Jura regalia is a medieval legal term that denoted rights that belonged exclusively to the king, either as essential to his sovereignty ( jura majora , jura essentialia ), such as royal authority, or as accidental ( jura minora , jura accidentalia ), such as hunting, fishing and mining rights. Many sovereigns in the Middle Ages and in later times claimed the right to seize the revenues of vacant episcopal sees or abbeys as a regalian right . In some countries, especially in France. where it was known as droit de régale ( French: [dʁwa də ʁeɡal] ), jura regalia came to be applied almost exclusively to that assumed right. A liberty was an area in which the regalian right did not apply.
72-430: It is a matter of dispute on what ground the temporal rulers claimed the revenues of vacant dioceses and abbeys. Some hold that it is an inherent right of sovereignty; others state that it is a necessary consequence of the right of investiture ; others make it part of the feudal system ; still others derive it from the advowson , or right which patrons or protectors had over their benefices. Ultimately, it had its origin in
144-457: A declaration extending the droit de régale to all of France. The Parliament was pleased, and most bishops yielded without serious protest, with only Nicolas Pavillon of Alet and François de Caulet , bishop of Pamiers , both of whom were Jansenists / resisting. They at first sought redress through their metropolitans, but when the latter took the king's side, they appealed in 1677 to Pope Innocent XI . In three successive briefs, Innocent urged
216-403: A letter in which he withdrew his imperial support of Gregory as pope in no uncertain terms: the letter was headed "Henry, king not through usurpation but through the holy ordination of God, to Hildebrand, at present not pope but false monk". It called for the election of a new pope. His letter ends, "I, Henry, king by the grace of God, with all of my Bishops, say to you, come down, come down!", and
288-561: A new pope, Pope Victor III . He owed his elevation to the influence of the Normans. Antipope Clement III still occupied St. Peter's. When Victor III died, the cardinals elected Pope Urban II (1088–99). He was one of three men Gregory VII suggested as his successor. Urban II preached the First Crusade, which united Western Europe, and more importantly, reconciled the majority of bishops who had abandoned Gregory VII. The reign of Henry IV showed
360-467: A number of vacant benefices whose revenues were going to the royal coffers. During the reign of Henry II of England (1154–1189), it had become an established practice for the King of England to take possession of the revenues of all vacant dioceses although he generally allowed a division of revenues between the actual monks and the abbatial office and did not administer or touch the monks' income. Revenues from
432-518: A papal banner and the distant blessing of Pope Alexander II upon his invasion, but had successfully rebuffed the pope's assertion after the successful outcome, that he should come to Rome and pay homage for his fief, under the general provisions of the Donation of Constantine . The ban on lay investiture in Dictatus papae did not shake the loyalty of William's bishops and abbots. In the reign of Henry I ,
504-549: Is found during the reign of Louis VII , when in 1143, Bernard of Clairvaux complained in a letter to the Bishop of Palestrina that in the Church of Paris, the king had extended the droit de régale over a whole year. Pope Boniface VIII , in his bull Ausculta fili , of 5 December 1301, urged Philip the Fair to renounce it but without avail. In France, the right did not belong exclusively to
576-517: Is often quoted with "and to be damned throughout the ages", which is a later addition. The situation was made even more dire when Henry IV installed his chaplain, Tedald, a Milanese priest, as Bishop of Milan , when another priest of Milan, Atto, had already been chosen in Rome by the pope. In 1076 Gregory responded by excommunicating Henry, and deposed him as German king, releasing all Christians from their oath of allegiance. Enforcing these declarations
648-595: The Concordat of Worms . The agreement required bishops to swear an oath of fealty to the secular monarch, who held authority "by the lance" but left selection to the church. It affirmed the right of the church to invest bishops with sacred authority, symbolized by a ring and staff . In Germany (but not Italy and Burgundy), the Emperor also retained the right to preside over elections of abbots and bishops by church authorities, and to arbitrate disputes. Holy Roman Emperors renounced
