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71-647: Its members were the Imperial Estates , divided into three colleges. The diet as a permanent, regularized institution evolved from the Hoftage (court assemblies) of the Middle Ages . From 1663 until the end of the empire in 1806, it was in permanent session at Regensburg . All Imperial Estates enjoyed immediacy and, therefore, they had no authority above them besides the Holy Roman Emperor himself. While all

142-528: A conflict of loyalties. With regard to the reforms, there was therefore no united front or "kingdom against King". Berthold of Henneberg , the Prince Elector of Mainz , Archchancellor and spokesman for the Imperial Estates was a central figure at the diet. He arrived together with the king, who had confirmed and strengthened Berthold's position as archchancellor in 1494. During the negotiations he had

213-708: A local ruler, subject only to the Emperor himself, and managed to be accepted as third parties. Several attempts to reform the Empire and end its slow disintegration, starting with the Diet of 1495 , did not have much effect. In contrast, this process was hastened with the Peace of Westphalia of 1648, which formally bound the Emperor to accept all decisions made by the Diet, in effect depriving him of his few remaining powers. From then until its end in 1806,

284-399: A territorial entitlement, with the result that when a given prince acquired new territories through inheritance or otherwise, he also acquired their voting rights in the diet. In general, members did not attend the permanent diet at Regensburg, but sent representatives instead. The late imperial diet was in effect a permanent meeting of ambassadors between the estates. The role and function of

355-486: A territory attained the status of an Estate, it could only lose that status under very few circumstances. A territory ceded to a foreign power ceased to be an Estate. From 1648 onwards, inheritance of the Estate was limited to one family; a territory inherited by a different family ceased to be an Estate unless the Emperor explicitly allowed otherwise. Finally, a territory could cease to be an Imperial Estate by being subjected to

426-506: A total of 147 imperial estates were present, which accounted for nearly half of the total. The Diet of Worms was not an event in which there were clear battle lines between the king and the estates. Instead, the main problem, and the reason for the lengthy negotiations, was a lack of unity among the estates. At the Reichstag , the imperial estates were divided into in three curiae (see also: Landtag (historical) ). In each of these curiae all

497-656: Is likely that this system was first introduced under Emperor Sigismund , who is assumed to have commissioned the frescoes in Frankfurt city hall in 1414. As has been noted from an early time, this representation of the "imperial constitution" does not in fact represent the actual constitution of the Holy Roman Empire, as some imperial cities appear as "villages" or even "peasants". E.g. the four "peasants" are Cologne, Constance, Regensburg and Salzburg. The Burggrave of Stramberg (or Stromberg, Straburg, Strandeck, and variants)

568-535: The Holy Roman Empire needed an imperial reform . Opinions varied, ranging from the restoration of the absolute imperial power to an Imperial Government ( Reichsregiment ) of the electors. One of many proposals, for example, was the Reformatio Sigismundi . Almost all the reform proposals advocated an Eternal Peace ( Ewiger Landfriede ), as well as legal, judicial, tax and coinage regulations. From

639-492: The Holy Roman Empire . Even though several elements of the reforms agreed by the Imperial Diet ( Reichstag ) at Worms did not last, they were nevertheless highly significant in the further development of the empire. They were intended to alter its structure and constitutional ordinances in order to resolve the problems of imperial government that had become evident. During the 15th century, it became increasingly clear that

710-641: The Imperial Chamber Court and the Common Penny were the outstanding and defining results of the Diet of Worms in 1495. Due to their novelty at that time they were not able to be implemented immediately (or even at all), but at least the Eternal Peace and the Imperial Court laid the foundations of the present constitutional state. Considerably more important, however, were the less tangible results of

781-684: The Imperial ban (the most notable example involved Frederick V, Elector Palatine , who was banned in 1621 for his participation in the Bohemian Revolt ). In the German mediatization between 1803 and 1806, the vast majority of the Estates of the Holy Roman Empire were mediatised. They lost their Imperial immediacy and became part of other Estates. The number of Estates was reduced from about three hundred to about thirty. Mediatisation went along with secularisation:

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852-537: The Knights Hospitaller at Heitersheim . The Prince-Bishopric of Lübeck remained an ecclesiastical member even after it had turned Protestant , ruled by diocesan administrators from the House of Holstein-Gottorp from 1586. The Prince-Bishopric of Osnabrück , according to the 1648 Peace of Westphalia was under alternating rule of a Catholic bishop and a Lutheran bishop from the House of Hanover . Each member of

