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90-539: Beginning in 1569, the viceroy Francisco de Toledo presided over the resettlement of about 1.4 million native people into approximately 840 reductions. The resettlement was carried out in the Royal Audiences of Lima and Charcas , modern day Peru and Bolivia , roughly speaking. The native populations, who had adapted to a way of life suitable to the many microclimates throughout the Andes, experienced immense hardship in

180-464: A Spanish accent; the stress in Quechua is on the first syllable). In his own writing, he signed with his Quechua name between his Spanish baptismal name, Felipe (or Phelipe as he spelled it) and the family name of a Spanish conquistador connected to his family history, Luis Ávalos de Ayala. Guaman Poma writes about the symbolism of all his names in his book. He seemed to consider the form of his name to be

270-418: A Spanish-style rural town. Each settlement was built with a quadrilateral, uniform street grid. Each reducción had a town square, around which were arranged the chief buildings: a church with an assigned priest, a prison, and a travelers lodge. They can best be described as a type of camp designed to model an ordered town. Special governors, under the titles of corregidores de indios , were appointed to oversee

360-406: A central Peruvian district. It is believed that the first time he left his hometown was when he served as an interpreter on the church inspection tour of a Spanish priest named Cristóbal de Albornoz, who was attempting to eliminate idolatry in the small Quechua towns. In the late 1580s to early 1590s, he was an assistant to Friar Martín de Murúa , another Spanish cleric. In 1594 he was employed by

450-413: A demand for thousands of laborers with much of the demand being filled by forced laborers. Potosi became one of the largest cities of the world with a population as large as London. The most important objective of Toledo's reductions was to facilitate access to Andean labor, especially for the mines whose revenues were important to the finances of the mother country of Spain. He worked hard to convert

540-583: A false religion.” Such paternalistic attitudes were common among Spanish authorities who perceived indigenous groups as volatile and prone to lawlessness if not placed under strict administration. In the later-published Comentarios Reales de los Incas , Inca Garcilaso de la Vega uses the same term "reducciones" to designate the villages conquered by the Incas which were loyal to the Inca empire. Many Spaniards viewed Christianity as an inseparable component of town building in

630-469: A heavily retouched facsimile edition was produced in Paris in 1936, by Paul Rivet . In 1980, a critical transcription of the book, based on an autopsy of the manuscript rather than on the 1936 facsimile, was published by John Murra and Rolena Adorno (with contributions by Jorge Urioste) as Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala, Nueva crónica y buen gobierno . A high-quality digital facsimile of the original manuscript

720-450: A league of their new towns, allowing them to farm nearby land without hardship or leaving their homes. Otherwise, lands would be used to compensate Spaniards and natives who had land taken for these relocations.” The main goal was to satisfy all parties, granting each group its due to balance Spanish interests in securing new possessions and indigenous interests in maintaining economic sustenance through traditional land use: “[…] leaving

810-476: A massive inspection of the Andean heartland from 1570 to 1575 and brought the entire viceregal court on the journey. Trekking through mountains in the central and southern highlands, he took detailed observations to legitimize his plan and motivated the inspectors and administrators of the project. The selection of “appropriate” sites for the reducciones usually fell within “areas of proven or potential economic benefit to

900-481: A new socioeconomic order in which their power was severely curbed by the violent coercion of Spanish forces. Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala , an indigenous chronicler in the early 17th century, recounts the changes due to the reductions in The First New Chronicle and Good Government . He notes that the local Andean agricultural system thrived based on plots cultivated according to the microclimates up and down

990-459: A policy called " reductions ", Toledo forcibly relocated many of the Indigenous peoples of Peru and Bolivia into new settlements in order to enforce their Christianization , collect tributes and taxes, and gather Indigenous labor to work in mines and other Spanish enterprises. He has been condemned for the reductions, expanding the forced labor demanded of the Indigenous peoples under the mit'a of

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1080-572: Is very significant. These findings were the basis of an exhibition and symposium at the Getty Center in October 2008. Guaman Poma notably attacks Murúa in his corónica , including depicting the friar's striking and kicking an indigenous woman seated at a loom. The depiction is entitled "The Mercenary friar Murúa abuses his parishioners and takes justice into his own hands." According to Adorno, "... when he became an author, after 1600, [Guaman Poma]

