103-511: A recognized air picture or RAP is a (theoretically) complete listing of all aircraft in flight within a particular airspace , with each aircraft being identified as friendly or hostile , and ideally containing additional information such as type of aircraft, flight number , and flight plan . The information may be drawn from a number of different sources, including military radar , civilian air traffic controllers , and allied nations or multi-national organizations such as NATO . For
206-404: A combustion chamber , and accelerate the exhaust rearwards to provide thrust. Different jet engine configurations include the turbojet and turbofan , sometimes with the addition of an afterburner . Those with no rotating turbomachinery include the pulsejet and ramjet . These mechanically simple engines produce no thrust when stationary, so the aircraft must be launched to flying speed using
309-433: A lifting gas such as helium , hydrogen or hot air , which is less dense than the surrounding air. When the weight of the lifting gas is added to the weight of the aircraft itself, it is same or less than the mass of the air that the craft displaces. Small hot-air balloons, called sky lanterns , were first invented in ancient China prior to the 3rd century BC and used primarily in cultural celebrations, and were only
412-557: A catapult, like the V-1 flying bomb , or a rocket, for example. Other engine types include the motorjet and the dual-cycle Pratt & Whitney J58 . Compared to engines using propellers, jet engines can provide much higher thrust, higher speeds and, above about 40,000 ft (12,000 m), greater efficiency. They are also much more fuel-efficient than rockets . As a consequence nearly all large, high-speed or high-altitude aircraft use jet engines. Some rotorcraft, such as helicopters , have
515-488: A great deal of freedom of discourse and thought, which facilitated the growth of scientific advance , economic reforms, and achievements in arts and literature. Trade flourished both within China and overseas, and the encouragement of technology allowed the mints at Kaifeng and Hangzhou to gradually increase in production. In 1080, the mints of Emperor Shenzong had produced 5 billion coins (roughly 50 per Chinese citizen), and
618-617: A greater wingspan (94m/260 ft) than any current aircraft and a tail height equal to the tallest (Airbus A380-800 at 24.1m/78 ft) — flew only one short hop in the late 1940s and never flew out of ground effect . The largest civilian airplanes, apart from the above-noted An-225 and An-124, are the Airbus Beluga cargo transport derivative of the Airbus A300 jet airliner, the Boeing Dreamlifter cargo transport derivative of
721-622: A marginal case. The forerunner of the fixed-wing aircraft is the kite . Whereas a fixed-wing aircraft relies on its forward speed to create airflow over the wings, a kite is tethered to the ground and relies on the wind blowing over its wings to provide lift. Kites were the first kind of aircraft to fly and were invented in China around 500 BC. Much aerodynamic research was done with kites before test aircraft, wind tunnels , and computer modelling programs became available. The first heavier-than-air craft capable of controlled free-flight were gliders . A glider designed by George Cayley carried out
824-772: A maximum loaded weight of 550–700 t (1,210,000–1,540,000 lb), it was also the heaviest aircraft built to date. It could cruise at 500 mph (800 km/h; 430 kn). The aircraft was destroyed during the Russo-Ukrainian War . The largest military airplanes are the Ukrainian Antonov An-124 Ruslan (world's second-largest airplane, also used as a civilian transport), and American Lockheed C-5 Galaxy transport, weighing, loaded, over 380 t (840,000 lb). The 8-engine, piston/propeller Hughes H-4 Hercules "Spruce Goose" — an American World War II wooden flying boat transport with
927-560: A payload of up to 22,050 lb (10,000 kg). The largest aircraft by weight and largest regular fixed-wing aircraft ever built, as of 2016 , was the Antonov An-225 Mriya . That Soviet-built ( Ukrainian SSR ) six-engine transport of the 1980s was 84 m (276 ft) long, with an 88 m (289 ft) wingspan. It holds the world payload record, after transporting 428,834 lb (194,516 kg) of goods, and has flown 100 t (220,000 lb) loads commercially. With
1030-583: A powered "tug" aircraft. For a glider to maintain its forward air speed and lift, it must descend in relation to the air (but not necessarily in relation to the ground). Many gliders can "soar", i.e. , gain height from updrafts such as thermal currents. The first practical, controllable example was designed and built by the British scientist and pioneer George Cayley , whom many recognise as the first aeronautical engineer. Common examples of gliders are sailplanes , hang gliders and paragliders . Balloons drift with
1133-491: A powered rotary wing or rotor , where the rotor disc can be angled slightly forward so that a proportion of its lift is directed forwards. The rotor may, like a propeller, be powered by a variety of methods such as a piston engine or turbine. Experiments have also used jet nozzles at the rotor blade tips . Aircraft are designed according to many factors such as customer and manufacturer demand, safety protocols and physical and economic constraints. For many types of aircraft
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#17330844914731236-432: A replica of the instrument. The mechanical engineer Ma Jun (c. 200–265 AD) was another impressive figure from ancient China. Ma Jun improved the design of the silk loom , designed mechanical chain pumps to irrigate palatial gardens, and created a large and intricate mechanical puppet theatre for Emperor Ming of Wei , which was operated by a large hidden waterwheel . However, Ma Jun's most impressive invention