720-557: The Duchy of Saxony to Albert the Bear and that of Bavaria to Leopold IV, Margrave of Austria . Henry, however, retained the loyalty of his subjects. The civil war that broke out is considered the first act of the struggle between Guelphs and Ghibellines , which later extended southwards to Italy. After Henry's death (October 1139), the war was continued by his son Henry the Lion , supported by
792-1019: The Margraviate of Austria , Conrad was elected anti-king at Nuremberg in December ;1127. Conrad quickly crossed the Alps to be crowned King of Italy by Anselmo della Pusterla , Archbishop of Milan, in the village of Monza. Over the next two years, he failed to achieve anything in Italy, however, and returned to Germany in 1130, after Nuremberg and Speyer , two strong cities that supported him, fell to Lothair in 1129. Conrad continued in Lothair's opposition, but he and Frederick were forced to acknowledge Lothair as emperor in 1135, during which time Conrad relinquished his title as King of Italy. After this they were pardoned and could take again possession of their lands. After Lothair's death (December 1137), Conrad
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#1732868880853864-641: The Seljuk Turks at the Battle of Dorylaeum . Conrad and most of the knights escaped, but most of the foot soldiers were killed or captured. The remaining 2,000 men of the German army limped on to Nicaea , where many of the survivors deserted and tried to return home. Conrad and his adherents had to be escorted to Lopadium by the French, where they joined the main French army under Louis. Conrad fell seriously ill at Ephesus and
936-575: The Third Republic again asserted the right and overstepped even the limits of its former application. [REDACTED] This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain : Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). " Droit de Regale ". Catholic Encyclopedia . New York: Robert Appleton Company. Investiture Controversy The Investiture Controversy or Investiture Contest ( German : Investiturstreit , pronounced [ɪnvɛstiˈtuːɐ̯ˌʃtʁaɪt] )
1008-608: The jus regaliae over any diocese that was then exempt from it, and in 1499, Louis XII gave strict orders to his officials not to exercise it over exempt dioceses. Towards the end of the 16th century, the restriction of the Council of Lyons began to be disregarded, and on 24 April 1608, the Parliament decided that the king had the droit de régale over all dioceses of France, but Henry IV of France did not carry that parliamentary decision into effect. On 10 February 1673, Louis XIV issued
1080-551: The papal legate never to exercise the right of regalia beyond one year. With the exception of a few short periods, the right continued to be exercised by the English kings until the Protestant Reformation . The British Crown even today exercises it over the temporalities of vacant (Anglican) dioceses. In Germany Emperor Henry V (1106–1125), Emperor Conrad III (1138–1152), and Emperor Frederick I (1155–1189) are known as
1152-984: The Archbishop of York to collect and present all the relevant traditions of anointed kingship. On this topic, the historian Norman Cantor would note: "The resulting ' Anonymous of York ' treatises are a delight to students of early-medieval political theory, but they in no way typify the outlook of the Anglo-Norman monarchy, which had substituted the secure foundation of administrative and legal bureaucracy for outmoded religious ideology." Jus novum ( c. 1140 -1563) Jus novissimum ( c. 1563 -1918) Jus codicis (1918-present) Other Sacraments Sacramentals Sacred places Sacred times Supra-diocesan/eparchal structures Particular churches Juridic persons Philosophy, theology, and fundamental theory of Catholic canon law Clerics Office Juridic and physical persons Associations of
1224-488: The Byzantine Emperor Manuel I to discuss the problem of two emperors , and to renew their alliance against Roger II of Sicily . In 1150, Conrad and Henry Berengar defeated Welf VI and his son Welf VII at the Battle of Flochberg . Henry Berengar died later that year and the succession was thrown open. The Welfs and Hohenstaufen made peace in 1152 and the peaceful succession of one of Conrad's family
1296-587: The Church withdrew support. Henry IV spent the last years of his life desperately grasping to keep his throne. It was a greatly diminished kingdom. The Investiture Controversy continued for several decades as each successive pope tried to diminish imperial power by stirring up revolt in Germany. These revolts were gradually successful. The reign of Henry IV ended with a diminished kingdom and waning power. Many of his underlords had been in constant or desultory revolt for years. Henry IV's insistence that Antipope Clement III
1368-452: The Great (936–72), the bishops had been princes of the empire, had secured many privileges, and had become to a great extent feudal lords over great districts of the imperial territory. The control of these great units of economic and military power was for the king a question of primary importance due to its effect on imperial authority. It was essential for a ruler or nobleman to appoint (or sell