1170-697: The Inca Empire , and executing Túpac Amaru , the last Inca chief of the Neo-Inca State in Vilcabamba . Toledo held the position of viceroy from November 30, 1569, until 1 May 1581, a total of eleven years and five months. He has been praised as the "supreme organizer" of the immense viceroyalty, giving it a legal structure and strengthening institutions by which the Spanish colony functioned for more than two hundred years. Scholar John Hemming described Toledo as "one of

1260-589: The Patio process , a new method of purifying silver ore using mercury , was invented in Mexico. Toledo confiscated the mercury mines at Huancavelica for the Spanish crown and introduced the Patio process. He called it "the most important marriage in the world between the mountain of Huancavelica and the mountain of Potosi." Between 1571 and 1575 production of silver quintupled. The increase in silver and mercury production resulted in

1350-658: The Toledo Reforms . Toledo assigned Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa the task of writing a chronicle of prehispanic times in Peru by compiling information given by some of the older survivors from that time. Sarmiento's work is considered an invaluable source of information for that period. Toledo sent the account to the King, in hopes that a museum would be founded. He established the Inquisition in Peru in 1570. Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera founded

1440-637: The caciques or kurakas . Other than the often brutal demands of the Spanish colonists for labor and tribute, the Andean Indian cultures remained in many ways little changed from the days when the Incas ruled. Toledo conceived and implemented an ambitious program to "put down neo-Inca insurrection, strengthen colonial government and legal institutions, indoctrinate the native populace in Catholicism, and shore up faltering revenue streams" from mining. Following

1530-422: The fourth war against France . He participated in the battles of Gelderland and Düren. In 1556 took place the abdication of Charles I and his consequent trip to Spain, and on November 12, on the way to Monastery of Yuste , entered the castle of Jarandilla de la Vera , which was hosted by its owner, 4th Count of Oropesa, Fernando Álvarez de Toledo y Figueroa , who was the nephew of Francis and who also received

1620-452: The "best of Peru's viceroys", he is as often denounced for the negative impact his administration had on the Indigenous peoples of Peru . Toledo brought stability to a tumultuous viceroyalty of Spain and enacted administrative policies which changed the character of Spanish colonial rule and the relationship between the Indigenous peoples of the Andes and their Spanish overlords. With

1710-589: The 1560s to 1570s as a Quechua translator for Friar Cristóbal de Albornoz in his campaign to eradicate the messianic apostasy , known as Taki Unquy , from the Christian doctrine of local believers. Guaman Poma appeared as a plaintiff in a series of lawsuits from the late 1590s, in which he attempted to recover land and political title in the Chupas valley that he believed to be his by family right. These lawsuits ultimately proved disastrous for him; not only did he lose

1800-523: The Andean mountain range. Each microclimate and corresponding agricultural product contributed to the health and overall well-being of the Native American population. However, the reductions destroyed this "'vertical organization of farming.'" The people were torn from their established agricultural system and crops, and their familiar villages, and they were often relocated to different climate zones, requiring new crops and techniques. Poma also notes that

1890-459: The Andeans' livelihood and survival was often dependent upon their exploitation of several different environments at different elevations and characteristics, the so-called vertical archipelago . A primary motivation for Toledo's reductions "was to establish direct state control and facilitate the church's Christianization of the native population, while enhancing the collection of the tribute tax and

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1980-513: The Andes. The expedition was a failure and Toledo nearly died of an illness, probably malaria. In 1579 Francis Drake was ravaging the coast of Peru . Toledo sent a fleet of ships after the Englishman but failed to capture Drake and his galleon the Golden Hind who then went on to capture the treasure galleon Nuestra Señora de la Concepción . Afterwards Toledo subsequently built fortifications on

2070-498: The Crown”, which was often near mining zones and agricultural valleys. Toledo also developed an immense and thorough body of rules that would set the framework for the colonial ambition of reorganizing Andean society. Before the construction of the relocation towns, indigenous peoples throughout the Andes lived in small, localized and dispersed villages, which were difficult for Spanish colonial authorities to oversee. A primary motivation for

2160-513: The Getty and the other by a private collector in Ireland), these scholars proved that Murúa's chronicle includes illustrations by Guaman Poma. They concluded that he was one of a team of scribes and artists who worked for Murúa. While Murúa's project began sometime in the 1580s, Guaman Poma became involved only as an illustrator and only shortly before 1600. Still, his contribution to Historia general del Piru