923-913: The Nine Years' War . In the War of the Bavarian Succession , the electoral dignities of the Palatinate and Bavaria were merged, approved by the 1779 Treaty of Teschen . The German Mediatisation of 1803 entailed the dissolution of the Cologne and Trier Prince-archbishoprics, the Prince-Archbishop of Mainz and German Archchancellor received—as compensation for his lost territory occupied by Revolutionary France —the newly established Principality of Regensburg . In turn, four secular princes were elevated to prince-electors: These changes however had little effect, as with

994-577: The Peace of Westphalia , religious matters could no longer be decided by a majority vote of the colleges. Instead, the Reichstag would separate into Catholic and Protestant bodies, which would discuss the matter separately and then negotiate an agreement with each other, a procedure called the itio in partes . The Catholic body, or corpus catholicorum , was headed by the Archbishop-Elector of Mainz . The Protestant body, or corpus evangelicorum ,

1065-668: The Perpetual Diet of Regensburg in 1663 did the Diet permanently convene at a fixed location. The Imperial Diet of Constance opened on 27 April 1507; it recognized the unity of the Holy Roman Empire and founded the Imperial Chamber , the empire's supreme court. From 1489, the Diet comprised three colleges: The Electoral College ( Kurfürstenrat ), led by the Prince-Archbishop of Mainz in his capacity as Archchancellor of Germany . The seven Prince-electors were designated by

1136-773: The Saxon Wars , a Hoftag, according to the Royal Frankish Annals , met at Paderborn in 777 and determined laws over the subdued Saxons and other tribes. In 803 Charlemagne, by then crowned as emperor of the Franks, issued the final version of the Lex Saxonum . At the Diet of 919 in Fritzlar the dukes elected the first King of the Germans , who was a Saxon, Henry the Fowler , thus overcoming

1207-818: The Wetterau Association of Imperial Counts and mergers within the Swabian , the Franconian and the Lower Rhenish–Westphalian Circles . Likewise, on the ecclesiastical bench, the Imperial abbots joined a Swabian or Rhenish college. In the German Mediatisation of 1803, numerous ecclesiastical territories were annexed by secular estates. However, a reform of the Princes' college was not carried out until

1278-702: The 1470s, in contemporary parlance these meetings were still referred to as Hoftage . Not until the decisions passed by this Reichstag did the term become common. If it is also assumed that it was Reichsversammlung (national assembly), it had been a long time since all the nobles and forces of the empire came together. Of the seven prince electors only five were in attendance; Bohemia and Brandenburg did not appear. In addition ten ecclesial and twenty nine secular princes were present in person, twelve ecclesial and secular princes had sent diplomatic representatives. In addition, sixty seven counts and free knights were present, as well as twenty four imperial cities . Thus,

1349-730: The Bench of the Rhine and the Bench of Swabia . Each of these had a collective vote. Similarly, Counts were grouped into four comital benches with one collective vote each: the Upper Rhenish Bench of Wetterau , the Swabian Bench, the Franconian Bench and the Westphalian Bench. No elector ever held multiple electorates; nor were electorates ever divided between multiple heirs. Hence, in

1420-510: The Council of Electors, each individual held exactly one vote. An example of this was when Charles Theodore , Elector Palatine, inherited the Electorate of Bavaria in 1777, the vote of the Palatinate was nullified. However, Electors who ruled states in addition to their electorates also voted in the Council of Princes; similarly, princes who also ruled comital territories voted both individually and in

1491-650: The Council of Princes. Votes were held in right of the states, rather than personally. Consequently, an individual ruling several states held multiple votes; similarly, multiple individuals ruling parts of the same state shared a single vote. These rules were not formalized until 1582; before then, when multiple individuals inherited parts of the same state, they sometimes received a vote each. Votes were either individual or collective. Princes and senior clerics generally held individual votes (but such votes, as noted above, were sometimes shared). Prelates (abbots and priors) without individual votes were classified into two benches:

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1562-483: The Diet of 1495. It heavily influenced the Diet both as a concept and an institution. For the first time, the nobles had gathered to make policy. Institutionalization and rule of law had been pursued, encouraging the development of the nation-state. Above all the king accepted the institution of the Diet as a powerful political tool. The Old Swiss Confederacy rejected the Imperial Tax and Imperial Chamber Court . This