1440-593: The Holy Roman Empire. Gregory VII was meanwhile still resisting a few hundred yards away from the basilica in the Castel Sant'Angelo , then known as the house of Cencius . Gregory called on his allies for help, and Robert Guiscard (the Norman ruler of Sicily, Apulia, and Calabria) responded, entering Rome on 27 May 1084. The Normans came in force and attacked with such strength that Henry and his army fled. Gregory VII
1512-629: The House of Hohenstaufen in the Duchy of Swabia has not been conclusively established. As the name came from the Hohenstaufen Castle (built in 1105) Conrad's great-grandfather Frederick of Staufen was a count in the Riesgau and in 1053 became Swabian Count palatine . His son Frederick of Buren probably resided near present-day Wäschenbeuren and about 1050 married Countess Hildegard of Egisheim - Dagsburg from Alsace . Conrad's father took advantage of
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#17328688808531584-597: The Lenten synod of 7 March 1080 excommunicated Henry IV again. In turn, Henry called a council of bishops at Brixen that proclaimed Gregory illegitimate. The internal revolt against Henry effectively ended that same year, however, when Rudolf von Rheinfeld died. Henry IV named Guibert of Ravenna (who he had invested as bishop of Ravenna) to be pope, referring to Clement III (known by the Catholic Church as Antipope Clement III ) as "our pope". In October 1080, troops raised by
1656-668: The Saxons after the First Battle of Langensalza, he wore a hair shirt and stood barefoot in the snow in what has become known as the Road to Canossa . Gregory lifted the excommunication, but the German aristocrats, whose rebellion became known as the Great Saxon Revolt , were not as willing to give up their opportunity and elected a rival king, Rudolf von Rheinfeld . Three years later, Pope Gregory declared his support for von Rheinfeld and then on
1728-669: The Saxons, and by his brother Welf VI . Conrad, after a long siege , defeated the latter at Weinsberg in December 1140, and in May 1142 a peace agreement was reached in Frankfurt . In the same year, Conrad entered Bohemia to reinstate his brother-in-law Vladislav II as Duke. The attempt to do the same with another brother-in-law, the Polish prince Ladislaus the Exile , failed. Bavaria, Saxony, and
1800-638: The Staufen, also known as Hohenstaufen , and the heirs of Lothar III, paving the way for the rise to power of the Hohenstaufen Frederick I (1152–1190). At the time of Henry IV's death, Henry I of England and the Gregorian papacy were also embroiled in a controversy over investiture, and its solution provided a model for the eventual solution of the issue in the empire. William the Conqueror had accepted
1872-466: The Swabian ducal title. Their mother entered into a second marriage with Babenberg margrave Leopold III of Austria . In 1105, Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor since 1084, was overthrown by his son Henry V , Conrad's uncle. Emperor since 1111, Henry V prepared for his second campaign to Italy upon the death of Margravine Matilda of Tuscany , and in 1116 he appointed Conrad as Duke of Franconia . Conrad
1944-614: The actual vacancy of dioceses, not for a whole year, as he had done previously. After the death of Frederick II, the claims of the German Emperors to this right gradually ceased. The revenues of vacant dioceses in Prussia went to the succeeding bishop; in Bavaria , to the cathedral church; in Austria , to the "Religionsfond". Important regalia were the following: In France, the first mention of it
2016-414: The assumption that bishoprics and imperial abbeys, with all their temporalities and privileges, were royal estates given as fiefs to the bishops or abbots, and subject to the feudal laws of the times. At first the right was exercised only during the actual vacancy of a see or abbey, but it was later extended over the whole year following the death of the bishop or abbot. Often, the temporal rulers also claimed
2088-480: The complaints of medieval chroniclers. The income from the regalian right was an important, if irregular, source of income for the kings. At least in England under William II, there was a natural tendency to keep the more lucrative offices vacant longer than the poorer offices, thus allowing the royal revenue to be augmented. Although William's successor, King Henry I , said at the start of his reign that he would abandon