2250-453: The I Duke of Alba de Tormes . The death of his mother would influence his disposition, making him serious and taciturn. His mother's aunts, Mary and Elizabeth, were responsible for his upbringing. At the age of eight he moved to the court of King Charles I of Spain , to serve as a page to the queen consorts Leonor and Isabel . He learned Latin, history, rhetoric and theology, fencing, music, dancing and courtly manners. Francisco de Toledo

2340-450: The Inca empire until the arrival of Francisco de Toledo as Viceroy in 1569, Spanish rule of the Andean population had largely been indirect. Except for Roman Catholic priests, Spaniards were forbidden from living among the Indians and the Spanish extracted tribute and labor from the Andean population through their indigenous leaders, the caciques or kurakas . Although the Andean population

2430-555: The Indigenous and provide them with religious training. He tried to adapt the political and social structures of the Incas to life in the viceroyalty. He also used the old system of mita , which had been a form of corvée labour under the Incas , as a form of forced native labor. Under his reforms of the mita, no more than one seventh of the male population of a village could be conscripted, they could not be forced to work far from their native villages, and they were entitled to compensation for their labor. These reforms later were called

2520-571: The Neo-Inca state as a threat to Spanish rule and embarked on a campaign to discredit the legitimacy of the former Inca Empire, the Neo-Inca state, and the Inca religion. In May 1571, Titu Cusi died suddenly. The Incas in Vilcabamba blamed a Catholic priest for his death and killed him. Tupac Amaru became the new emperor. The Incas killed several more Spaniards and Toledo sent a military expedition of 250 Spaniards and 2,000 Andeans to Vilcabamba to destroy

2610-447: The Neo-Inca state. The Spanish captured Tupac Amaru and other Inca nobles and after a brief trial Tupac was beheaded in Plaza de Armas of Cuzco on 24 September 1572. Toledo then continued his campaign to wipe out the heritage of the Incas by destroying religious relics and punishing other Inca nobles. "Toledo rightly saw that the Inca myth would be an inspiration to any rebellious Indians over

2700-529: The Order, as attorney general. Toledo became the fifth viceroy of Peru (which included at the time Bolivia ) in 1569. He was appointed viceroy by Philip II of Spain . Peru was the "jewel" of Spain's colonial empire. The conquest of the Inca Empire by Francisco Pizarro in 1532-1533 had given Spain enormous wealth, but Toledo inherited a chaotic situation. The problems facing Toledo included conflicts between and among

2790-575: The Spaniards content with secure estates and the Indians with funds for common needs, as they had enough land for their sustenance needs.” - Licentiate Juan de Matienzo , judge of Charcas . However, a controversial decision during his rule was the capture of Túpac Amaru I , the fourth and last Inca of Vilcabamba . After the Incas breached the Treaty of Acobamba , Francisco de Toledo sent an army led by Martín Hurtado de Arbieto to Vilcabamba, where Túpac Amaru I

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2880-421: The Spanish conquerors and the secular and religious authorities in Peru. Corruption by colonial officials was endemic. The Peruvian population of indigenous people, Andeans, had declined by about 75 percent (from 10 million to 2.5 million) from 1520 to 1570 due to conflicts and epidemics of European diseases. A rump state of the Inca Empire still existed outside Spanish control in Vilcabamba . Most seriously, from

2970-400: The Spanish judge of Huamanga who was in charge of land titles. In late 1600, however, all of his property was confiscated and he was banished from Huamanga, an event that led to his travels throughout the country and most likely to the composition of his masterpiece. The Huamán family was wealthy within the Inca Empire , both before and after the conquest. As used to be common, marriages among

3060-417: The administration of justice to protect indigenous people. • Gather indigenous populations into settlement towns. Fulfilling his duties, he left Lima on October 22, 1570, accompanied by his secretary Álvaro Ruiz de Navamuel and other knowledgeable men, including cosmographer and historian Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa and naturalist Tomás Vásquez. Later joined by Juan Polo de Ondegardo, Juan de Matienzo, and

3150-447: The allocation of labor." Toledo said the reductions would protect natives from "being exploited by local landowners and miners, harassed by the colonial judicial system, and deceived by a false religion." Spanish authorities perceived indigenous groups as volatile and prone to lawlessness and laziness if not controlled. Toledo's most important justification of the reductions was, as he told the king of Spain, that they would be located near