1633-512: The Electorate itself remained officially Protestant and retained the directorship of the Protestant body. When the Elector's son also converted to Catholicism, Prussia and Hanover attempted to take over the directorship in 1717–1720, but without success. The Electors of Saxony would head the Protestant body until the end of the Holy Roman Empire. After the formation of the new German Empire in 1871,

1704-561: The Emperor's power were introduced. The creation of a new Estate required the assent of the College of Electors and of the College of Princes (see Reichstag below). The ruler was required to agree to accept Imperial taxation and military obligations. Furthermore, the Estate was required to obtain admittance into one of the Imperial Circles . Theoretically, personalist Estates were forbidden after 1653, but exceptions were often made. Once

1775-660: The Empire was not much more than a collection of largely independent states. Probably the most famous Diets were those held in Worms in 1495 , where the Imperial Reform was enacted, and 1521 , where Martin Luther was banned (see Edict of Worms ), the Diets of Speyer 1526 and 1529 (see Protestation at Speyer ), and several in Nuremberg ( Diet of Nuremberg ). Only with the introduction of

1846-512: The Empire's dissolution in 1806. The college of Imperial Cities ( Reichsstädtekollegium ) evolved from 1489 onwards. It contributed greatly to the development of the Imperial Diets as a political institution. Nevertheless, the collective vote of the cities was of inferior importance until a 1582 Recess of the Augsburg Diet . The college was led by the city council of the actual venue until

1917-492: The Estates for help on 24 April, the king reported that papacy and imperial crown threatened to fall into the hands of Charles VIII, and that 4,000 men had had to be urgently dispatched to Italy. The Estates, however, wanted nothing to do with any financial support to the king without a quid pro quo in the shape of reforms. On 27 April, Maximilian appeared at the Imperial Assembly ( Reichsversammlung ) and announced that he

1988-461: The Estates would have meant a voluntary disempowerment of the king and empire, entailing a transfer of imperial power to a council. However, this was a proposal that by no means would have produced a modern or democratic government, rather it envisaged the replacement of the monarchy by an oligarchy of electors. This had quickly become clear to the Estates, which is why the Imperial Government

2059-444: The Estates, by 28 June, the proposal for an Imperial Government was withdrawn by the electors and princes and the promised 100,000 guilders was granted. As a result, the key negotiations were saved and compromises were agreed in the following weeks on the other negotiating points or they were postponed to the next Imperial Diet . During July, the final texts of the reform laws were drafted and the closing festivities begun. After 26 July,

2130-527: The Frankfurt Election Day (1486) onwards, the Imperial Estates ( Reichsstände ) tried to make their support conditional on the emperor granting concessions over the Imperial Reform . Emperor Frederick III repeatedly rejected this in favour of the 10-year peace (1486) ordinance, however. Maximilian I , the Roman-German King and later Emperor , extended the peace on 10 May 1494 to 1499, which

2201-515: The French, which he saw as support from the Holy League of 1495 that he had backed. The Estates initially rejected this, even taking account of the nobles and ambassadors who had still not arrived. Instead, they proposed discussions about the reform of the empire. Since the king clearly wanted to press on to Italy, the Estates attempted to take advantage of his predicament for themselves in order to clarify

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2272-650: The Golden Bull of 1356: The number increased to eight, when in 1623 the Duke of Bavaria took over the electoral dignity of the Count Palatine, who himself received a separate vote in the electoral college according to the 1648 Peace of Westphalia ( Causa Palatina ), including the high office of an Archtreasurer . In 1692 the Elector of Hanover (formally Brunswick-Lüneburg) became the ninth Prince-elector as Archbannerbearer during

2343-705: The Historical Commission of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences started to collect imperial records ( Reichsakten ) and imperial diet records ( Reichstagsakten ). In 1893 the commission published the first volume. At present the years 1524–1527 and years up to 1544 are being collected and researched. A volume dealing with the 1532 Diet of Regensburg, including the peace negotiations with the Protestants in Schweinfurt and Nuremberg , by Rosemarie Aulinger of Vienna

2414-523: The Imperial Diet evolved over the centuries, like the Empire itself, with the estates and separate territories increasing control of their own affairs at the expense of imperial power. Initially, there was neither a fixed time nor location for the Diet. It began as a convention of the dukes of the old Germanic tribes that formed the Frankish kingdom when important decisions had to be made, probably based on

2485-518: The Perpetual Diet in 1663, when the chair passed to Regensburg . The Imperial cities also divided into a Swabian and Rhenish bench. The Swabian cities were led by Nuremberg , Augsburg and Regensburg, the Rhenish cities by Cologne , Aachen and Frankfurt . For a complete list of members of the Imperial Diet from 1792, near the end of the Empire, see List of Reichstag participants (1792) . After