2160-600: The conflict between King Henry IV of Germany and the Swabian duke Rudolf of Rheinfelden during the Investiture Controversy . When Rudolf had himself elected German anti-king at Forchheim in 1077, Frederick of Hohenstaufen remained loyal to the royal crown and in 1079 was vested with the Duchy of Swabia by Henry IV, including an engagement with the king's minor daughter Agnes . He died in 1105, leaving two sons, Conrad and his elder brother Frederick II , who inherited
2232-399: The crowd erupted in anger. Henry took the pope and cardinals hostage until the pope granted Henry V the right of investiture. Then he returned to Germany—crowned emperor and apparent victor over the papacy. Henry's victory was, however, as short-lived as that of his father, Henry IV over Gregory VII. The clergy urged Paschal to rescind his agreement, which he did in 1112. The quarrel followed
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2304-457: The death of Lanfranc in 1089, kept the Diocese of Canterbury vacant for more than three years, during which period the king seized all the archiepiscopal revenues. William II was also known for keeping other bishoprics and abbeys vacant so that his own officials could administer them and keep the income for the king, although recent studies have shown that this was not quite as common as indicated by
2376-456: The elections of Pope Alexander II and Pope Gregory VII proceeded according to church rules, without the involvement of the Emperor. In 1075, Pope Gregory VII composed the Dictatus papae , though this was not published at the time, cataloging principles of his Gregorian Reforms . One clause asserted that the pope held the exclusive power to depose an emperor. It declared that the Roman church
2448-474: The empire. This combination of factors forced Henry IV to back down, as he needed time to marshal his forces to fight the rebellion. In 1077, he traveled to Canossa in northern Italy, where the Pope was staying in the castle of Countess Matilda , to apologize in person. The pope was suspicious of Henry's motives, and did not believe he was truly repentant. As penance for his sins, and echoing his own punishment of
2520-515: The exact practice prior to the Norman Conquest of England in 1066 is unclear, but for monasteries, it is likely that the bishop or the prior administered the estate, and that the revenues did not go to the king. Under King William the Conqueror , the record is also unclear, but the absence of monastic complaints suggests that revenues did not go to the royal treasury. It is first mentioned in connection with King William II of England , who, after
2592-554: The failed Second Crusade with Louis VII , where he would fight and lose at Doryleum and would later fall ill and return to Constantinople . After recuperating, he went to Jerusalem but would experience a string of failed sieges. Later returning from the Crusade, he was entangled in some conflicts with Welf VI 's claim to the Duchy of Bavaria. On his deathbed, he designated his nephew Frederick Barbarossa as his successor instead of his son, Frederick IV, Duke of Swabia . The origin of
2664-534: The faithful Pars dynamica (trial procedure) Canonization Election of the Roman Pontiff Academic degrees Journals and Professional Societies Faculties of canon law Canonists Institute of consecrated life Society of apostolic life Conrad III of Germany Conrad III ( German : Konrad ; Italian : Corrado ; 1093 or 1094 – 15 February 1152) of the Hohenstaufen dynasty
2736-584: The family may have established a proprietary church or abbey on their estate. Since a substantial amount of wealth and land was usually associated with the office of a bishop or abbot, the sale of church offices—a practice known as " simony "—was an important source of income for leaders among the nobility, who themselves owned the land and by charity allowed the building of churches. Emperors had been heavily relying on bishops for their secular administration, as they were not hereditary or quasi-hereditary nobility with family interests. They justified their power by
2808-651: The first to have claimed it. Frederick I exercised it in its utmost rigour and styles it "an ancient right of kings and emperors". King Philip of Germany reluctantly renounced it, together with the jus spolii to Pope Innocent III in 1203. Emperor Otto IV did the same in 1209. Emperor Frederick II renounced it to Innocent III first at Eger , on 12 July 1213 and then in the Privilege of Würzburg , in May 1216, and again to Pope Honorius III , at Hagenau , in September 1219. In 1238, he began to exercise it anew but only during
2880-509: The hands of the church, but of contested title. He would not interfere with ecclesiastical affairs and churchmen would avoid secular services. The church would be given autonomy and to Henry V would be restored large parts of his empire that his father had lost. And finally, Henry V would be crowned as the Holy Roman Emperor by Paschal. When the concessions of land were read in St. Peter's, however,