3240-547: The attention of the king, who Guaman Poma saw as the representative of God, and believed would not have allowed the injustices to occur had he known of them. The original manuscript of the corónica has been kept in the Danish Royal Library since at least the early 1660s, though it only came into public view in 1908, when it was discovered by the German scholar Richard Pietschmann . After many aborted facsimile projects,

3330-501: The book consist of Guaman Poma's full-page drawings). The work also includes his " Mapa Mundi de Reino de las Indias " (World Map of the Kingdom of the Indians), a cartographic representation of the Inca Empire drawn in the mappa mundi style favored by medieval European mapmakers, which placed Cusco , the ancient Inca capital, at the center of the world. Second, the manuscript expresses

3420-488: The challenging conditions he encountered with admirable dedication and patience, becoming the most impactful viceroy in Peruvian history . As a result, the general visitors, who were experienced in law, mediated disputes over chieftaincies, imposed fines on encomenderos and chiefs found guilty of mistreating natives, and enforced legal obligations. They also sanctioned indigenous disobedience and resolved land disputes, reflecting

3510-532: The city of Córdoba (in modern-day Argentina) on July 6, 1573. Tarija and Cochabamba (both in modern Bolivia) were founded in 1574. In 1574, Toledo accompanied a military expedition to the Chaco region in what is now southeastern Bolivia to repress the Eastern Bolivian Guaraní people who the Inca and Spanish called Chiriguanos (a pejorative name). The Guaraní were raiding Spanish and Indian settlements in

3600-540: The city of Huamanga, declared ownership of several cities for the descendants of the Huamán family as an Inca descendant. During the occupation by the conquerors, the Huamán family, being very extensive, were fiercely prosecuted, as the Spaniards feared the overthrow of the colonial government, the impeachment of the Hispanic occupation, and indigenous land ownership claims. For this reason, most of their wealth in gold and ornaments

3690-624: The coast for protection against pirates and also established la Armada del Mar del Sur (the Southern Fleet) under Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa in the port of El Callao . He built bridges and improved the safety of travel in the viceroyalty. The first coins minted for Peru (and indeed for South America) appeared between 1568 and 1570. The silver from mines at Potosí circulated around the world. Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala Felipe Guamán Poma de Ayala ( c.  1535  – after 1616), also known as Huamán Poma or Waman Poma ,

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3780-419: The colonial era, believing that it was necessary for the proper functioning of civilized urban life. This was based around the concept of policia , which portrayed an idealized civic life that extolled cleanliness, strict organization, and virtuous citizenship. Reducciones were, in large part, conceived within this philosophy. The structural layout of the reducciones was based on a common template, modeled after

3870-453: The coming centuries...but the mystique of the Incas was too strong to be rooted out by the determined Viceroy." The Incas had lost all power, but "the sentimental memory of the imperial past continued to flourish." Toledo accomplished three major tasks in the reorganization of the Viceroyalty of Peru: (1) the mandatory resettlement of Andeans into Spanish-style villages called reductions; (2)

3960-419: The construction of Villa Rica de Oropesa (modern Huancavelica ) and the consolidation of indigenous settlements. In Cusco from mid-February 1571 until October 5, 1572, he witnessed the grandeur of its architecture and population, aiming to restore Inca institutions and laws, recognizing their value and adapting them for governing indigenous people. He expanded settlements, distributed land ownership, planned

4050-521: The construction of churches, schools, and hospitals, and approved the creation of indigenous councils, allowing self-governance. He also addressed the situation of encomenderos (those collecting indigenous tribute), ensuring their duty to care for and instruct the indigenous people, provide education, and even cover service costs if needed. Thus, the viceroyalty established a stable legal framework that would endure for over two centuries. From Cusco , Álvarez de Toledo managed, administered, and transformed

4140-644: The corregidores, which made reducción governance less simple than Spanish authorities assumed. Though the caciques almost universally opposed the policy of resettlement, many of them took advantage of the opportunity to transition their positions of power into the reducciones and actively challenge Spanish authority. The movement into the reductions was highly disruptive on indigenous societies. Traditional family and kinship ties that existed for centuries were disturbed as small villages were forced to consolidate into poorly organized and often oversized settlements. This different living environment forced natives to acclimate to