2556-642: The Prince-electors. The House of Princes was again subdivided into an ecclesiastical and a secular bench. Remarkably, the ecclesiastical bench was headed by the—secular— Archduke of Austria and the Burgundian duke of the Habsburg Netherlands (held by Habsburg Spain from 1556). As the Austrian House of Habsburg had failed to assume the leadership of the secular bench, they received the guidance over

2627-404: The Princes' College held either a single vote ( Virilstimme ) or a collective vote ( Kuriatstimme ). Due to the Princes, their single vote from 1582 strictly depended on their immediate fiefs; this principle led to an accumulation of votes, when one ruler held several territories in personal union . Counts and Lords only were entitled to collective votes, they therefore formed separate colleges like

2698-457: The abdication of Francis II as Holy Roman Emperor the Empire was dissolved only three years later. The college of Imperial Princes ( Reichsfürstenrat or Fürstenbank ) incorporated the Imperial Counts as well as immediate lords, Prince-Bishops and Imperial abbots . Strong in members, though often discordant, the second college tried to preserve its interests against the dominance of

2769-448: The abolition of most of the ecclesiastical Estates. This dissolution of the constitution of the structure of the empire was soon followed by the dissolution of the empire itself, in 1806. Rulers of Imperial States enjoyed precedence over other subjects in the Empire. Electors were originally styled Durchlaucht (Serene Highness), princes Hochgeboren (high-born) and counts Hoch- und Wohlgeboren (high and well-born). In

2840-470: The chamber court and imperial taxes. The main point of dispute now was the Imperial Government, a subject with which Maximilian would not engage. As the Estates continued to resist the issue of support in Italy, Maximilian presented them with a counter-proposal on 22 June. Thus, although he offered an alternative to the reform plans of the Estates, which were not acceptable to him, at the same time he showed that he

2911-435: The college of imperial cities . Counts and nobles were not directly represented in the Diet in spite of their immediate status, but were grouped into "benches" ( Grafenbänke ) with a single vote each. Imperial Knights had immediate status but were not represented in the Diet . Imperial Estates could be either ecclesiastic or secular. The ecclesiastical Estates were led by: The secular Estates, most notably: Until 1582

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2982-604: The comital benches. In the Reichstag in 1792 , for instance, the Elector of Brandenburg held eight individual votes in the Council of Princes and one vote in the Bench of Westphalia. Similarly, among ecclesiastics, the Grand Master of the Teutonic Order held one individual vote in the Council of Princes and two in the Bench of the Rhine. The so-called imperial quaternions (German: Quaternionen der Reichsverfassung "quaternions of

3053-428: The court of the Emperor. These assemblies were usually referred to as Hoftage (from German Hof "court"). Only beginning in 1489 was the Diet called the Reichstag , and it was formally divided into collegia ("colleges"). Initially, the two colleges were of the prince-electors and of the remaining dukes and princes. Later, the imperial cities with Imperial immediacy became oligarchic republics independent of

3124-499: The different interests had to reach a consensus, then the interests of the three curiae had to be coordinated, and only then could they negotiate with the king. If a change was made during the negotiations, the curiae had to be informed. Some of the estates were very interested in the reform of the Empire. Others were, for various reasons, against the reform proposals, because they had to waive their privileges, or they did not feel their interests were sufficiently represented or they saw

3195-404: The dreadful news from Italy and reports by ambassadors of Holy League members, Maximilian could not persuade the Estates. The tone of the negotiations that followed intensified, and the king spoke bitterly of extortion. Smaller and larger concessions kept the negotiations going. On 1 June, the king was promised 100,000 guilders of emergency aid and they agreed in broad terms about the public peace,

3266-407: The early high medieval period under the Hohenstaufen , and they were finally abolished in 1180 by Frederick Barbarossa in favour of more numerous territorial divisions. From 1489, the Imperial Estates represented in the Diet were divided into three chambers, the college of prince-electors ( Kurfürstenkollegium/den Kurfürstenrat ), the college of imperial princes ( Reichsfürstenrat ) and

3337-417: The ecclesiastical princes. The first ecclesiastical prince was the Archbishop of Salzburg as Primas Germaniae ; the Prince-Archbishop of Besançon , though officially a member until the 1678 Treaty of Nijmegen , did not attend the Diet's meetings. The ecclesiastical bench also comprised the Grand Master and Deutschmeister of the Teutonic Knights , as well as the Grand Prior of the Monastic State of