2952-432: The heat of exchanges between Westminster and Rome induced Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury , to give up mediating and retire to an abbey. Robert of Meulan , one of Henry's chief advisors, was excommunicated, but the threat of excommunicating the king remained unplayed. The papacy needed the support of English Henry while German Henry was still unbroken. A projected crusade also required English support. Henry I commissioned
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3024-547: The king but was exercised also by the Dukes of Normandy , Dukes of Brittany , Dukes of Burgundy , Counts of Champagne and the Counts of Anjou . Entirely exempt from it were the ecclesiastical province of Bordeaux , province of Auch , province of Narbonne , province of Arles , province of Aix , province of Embrun , and province of Vienne . The Second Council of Lyons (1274) forbade anyone, under pain of excommunication , to extend
3096-505: The king not to extend the right to dioceses that had previously been exempt. The General Assembly of the French clergy , held at Paris in 1681–1682, sided with the king, and despite the protests of Innocent XI, Alexander VIII , and Innocent XII , the right was maintained until the French Revolution . Napoleon I attempted to restore it in a decree dated 6 November 1813, but his downfall the following year frustrated his plan. In 1880,
3168-527: The nobility would have no part in the selection of popes (though the Holy Roman Emperor might confirm the choice) and that electors would be cardinals (which would later evolve into the College of Cardinals ) assembled in Rome. The bull also banned lay investiture. In response, all the bishops in Germany (who supported the Emperor) assembled in 1061 and declared all the decrees of Nicholas II null and void. Nevertheless,
3240-599: The nobles elect and crown his son Henry Berengar king. The succession secured in the event of his death, Conrad set out. His army of 20,000 men went overland, via Hungary , causing disruptions in the Byzantine territories through which they passed. They arrived at Constantinople by September 1147, ahead of the French army. Rather than taking the coastal road around Anatolia through Christian-held territory, by which he sent most of his noncombatants, Conrad took his army across Anatolia. On 25 October 1147, they were defeated by
3312-458: The office to) someone who would remain loyal. Problems with simony became particularly unpopular as Pope Benedict IX was accused of selling the papacy in 1045. Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor from 1046 to 1056, settled the papal schism and named several popes, the last emperor to successfully dominate the selection process. Six-year-old Henry IV became King of the Germans in 1056. Benedict X
3384-687: The old right of naming the pope. The Concordat of Worms in 1122 was the result. After the Concordat, the German kings never had the same control over the Church as had existed in the time of the Ottonian dynasty. Henry V was received back into communion and recognized as legitimate emperor as a result. Henry V died without heirs in 1125, three years after the Concordat. He had designated his nephew, Frederick von Staufen duke of Swabia , also known as Frederick II, Duke of Swabia as his successor. Instead, churchmen elected Lothair III . A long civil war erupted between
3456-659: The other regions of Germany were in revolt. In 1146, Conrad heard Bernard of Clairvaux preach the Second Crusade at Speyer , and he agreed to join Louis ;VII in a great expedition to the Holy Land . At the imperial diet in Frankfurt in March 1147 Conrad and the assembled princes entrusted Bernard of Clairvaux with the recruitment for the Wendish crusade . Before leaving, he had
3528-404: The practice of leaving ecclesiastical offices vacant to secure their revenue for himself, events soon required him also to exploit the regalian rights. Henry's most recent biographer, C. Warren Hollister , argued that Henry never intended to renounce the exercise of the regalian right, merely the abuses of it that William II was accused of by the monastic chroniclers. The Pipe roll from 1130 shows
3600-478: The predictable course: Henry V rebelled and was excommunicated. Riots broke out in Germany, a new Antipope Gregory VIII was appointed by the German king, and nobles loyal to Rome seceded from Henry. The unrest and conflict in Germany continued, just as under Henry IV. And the controversy with respect to investiture dragged on for another ten years. Like his father before him, Henry V was faced with waning power. Ultimately, he had no choice but to give up investiture and