4230-485: The creation of a reduction. However, concentrating the Andean population into reductions increased the incidence of disease and the population of the old Inca Empire continued to decline for at least another 50 years after Toledo. A report to the king of Spain in the 1580s said that "many of the Indians have died in the mines, in other labors, or from the recurrent epidemics; others have fled to escape their labor and tribute obligations." Mining, especially silver mining,

4320-423: The diminishing Indian population meant less labor and tribute, and civil and religious authorities were in conflict. The new Viceroy Francisco de Toledo aimed to reverse the fortunes of Spanish rule in the Andes and to "aggrandize Spanish power by consolidating viceregal rule and to revive the flow of Andean silver to the metropolitan treasury." In order to achieve these economic and political goals efficiently, one of

4410-439: The entire colonial period. Written between 1600 and 1615 and addressed to King Philip III of Spain , the corónica outlines the injustices of colonial rule and argues that the Spanish were foreign settlers in Peru. "It is our country," he said, "because God has given it to us." The king never received the document. The corónica is remarkable in many ways. First, it combines writing and fine line drawings (398 pages of

4500-484: The era. His artistic range, displayed in his nearly 400 drawings, was based on his experience gained while working with Murúa, but it also developed in new directions. He revealed a strong polemical and satirical bent that he directed against colonial abuses. "Although the evidence suggests that they worked independently after 1600, the efforts of Murúa and Guaman Poma can never be separated, and their talents, individually and together, produced three distinctive testimonies to

4590-542: The following years he continued to serve the imperial arms, but also participated in the diets, boards and councils. It was a very turbulent time, as well as the onslaught of the Ottoman Turks occurred progress of Protestantism in Germany, region under imperial orbit. In all this time Álvarez de Toledo was near the emperor Charles V. He met the Spanish negotiations with England to start a new war against France. He dealt with

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4680-522: The interaction between missionary author and indigenous artist-cum-author in early colonial Peru." Guaman means ' falcon ' in Quechua, and represented a "supreme existence" in the Inca society of his time. Someone with the "designation" of a falcon had the highest esteem among the Inca and preceding cultures. Poma meant ' puma ' in the Quechua dialect. In modern Quechuan orthography , it would be spelled Waman Puma . Other variants include Waman Poma, Huamán Poma, and Guamán Poma (the latter two with

4770-680: The issues of Hispanic America interested about the legal status that should have the Indians. He was in Valladolid when Friar Bartolomé de las Casas appeared before a board of theologians the text of A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies and knew of the writing of the New Laws of the Indies that caused such a stir in Peru . He left Barcelona in 1543 with the emperor, for Italy and Germany during

4860-428: The massive resettlement program "was to establish direct state control and facilitate the church's Christianization of the native population, while enhancing the collection of the tribute tax and the allocation of labor." Toledo further justified the reducciones under the theory that they would protect natives from “being exploited by local landowners and miners, harassed by the colonial judicial system, and deceived by

4950-563: The measures Toledo proposed was to relocate the scattered indigenous populations of the Andes into larger settlements, called "reductions." Early in his assessment of the Andean region, Francisco de Toledo idealized a universal resettlement to transform Andeans “from savages to men and from barbarians to civilized people.” The campaign that took place in the Andes was part of the larger reforms he had been conceptualizing since 1567 and consulting about with Spanish authorities. Toledo himself conducted

5040-399: The mines that were so important to Spanish finances. Toledo's plans envisioned 840 reductions with a total population of about 1.4 million Andeans, an average of about 1,600 people per reduction. Each reduction resembled a Spanish town with a main plaza and square and a regular grid of streets. Even the design of the houses in the reduction was dictated. They were, for example, to be open to

5130-477: The necessary investigations to uncover the truth, punishing the guilty, and adjudicating any indigenous lawsuits, whether newly initiated or pending before any courts." Over the five-year inspection, Viceroy Álvarez de Toledo traveled an impressive 4,971 miles, which he divided into two stages. The first stage’s route was Lima - Huarochirí - Jauja - Huamanga and Cusco . After two years in Cusco, he proceeded with

5220-557: The new sites were "sometimes set in damp lands that cause pestilence" (disease). Despite the exploitation and hardships that Andeans faced, many found ways to exercise their agency where opportunity presented itself. Poma took special pride in the cabildos (municipal councils), composed of natives in each reduction, and saw them as a path towards developing indigenous self-government. In addition, many Andeans were able to negotiate deals to keep all or some of their previous villages and farmland, which resulted in an ebb and flow of people from

