departments gradually followed suit, although with considerable delay: Medicine in 1900, Law in 1919, Protestant Theology in 1923, and finally Roman Catholic Theology in 1946. Ten years after

14268-513: Was described in the American press as "the British apostles of red-tape have been forced to bow to the popular will". Regulation of the medical profession also took place in the United States in the latter half of the 19th century, preventing quacks from using the title of Doctor. However, medical usage of the title was far from exclusive, with it being acknowledged that other doctorate holders could use

14391-512: Was increased to 18, and the whole of the medical faculty was separated into the new Medical University of Vienna . The University of Vienna does not have one single campus. Historically, the university started functioning from the First District near the Jesuit Church. Now, the academic facilities occupy more than sixty locations throughout the city of Vienna. The historical main building on

14514-453: Was medically qualified or had a PhD. It is also sometimes used by JD holders in academic situations. In 2011, Mother Jones published an article claiming that Michele Bachmann was misrepresenting her qualifications by using the "bogus" title Dr. based on her JD. The article was later amended to note that the use of the title by lawyers "is a (begrudgingly) accepted practice in some states and not in others", although they maintained that it

14637-525: Was only in the mid-18th century that the Jesuits lost influence over the university and when Empress Maria Theresa ensured that the university went under the control of the monarchy. The university would later focus on the education of physicians and civil servants. Her successor Joseph II continued her reforms and further liberalized the university, abolishing official attire and allowing both Protestants and Jews to enroll by 1782, as well as introducing German as

14760-560: Was rarely used as it "suggests that you're a medical doctor or a Ph.D.—and therefore conveys a false level of expertise". Ecclesiastical seminaries and entitled churches award their own doctorates in the United States, e.g. the Doctor of Religious Science (Dr. sc. rel.), the Doctor of Divinity (DD), the Doctor of Biblical Studies (DBS) or the Doctor of Metaphysics (Dr. mph.). These titles are most commonly awarded to meritorious clerics for their outstanding work or another achievement in

14883-447: Was rejected. Then in April of the same year, the college amended its bylaws to forbid any fellow, member, extra-licentiate or licentiate from using the title of Doctor unless they had a doctorate in medicine from a recognised university – closing the loophole the BMJ had identified. It was not until the early 20th century that this was reversed. In 1905 the Royal College of Surgeons passed

15006-589: Was soon considerably extended. In contrast to its antecedents, the new library was open to the general public. Between 1827 and 1829, it acquired the classicist extension (Postgasse 9) to the Academic College, in which it was to be accommodated until 1884. In this year, the main library, with some 300,000 books, moved to Heinrich von Ferstel 's new Main Building on the Ring, where stacks for some 500,000 volumes had already been prepared. With an annual growth of up to 30,000 volumes,

15129-1309: Was the cradle of the Austrian School of economics. The founders of this school who studied and later instructed at the University of Vienna included Carl Menger , Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk , Friedrich von Wieser , Joseph Schumpeter , Ludwig von Mises and Friedrich Hayek . Other famous scholars who have taught at the University of Vienna are: Theodor W. Adorno , Alexander Van der Bellen , Manfred Bietak , Theodor Billroth , Ludwig Boltzmann , Ulrich Brand , Franz Brentano , Anton Bruckner , Rudolf Carnap , Conrad Celtes , Adrian Constantin , Viktor Frankl , Sigmund Freud , Karl Samuel Grünhut , Eduard Hanslick , Edmund Hauler , Jalile Jalil , Leon Kellner , Hans Kelsen , Adam František Kollár , Johann Josef Loschmidt , Franz Miklosich , Oskar Morgenstern , Otto Neurath , Johann Palisa , Pope Pius II , Karl Popper , Elise Richter , Baron Carl von Rokitansky , Rudolf von Scherer , Peter Schuster , August Schleicher , Moritz Schlick , Ludwig Karl Schmarda , Joseph von Sonnenfels , Josef Stefan , Olga Taussky-Todd , Hans Thirring , Walter Thirring , Walter G. Url , Leopold Vietoris , Carl Auer von Welsbach , and Wilhelm Winkler . There are total 17 Nobel Prize Laureates affiliated to

#807192