3672-602: The pro-Imperial bishops of Northern Italy clashed with the pro-papal forces of Countess Matilda in the battle of Volta Mantovana . The pro-Imperial forces were victorious, and in March 1081 Henry IV marched from the Brenner Pass into the March of Verona unopposed, entering Milan in April that year. He then attacked Rome and besieged the city with the intent of forcibly removing Gregory VII and installing Clement III. The city of Rome withstood
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#17328688808533744-580: The regalian rights were normally paid into the Exchequer, who would record it on the pipe rolls. That the pope did not recognize the right is manifest from the fact that Pope Alexander III condemned Article 12 of the Council of Clarendon (1164), which provided that the king was to receive, as of seigniorial right ( sicut dominicos ), all income ( omnes reditus et exitus ) of a vacant archbishopric, bishopric, abbacy, or priory in his dominion. In 1176, Henry II promised
3816-476: The right to choose the pope. In the meantime, there was also a brief but significant investiture struggle between Pope Paschal II and King Henry I of England from 1103 to 1107. The earlier resolution to that conflict, the Concordat of London , was very similar to the Concordat of Worms. After the decline of the Western Roman Empire , investiture was performed by members of the ruling nobility (and
3888-537: The right to collate all the benefices that became vacant during the vacancy of a diocese, with the exception of those to which the cure of souls was attached. It is difficult to determine when and where the jura regalia was first exercised. In the West Frankish Kingdom , it made its first appearance probably towards the end of the Carolingian dynasty , that is, in the course of the 10th century. In England,
3960-450: The siege, but the Vatican and St. Peter's fell in 1083. On the outskirts of the city, Henry gained thirteen cardinals who became loyal to his cause. The next year the city of Rome surrendered and Henry triumphantly entered the city. On Palm Sunday , 1084, Henry IV solemnly enthroned Clement at St. Peter's Basilica ; on Easter Day, Clement returned the favour and crowned Henry IV as Emperor of
4032-462: The theory of the divine right of kings . Many of the papal selections before 1059 were influenced politically and militarily by European powers, often with a king or emperor announcing a choice which would be rubber-stamped by church electors. The Holy Roman Emperors of the Ottonian dynasty believed they should have the power to appoint the pope. Since the ascendance of the first of that line, Otto
4104-483: The unfortunate crusade, forcefully pursued his advantage and was duly elected king in Cologne a few weeks later. The young son of the late king was given the Duchy of Swabia. Conrad left no male heirs by his first wife, Gertrude von Komburg . In 1136, he married Gertrude of Sulzbach , who was a daughter of Berengar II of Sulzbach , and whose sister Bertha was married to the Byzantine Emperor Manuel I. Gertrude
4176-499: The weakness of the German monarchy. The ruler was dependent upon the good will of the nobility of his land. These were technically royal officials and hereditary princes. He was also dependent on the resources of the churches. Henry IV alienated the Church of Rome and many of the magnates in his own kingdom. Many of these spent years in open or subversive rebellion. Henry failed to create a proper bureaucracy to replace his disobedient vassals. The magnates became increasingly independent, and
4248-637: Was a conflict between the Church and the state in medieval Europe over the ability to choose and install bishops ( investiture ) and abbots of monasteries and the pope himself. A series of popes in the 11th and 12th centuries undercut the power of the Holy Roman Emperor and other European monarchies , and the controversy led to nearly 50 years of conflict. It began as a power struggle between Pope Gregory VII and Henry IV (then King, later Holy Roman Emperor) in 1076. The conflict ended in 1122, when Pope Callixtus II and Emperor Henry V agreed on
4320-536: Was a different matter, but the advantage gradually came to be on the side of Gregory VII. German princes and the aristocracy were happy to hear of the king's deposition. They used religious reasons to continue the rebellion started at the First Battle of Langensalza in 1075, and to seize royal holdings. Aristocrats claimed local lordships over peasants and property, built forts, which had previously been outlawed, and built up localized fiefdoms to secure their autonomy from
4392-437: Was elected king at Coblenz on 7 March 1138, in the presence of the papal legate Theodwin . Conrad was crowned at Aachen six days later (13 March) and was acknowledged in Bamberg by several princes of southern Germany. As Henry the Proud , son-in-law and heir of Lothair and the most powerful prince in Germany, who had been passed over in the election, refused to do the same, Conrad deprived him of all his territories, giving