5310-404: The numerous judicial records from local disputes, he demonstrated his pragmatism by burning all the files, considering them useless. He then constructed churches, rectified injustices, and worked to revive traditional Inca customs. On December 15, he entered Huamanga ( modern Ayacucho ), where he attended to various projects, including focusing on the famous Huancavelica mercury mines. He ordered

5400-545: The old ex monarch. The stay lasted until February 3, 1557, when the works in Yuste were finished, final resting place of Charles I. They both served him until his death in 1558. The following years were spent by Álvarez de Toledo in activities related to the Order of Alcántara. Between 1558 and 1565 he remained in Rome, where he participated in the discussion and definition of the Statutes of

5490-550: The organization of silver and other mines to obtain greater revenue; and (3) the imposition of a country-wide system of forced labor by Andeans. Reductions were a feature of Spanish colonies throughout the Americas and in the Philippines. In Peru prior to Toledo's Viceroyalty, Andean Indians mostly lived in small, dispersed settlements. The scattered settlements made it difficult for Spanish colonial authorities to impose their rule, but

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5580-531: The practical needs of the Andean peoples. He wrote that indigenous governments treated their subjects far better than the Spaniards and pleaded with King Phillip to appoint Indians to positions of authority. Although he rejected Spanish rule, he did not reject the Spanish king. During that time, monarchs were typically seen as descendants of God and being strongly Catholic , he held the Spanish monarch in high regard. In his writing, he not only proposed changes to society, but also sought to bring perceived injustices to

5670-482: The recommendations of the king, Álvarez de Toledo set out to visit the territories under his charge—a task never previously attempted due to the vast extent of the Viceroyalty of Peru and one that would undoubtedly prove arduous. This undertaking aimed to reshape the economy, territory, and Andean society within the Kingdoms of Peru and established the following objectives: • Develop a new tax rate ledger. • Strengthen

5760-430: The reducciones and were vested with authority. They were instructed to create cabildos (municipal councils) in the reducciones of common natives who were recruited from the general population. The effort to recruit commoners was meant to undermine the influence of caciques , the indigenous lords who still possessed power in Andean societies. However, many caciques used their knowledge and social capital as leverage against

5850-476: The reductions to the countryside. Some people managed to avoid Spanish detection and escape the reductions altogether to pursue radically different lives. Francisco de Toledo Francisco Álvarez de Toledo ( Oropesa , 10 July 1515 – Escalona , 21 April 1582), also known as The Viceroyal Solon , was an aristocrat and soldier of the Kingdom of Spain and the fifth Viceroy of Peru . Often regarded as

5940-765: The religious chronicler José de Acosta, these companions were general visitors who received orders and instructions aligned with these objectives and were empowered politically to intervene in judicial matters within regional locales to restore social peace following the turmoil of recent wars. These officials were tasked with curbing excesses in tribute rates (which powerful encomenderos , indigenous chiefs, and other figures collected illegally) and resolving disputes over land rights and cases of abuse against commoners and indigenous people , mediating or arbitrating where necessary. More specifically, they were instructed to act against anyone who mistreated or wronged indigenous people: "[…] in any way, to proceed against them, conducting

6030-421: The remote jungle city of Vilcabamba . Toledo initially hoped to lure Titu Cusi and other Inca nobles to Spanish authority by offering them estates and riches, but in the course of his investigations on the inspection tour, his opinion hardened. Toledo learned that the Inca Empire, and the emperor and his remnant state was still venerated by many Andeans and the Inca religion was still widely practiced. He perceived

6120-739: The ruling families took place in order for them to maintain political control. At the time, the Huamán ( Waman in Quechua, or Guamán in Spanish) were a family of warriors and landowners in several regions of the Inca Empire. They venerated the wild bird (similar to a falcon) that only lives in the highland regions of Peru, above 4,000 meters above sea level. Guaman Poma was related to Inca royalty through three family lines: Tarco Huaman Inca, son of Inca Mayta Capac, cousin of Cápac Yupanqui , and grandson of Lloque Yupanqui ; Huaman Achachi, brother of Tupac Inca Yupanqui ; and Inca Huaman Taysi, son of Inca Roca . In 1570, landowner Don Antonio Huaman Cucho, in