1339-577: A rigid basket or gondola slung below it to carry its payload. Early aircraft, including airships , often employed flexible doped aircraft fabric covering to give a reasonably smooth aeroshell stretched over a rigid frame. Later aircraft employed semi- monocoque techniques, where the skin of the aircraft is stiff enough to share much of the flight loads. In a true monocoque design there is no internal structure left. The key structural parts of an aircraft depend on what type it is. Lighter-than-air types are characterised by one or more gasbags, typically with
1442-529: A substitute for charcoal. Although hydraulic-powered bellows for heating the blast furnace had been written of since Du Shi 's (d. 38) invention of the 1st century CE, the first known drawn and printed illustration of it in operation is found in a book written in 1313 by Wang Zhen (fl. 1290–1333). Qin Jiushao (c. 1202–1261) was the first to introduce the zero symbol into Chinese mathematics. Before this innovation, blank spaces were used instead of zeros in
1545-420: A supporting structure of flexible cables or a rigid framework called its hull. Other elements such as engines or a gondola may also be attached to the supporting structure. Heavier-than-air types are characterised by one or more wings and a central fuselage . The fuselage typically also carries a tail or empennage for stability and control, and an undercarriage for takeoff and landing. Engines may be located on
1648-562: A vast array of mental tools for understanding the physical universe, including the Euclidean geometry that made planetary motion comprehensible." Another expert quoted by Woods said the scientific revolution brought by the Jesuits coincided with a time when science was at a very low level in China: [The Jesuits] made efforts to translate western mathematical and astronomical works into Chinese and aroused
1751-439: A waterproof cream for the silk garments of underwater divers, and a cream specifically used for polishing mirrors. The significant change that distinguished Medieval warfare to early Modern warfare was the use of gunpowder weaponry in battle. A 10th-century silken banner from Dunhuang portrays the first artistic depiction of a fire lance , a prototype of the gun. The Wujing Zongyao military manuscript of 1044 listed
1854-517: Is a lifting body , which has no wings, though it may have small stabilizing and control surfaces. Wing-in-ground-effect vehicles are generally not considered aircraft. They "fly" efficiently close to the surface of the ground or water, like conventional aircraft during takeoff. An example is the Russian ekranoplan nicknamed the " Caspian Sea Monster ". Man-powered aircraft also rely on ground effect to remain airborne with minimal pilot power, but this
1957-437: Is a powered one. A powered, steerable aerostat is called a dirigible . Sometimes this term is applied only to non-rigid balloons, and sometimes dirigible balloon is regarded as the definition of an airship (which may then be rigid or non-rigid). Non-rigid dirigibles are characterized by a moderately aerodynamic gasbag with stabilizing fins at the back. These soon became known as blimps . During World War II , this shape
2060-724: Is also often designated as a possible intermediary in the transmission of gunpowder know-how between the East and the West. The compass is often said to have been introduced by the Master of the Knights Templar Pierre de Montaigu between 1219 and 1223, from one of his travels to visit the Mongols in Persia . Chinese and Arabic astronomy intermingled under Mongol rule. Muslim astronomers worked in
2163-478: Is called aviation . The science of aviation, including designing and building aircraft, is called aeronautics . Crewed aircraft are flown by an onboard pilot , whereas unmanned aerial vehicles may be remotely controlled or self-controlled by onboard computers . Aircraft may be classified by different criteria, such as lift type, aircraft propulsion (if any), usage and others. Flying model craft and stories of manned flight go back many centuries; however,
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#17330844914732266-1317: Is normally called the powerplant , and includes engine or motor , propeller or rotor , (if any), jet nozzles and thrust reversers (if any), and accessories essential to the functioning of the engine or motor (e.g.: starter , ignition system , intake system , exhaust system , fuel system , lubrication system, engine cooling system , and engine controls ). Powered aircraft are typically powered by internal combustion engines ( piston or turbine ) burning fossil fuels —typically gasoline ( avgas ) or jet fuel . A very few are powered by rocket power , ramjet propulsion, or by electric motors , or by internal combustion engines of other types, or using other fuels. A very few have been powered, for short flights, by human muscle energy (e.g.: Gossamer Condor ). The avionics comprise any electronic aircraft flight control systems and related equipment, including electronic cockpit instrumentation, navigation, radar , monitoring, and communications systems . History of science and technology in China#Han dynasty Ancient Chinese scientists and engineers made significant scientific innovations, findings and technological advances across various scientific disciplines including
2369-452: Is only because they are so underpowered—in fact, the airframe is capable of flying higher. Rotorcraft, or rotary-wing aircraft, use a spinning rotor with aerofoil cross-section blades (a rotary wing ) to provide lift. Types include helicopters , autogyros , and various hybrids such as gyrodynes and compound rotorcraft. Helicopters have a rotor turned by an engine-driven shaft. The rotor pushes air downward to create lift. By tilting