3408-591: The eighteenth century, the electors were upgraded to Durchläuchtigste (Most Serene Highness), princes to Durchlaucht (Serene Highness) and counts to Erlaucht (Illustrious Highness). Imperial States enjoyed several rights and privileges. Rulers had autonomy inasmuch as their families were concerned; in particular, they were permitted to make rules regarding the inheritance of their states without imperial interference. They were permitted to make treaties and enter into alliances with other Imperial States as well as with foreign nations. The electors, but not

3479-437: The estates were entitled to a seat and vote, only the higher temporal and spiritual princes of the College of Princes enjoyed an individual vote ( Virilstimme ), while lesser estates such as imperial counts and imperial abbots, were merely entitled to a collective vote ( Kuriatstimme ) within their particular bench ( Curia ), as did the free imperial cities belonging to the College of Towns. The right to vote rested essentially on

3550-429: The final versions of the Eternal Peace, the Imperial Court, the handling of peace and war and the Common Penny were presented to the king. Last-minute corrections were made before, on 7 August, the official documents were published. First, it must be clearly understood that the German term for diet, Reichstag , had not yet been established at this time. Although, in hindsight, one can speak about Reichstage from about

3621-437: The imperial constitution"; from Latin quaterniō "group of four soldiers") were a conventional representation of the Imperial States of the Holy Roman Empire which first became current in the 15th century and was extremely popular during the 16th century. Apart from the highest tiers of the emperor , kings , prince-bishops and the prince electors , the estates are represented in groups of four . The number of quaternions

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3692-400: The king did not leave Worms until September, because the Imperial Estates did not want to embark on a campaign, but were interested in the reform of the empire. The course of the Diet can be roughly divided into three phases. After the emperor had opened the Diet, he pointed out to the Estates the dangers in Italy. He urged them to provide "urgent assistance" (so-called eilende Hilfe ) against

3763-442: The largely independent rule of the dukes over their respective territories, and also limited the number of electors to seven. The Pope, contrary to modern myth, was never involved in the electoral process but only in the process of ratification and coronation of whomever the Prince-Electors chose. Until the late 15th century the Diet was not formalized as an institution. Instead, the dukes and other princes would irregularly convene at

3834-454: The longstanding rivalry between Franks and Saxons and laying the foundation for the German realm. After the conquest of Italy , the 1158 Diet of Roncaglia finalized four laws that would significantly alter the (never formally written) constitution of the Empire, marking the beginning of the steady decline of the central power in favour of the local dukes. The Golden Bull of 1356 cemented the concept of "territorial rule" ( Landesherrschaft ),

3905-405: The old Germanic law whereby each leader relied on the support of his leading men. In the early and high Middle Ages these assemblies were not yet institutionalized, but were held as needed at the decision of the king or emperor. They weren't called Diet yet, but Hoftag ( court day ). They were usually held in the imperial palaces ( Kaiserpfalz ) . For example, already under Charlemagne during

3976-442: The only authority above them was that of the Holy Roman Emperor . They were thus able to rule their territories with a considerable degree of autonomy . The system of imperial states replaced the more regular division of Germany into stem duchies in the early medieval period. The old Carolingian stem duchies were retained as the major divisions of Germany under the Salian dynasty , but they became increasingly obsolete during

4047-456: The other rulers, were permitted to exercise certain regalian powers, including the power to mint money, the power to collect tolls and a monopoly over gold and silver mines. From 1489 onwards, the Imperial Diet was divided into three collegia : the Council of Electors , the Council of Princes, and the Council of Cities. Electoral states belonged to the Council of Electors; other states, whether ecclesiastical or secular, belonged to

4118-399: The question of reform. Negotiations with the Estates did not officially start until 7 April; because the Estates wanted first to discuss their desire for reform amongst themselves without the presence of the king. Meanwhile, the news from Italy deteriorated. The French had conquered the Kingdom of Naples , and there was alarm that they would conquer the whole of Italy. In a renewed request to

4189-401: The role of intermediary between the Estates and tried several times, when the diet threatened to collapse, to mediate and to make concessions to the king. At the same time he was one of the strongest proponents of imperial reforms. Because he campaigned strongly for the Imperial Government ( Reichsregiment ), Maximilian soon became suspicious that he wanted to use this route to set himself up as