6210-566: The second stage, heading to Charcas Province along the route: Checacupe - Chucuito - Juli - La Paz - Potosí - La Plata . After an unfortunate expedition against the Chiriguanos in southeast Charcas, he returned to Lima via Arequipa and the sea. The lengthy inspection had notable events. Entering the highlands through Huarochirí on November 20, 1570, he arrived in Jauja, where he established new indigenous towns and resettlements. Shocked by

6300-601: The street to "minimize the danger that too much privacy would lead to idolatry, drunkenness, and illicit sexual intercourse." A priest attended to the spiritual needs of the residents. The leadership of each reduction was the responsibility of a Spanish style government, but the most important official of the reduction was a kuraka , an indigenous leader who had the responsibility of collecting tribute and laborers for mining and other enterprises. Toledo's reductions have been characterized as both mostly successful and as failures. Many towns in Peru and Bolivia trace their foundation to

6390-478: The suits, but in 1600 he was stripped of all his property and forced into exile from the towns which he had once ruled as a noble. His great work was the Primer nueva corónica y buen gobierno ( The First New Chronicle and Good Government ), a 1,189-page document written largely in Spanish, with sections in Quechua. His book is the longest sustained critique of Spanish colonial rule produced by an indigenous subject in

6480-501: The supremacy of order over chaos. There are tales among the Andeans that one day the "... Hawk will fly high, where the Sun surrenders ...". According to the mestizo writer Inca Garcilaso de la Vega , a waman is a type of hawk that can be found in the Andean region. See the Name section for more information. A handful of sixteenth-century documents attest that Guaman Poma served in

6570-479: The texts and concluded that he followed Murúa's work. A direct relationship between him and Murúa was confirmed in 2007–2008 by a project at the Getty Research Institute . The project's principal scholars included Juan de Ossio, Thomas Cummins, and Barbara Anderson, with collaboration by Rolena Adorno and Ivan Boserup. After comparing the two existing manuscripts of Historia general del Piru (one owned by

6660-564: The transition to life in these new settlements. Despite the hardships, they preserved by their own agency aspects of native Andean culture and life in the reductions reflected a complex hybrid of forced Spanish values and those preserved from the older native communities. Reducciones were not new to Latin America , and had been a Spanish policy in many other regions, starting in the Caribbean as early as 1503. From 1532 when Francisco Pizarro invaded

6750-541: The vast scope of social issues they addressed. Licentiates and professionals in judicial administration, including fiscal officers, judges, lawyers, and royal marshals, were often joined by armed men, such as captains and nobles, and local residents. In complex cases, they could redistribute land to concentrate indigenous people in settlements, with compensation requirements for affected individuals, primarily indigenous people with surplus land: “[…] ensuring that relocated indigenous people would not lose or forfeit lands within

6840-522: The view of a provincial noble on the conquest, whereas most other existing expressions of indigenous views from the colonial era come from the nobility of Cusco. Third, the author frequently uses Quechua words and phrases in this primarily Spanish work, which provided material for scholars to learn more about Quechua. Guaman Poma proposed a new direction for the governance of Peru: a "good government" that would draw from Inca social and economic structures, European technology, and Christian theology, adapted to

6930-436: The viewpoint of Spain, was that the production of silver , a major contributor to Spain's finances, was declining. Until the arrival of Francisco de Toledo as Viceroy, Spanish rule of the Andean population had largely been indirect. Except for Roman Catholic priests, Spaniards were forbidden from living among the Indians and the Spanish extracted tribute and labor from the Andean population through their indigenous leaders,

7020-579: The world's great colonial administrators". He also described him as "honest and honorable but cold and unfeeling...autocratic" and "with the temperament of an ascetic ." Francisco de Toledo was born on 15 July 1515 in Oropesa, Castile belonging to the noble family Álvarez de Toledo . He was the fourth and last child of Francisco Álvarez de Toledo y Pacheco , II Count of Oropesa , and María Figueroa y Toledo, eldest daughter of Gómez Suárez de Figueroa, II Count of Feria and María Álvarez de Toledo , daughter of