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#17328688808534464-422: Was elected under the influence of the Count of Tusculum , allegedly by bribing the electors. Dissenting cardinals elected Pope Nicholas II in 1058 at Siena . Nicholas II successfully waged war against Benedict X and regained control of the Vatican. Nicholas II convened a synod in the Lateran on Easter in 1059. The results were codified in the papal bull In nomine Domini . It declared that leaders of
4536-413: Was forced to abdicate and was succeeded by his son Henry V , who had rebelled against his father in favor of the papacy, and made his father renounce the legality of his antipopes before he died. Henry V realised swift action and a change in his father's policy was necessary. Pope Paschal II rebuked Henry V for appointing bishops in Germany. The king crossed the Alps with an army in 1111. The pope, who
4608-447: Was founded by God alone—that the papal power (the auctoritas of Pope Gelasius ) was the sole universal power; in particular, a council held in the Lateran Palace from 24 to 28 February the same year decreed that the pope alone could appoint or depose churchmen or move them from see to see. By this time, Henry IV was no longer a child, and he continued to appoint his own bishops. He reacted to this declaration by sending Gregory VII
4680-401: Was from 1116 to 1120 Duke of Franconia , from 1127 to 1135 anti-king of his predecessor Lothair III , and from 1138 until his death in 1152 King of the Romans in the Holy Roman Empire . He was the son of Duke Frederick I of Swabia and Agnes , a daughter of Emperor Henry IV . His reign saw the start of the conflicts between the Guelphs and Ghibellines . He was involved in
4752-419: Was known as lay investiture ) despite theoretically being a task of the church. Many bishops and abbots were themselves part of the ruling nobility. Given that most members of the European nobility practiced primogeniture , and willed their titles of nobility to the eldest surviving male heir, surplus male siblings often sought careers in the upper levels of the church hierarchy. This was particularly true where
4824-400: Was marked out to act as regent for Germany, together with his elder brother, Duke Frederick II of Swabia. At the death of Henry V in 1125, Conrad unsuccessfully supported Frederick II for the kingship of Germany. Frederick was placed under a ban and Conrad was deprived of Franconia and the Kingdom of Burgundy , of which he was rector . With the support of the imperial cities , Swabia, and
4896-402: Was rescued, but Rome was plundered in the process, for which the citizens of Rome blamed him. As a result, Gregory VII was forced to leave Rome under the protection of the Normans, fleeing to Salerno, where he grew ill and died on 25 May 1085. The last words he uttered were, "I have loved justice and hated iniquity, and therefore I die in exile." Upon the death of Gregory, the cardinals elected
4968-402: Was secured. Conrad was never crowned emperor and continued to style himself " King of the Romans " until his death. On his deathbed, in the presence of only two witnesses, his nephew Frederick Barbarossa and the Bishop of Bamberg , he allegedly designated Frederick his successor, rather than his own surviving six-year-old son Frederick . Frederick Barbarossa, who had accompanied his uncle on
5040-498: Was sent to recuperate in Constantinople, where his host the Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Comnenus acted as his personal physician. After recovering, Conrad sailed to Acre , and from there reached Jerusalem . He participated in the ill-fated Siege of Damascus and after that failure, grew disaffected with his allies. Another attempt to attack Ascalon failed when Conrad's allies did not appear as promised, then Conrad returned to Germany, through Constantinople, where he met again with
5112-402: Was the real pope had initially been popular with some of the nobles, and even many of the bishops of Germany. But as years passed, this support was slowly withdrawn. The idea that the German king could and should name the pope was increasingly discredited and viewed as an anachronism from a by-gone era. The Empire of the Ottos was virtually lost because of Henry IV. On 31 December 1105, Henry IV
5184-516: Was weak and had few supporters was forced to suggest a compromise, the abortive Concordat of 1111 . Its simple and radical solution of the Investiture Controversy between the prerogatives of regnum and sacerdotium proposed that German churchmen would surrender their lands and secular offices to the emperor and constitute a purely spiritual church. Henry gained greater control over the lands of his kingdom, especially those that had been in
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