4260-421: The ruler of the empire himself. What motivation Berthold of Henneberg had for his policies, is not clear, but he was known as a shrewd and influential politician, who advocated the reform of the empire throughout his life. The Imperial Government was the main plank of the reform plans put forward by the Estates and Berthold of Henneberg and, at the same time, the most difficult and contentious issue. The plans of

4331-451: The votes of the Free and Imperial Cities were only advisory. None of the rulers below the Holy Roman Emperor ranked as kings, with the exception of the Kings of Bohemia . The status of Estate was normally attached to a particular territory within the Empire, but there were some reichsständische Personalisten , or "persons with Imperial statehood". Originally, the Emperor alone could grant that status, but in 1653, several restrictions on

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4402-438: Was an unknown entity even at the time. The representation of imperial subjects is also far from complete. The "imperial quaternions" are, rather, a more or less random selection intended to represent pars pro toto the structure of the imperial constitution. Diet of 1495 At the Diet of Worms ( German : Reichstag zu Worms ) in 1495 , the foundation stone was laid for a comprehensive reform ( Reichsreform ) of

4473-467: Was connected by marriage. As a consequence the Turkish War became secondary, and Maximilian planned a campaign in Italy in 1495, which he wanted to be linked to his coronation in Rome. For these reasons, he set aside just two weeks for the Diet, hoping that the Imperial Estates (who appeared to be lining up with his ideas) would then set off on the march to Rome. After several delays, Maximilian reached Worms on 18 March. Contrary to his optimistic intentions,

4544-402: Was finally entering into the internal political debate and had set his plans for Italy to one side. At the end of June, Charles VIII withdrew again from Italy, thus easing the external pressure on Maximilian. Now he could concentrate on the negotiations which were nearing an end. Presumably under the influence of the Elector of Mainz , Berthold of Henneberg , the Archchancellor and spokesman of

4615-439: Was headed by the Elector of Saxony . At meetings of the Protestant body, Saxony would introduce each topic of discussion, after which Brandenburg-Prussia and Hanover would speak, followed by the remaining states in order of size. When all the states had spoken, Saxony would weigh the votes and announce a consensus. Frederick Augustus II, Elector of Saxony converted to Catholicism in 1697 in order to become King of Poland, but

4686-406: Was one of the reasons that led to the Swabian War in 1499. After the Confederacy's victory it was implicitly recognised at the Treaty of Basel that the Confederacy was exempted from the Imperial Tax and Imperial Chamber Court, without, however, having to leave the Empire. The Imperial Government promised in Worms was not actually called into existence until the Diet of Augsburg in 1500, but

4757-400: Was prepared initially to hold discussions about an Imperial Government ( Reichsregiment ), an Eternal Peace ( Ewiger Landfriede ) and an Imperial Court ( Reichskammergericht ), after which the questions of external assistance and imperial taxes were to be addressed. Subsequently, Maximilian asked several times for assistance in Italy, attempting to stir up fear of a strong France. Despite

4828-412: Was published in 1992. Imperial Estate An Imperial Estate ( Latin : Status Imperii ; German : Reichsstand , plural: Reichsstände ) was an entity or an individual of the Holy Roman Empire with representation and the right to vote in the Imperial Diet ( Reichstag ). Rulers of these Estates were able to exercise significant rights and privileges and were " immediate ", meaning

4899-515: Was seen as a signal of his willingness to reform. When Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor announced on 24 November 1494 that the Diet of Worms would take place on 2 February 1495, his focus was not imperial reform, but various foreign policy issues. Maximilian saw the war against the Ottoman Empire as his most important duty. In addition, Charles VIII of France had begun an Italian campaign in 1494, which threatened Pope Alexander VI , Imperial Italy and especially Milan , with whom Maximilian

4970-494: Was the toughest and most controversial part of the reform plans, and not just for the king. Maximilian put forward a counter-proposal that would have made the Imperial Government an advisory body like the Hofrat and a sort of representative body in the absence of the king. Since this was also not in the interest of reform-minded nobles, the Diet was only able to achieve success when plans for an imperial government were completely abandoned. The Eternal Peace (a ban on feuding ),

5041-399: Was usually ten, in descending order of precedence Dukes ( Duces ), Margraves ( Marchiones ), Landgraves ( Comites Provinciales ), Burggraves ( Comites Castrenses ), Counts ( Comites ), Knights ( Milites ), Noblemen ( Liberi ), Cities ( Metropoles ), Villages ( Villae ) and Peasants ( Rustici ). The list could be shortened or expanded, by the mid-16th century to as many as 45. It

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