7110-632: The young Álvarez de Toledo passed through Rome, where king Carlos I defied Francis I of France , which triggered another war with that country (the third of the reign of the emperor), between the years 1536–1538. Following the signing of peace, Álvarez de Toledo returned to Spain and later went to Ghent , in Flanders . Once participated in the expedition to the Ottoman Algiers in North Africa, campaign which ended in failure due to bad weather (1541). In

7200-457: Was a Quechua nobleman known for chronicling and denouncing the ill treatment of the natives of the Andes by the Spanish Empire after their conquest of Peru . Today, Guaman Poma is noted for his illustrated chronicle, El primer nueva corónica y buen gobierno . The son of a noble family of the indigenous (but non-Inca) Yarowilca dynasty of Guánuco in the north Peruvian cordillera, he

7290-523: Was a direct descendant of the eminent indigenous conqueror and ruler Huaman-Chava-Ayauca Yarovilca-Huanuco. Guaman Poma was a fluent speaker of several Quechua and Aru dialects, and probably learned the Spanish language as a child or adolescent. He went on to become literate in the language, although he did not achieve a perfect grasp of Spanish grammar. He described himself as being "eighty years of age" in his 1615 manuscript, leading many to deduce that he

7380-468: Was born in the year 1535, after the 1533 Spanish conquest of Peru . The figure eighty may have been a metaphor for old age, and many other references in his text indicate a possible birth date of 1550 or shortly thereafter. The information known about Guaman Poma's life comes from a variety of written sources. Most likely, he was born in the Lucanas province or and spent most of his life in or near Huamanga ,

7470-528: Was defeated and captured. The last Inca was publicly executed in September 1572 in Cusco’s main square. This action, among other decisions by Francisco Álvarez de Toledo, fostered strong animosity against him from certain officials, priests, and encomenderos discontented with the viceroy’s reforms. When Toledo arrived in Peru in 1569, a Neo-Inca state with an emperor, Titu Cusi , still existed outside Spanish rule in

7560-417: Was devastated by the internal wars of Spaniards and Incas, the ravages of European diseases, and forced, brutal labor in silver and mercury mines, the Andean Indian cultures remained in many ways little changed from the days when the Incas ruled. By the late 1560s, Spanish rule of the Andes was in crisis. Both Spanish residents and Indians threatened revolt, production from rich silver mines had declined,

7650-407: Was fifteen years old when in 1530 King Charles I accepted him at home, accompanying that emperor until his last days in the most varied circumstances of both peace and war. This personal contact with the monarch, who adopted the prudent policy, " Machiavellianism " and the tendency to seek balances between his partners, would serve as a useful experience for further governmental work. In 1535, when he

7740-529: Was hidden and redistributed among their descendants. Most family members moved to different areas in Peru and Ecuador . The most prominent landowners were located in Pariamarca, Santiago de Huamán , Quito , and Huamanga. There is a tradition that says that direct descendants from the line of the ruling Inca Huaman are protected and secretly maintained to be ready to take over the Peruvian Empire and re-impose

7830-455: Was highly critical of a work by Murúa that he had recently illustrated. Guaman Poma was prompted to write his own account against what he understood to be Murúa's limited perspective, which he had encountered in the original manuscript of Historia general del Piru ." Guaman Poma wrote about Andean history back to the era predating the Incas. He also elaborated a long and highly critical survey of colonial society, unique among other manuscripts of

7920-481: Was published online in 2001 by the Danish Royal Library, with Rolena Adorno as scholarly editor. Twentieth-century scholars had often speculated that there was some relationship between Guaman Poma's corónica and Fray Martín de Murúa 's Historia general del Piru ( General History of Peru , 1616), assuming that Guaman Poma served as an informant or coauthor to Murúa. In 1967, Condarco Morales compared

8010-477: Was the most important economic enterprise of the Viceroyalty. A single mountain at Potosi in Bolivia produced an estimated 60% of all the silver mined in the world during the second half of the 16th century. A twenty percent tax on mining was a major source of revenue for the kingdom of Spain. Silver was mined at Potosí by Inca methods, but the purest silver was depleted by the 1560s and production declined. However,

8100-578: Was twenty, he was invested with the habit of a knight of the Order of Alcántara , a religious-military order, and years later was given to this corporation the task of Acebuchar in 1551. The first military action in which he intervened was the Conquest of Tunis (1535) , a great triumph of the imperial troops over the Ottoman Turks who snatched the plaza in North Africa. Following the emperor on his tour of Europe,

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