2472-623: Is stored in tanks, usually in the wings but larger aircraft also have additional fuel tanks in the fuselage . Propeller aircraft use one or more propellers (airscrews) to create thrust in a forward direction. The propeller is usually mounted in front of the power source in tractor configuration but can be mounted behind in pusher configuration . Variations of propeller layout include contra-rotating propellers and ducted fans . Many kinds of power plant have been used to drive propellers. Early airships used man power or steam engines . The more practical internal combustion piston engine
2575-465: Is the Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird , a U.S. reconnaissance jet fixed-wing aircraft, having reached 3,530 km/h (2,193 mph) on 28 July 1976. Gliders are heavier-than-air aircraft that do not employ propulsion once airborne. Take-off may be by launching forward and downward from a high location, or by pulling into the air on a tow-line, either by a ground-based winch or vehicle, or by
2678-619: The Bell Boeing V-22 Osprey ), tiltwing , tail-sitter , and coleopter aircraft have their rotors/ propellers horizontal for vertical flight and vertical for forward flight. The smallest aircraft are toys/recreational items, and nano aircraft . The largest aircraft by dimensions and volume (as of 2016) is the 302 ft (92 m) long British Airlander 10 , a hybrid blimp, with helicopter and fixed-wing features, and reportedly capable of speeds up to 90 mph (140 km/h; 78 kn), and an airborne endurance of two weeks with
2781-682: The Boeing 747 jet airliner/transport (the 747-200B was, at its creation in the 1960s, the heaviest aircraft ever built, with a maximum weight of over 400 t (880,000 lb)), and the double-decker Airbus A380 "super-jumbo" jet airliner (the world's largest passenger airliner). The fastest fixed-wing aircraft and fastest glider, is the Space Shuttle , which re-entered the atmosphere at nearly Mach 25 or 17,500 mph (28,200 km/h) The fastest recorded powered aircraft flight and fastest recorded aircraft flight of an air-breathing powered aircraft
2884-447: The Bogutu archaeological catalogue compiled during the latter half of Huizong's reign (1100–1125). In addition to his studies in meteorology, astronomy, and archaeology mentioned above, Shen Kuo also made hypotheses in regards to geology and climatology in his Dream Pool Essays of 1088, specifically his claims regarding geomorphology and climate change . Shen believed that land
2987-524: The Concordance and Discordant Canons by Gratian of Bologna ( fl. 12th century). This drawback to Chinese science was lamented even by the mathematician Yang Hui (1238–1298), who criticized earlier mathematicians such as Li Chunfeng (602–670) who were content with using methods without working out their theoretical origins or principle, stating: The men of old changed the name of their methods from problem to problem, so that as no specific explanation
3090-641: The Greek Eratosthenes ), and catalogued 2,500 stars and over 100 constellations. In 132, he invented the first seismological detector , called the " Houfeng Didong Yi " ("Instrument for inquiring into the wind and the shaking of the earth"). According to the History of Later Han Dynasty (25–220 AD), this seismograph was an urn-like instrument, which would drop one of eight balls to indicate when and in which direction an earthquake had occurred. On June 13, 2005, Chinese seismologists announced that they had created
3193-628: The Harrier jump jet and Lockheed Martin F-35B take off and land vertically using powered lift and transfer to aerodynamic lift in steady flight. A pure rocket is not usually regarded as an aerodyne because its flight does not depend on interaction with the air at all (and thus can even fly in the vacuum of outer space ); however, many aerodynamic lift vehicles have been powered or assisted by rocket motors. Rocket-powered missiles that obtain aerodynamic lift at very high speed due to airflow over their bodies are
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3296-579: The Jin dynasty , conclusively recorded the chemical reactions caused when saltpetre, pine resin and charcoal were heated together, in Book of the Master of the Preservations of Solidarity . Another early record of gunpowder, a Chinese book from c. 850 AD, indicates: Some have heated together sulfur , realgar and saltpeter with honey ; smoke and flames result, so that their hands and faces have been burnt, and even
3399-732: The United States and Canada , the Recognized Air Picture is maintained continuously by NORAD at Peterson Air Force Base (with Cheyenne Mountain Complex as a warm standby). In the United Kingdom , it is maintained by the United Kingdom Combined Air Operations Centre at RAF Air Command at RAF High Wycombe . For the rest of Europe , NATO has an Air Command and Control System program underway to unify
3502-500: The Yuan dynasty saw technological advances from an economic perspective, with the first mass production of paper banknotes by Kublai Khan in the 13th century. Numerous contacts between Europe and the Mongols occurred in the 13th century, particularly through the unstable Franco-Mongol alliance . Chinese corps, expert in siege warfare, formed an integral part of the Mongol armies campaigning in
3605-577: The natural sciences , engineering , medicine , military technology , mathematics , geology and astronomy . Among the earliest inventions were the abacus , the sundial , and the Kongming lantern . The Four Great Inventions , the compass , gunpowder , papermaking , and printing – were among the most important technological advances, only known to Europe by the end of the Middle Ages 1000 years later. The Tang dynasty (AD 618–906) in particular
3708-432: The raised-relief map , the propeller , the sluice gate, and the pound lock . The Tang dynasty (AD 618–907) and Song dynasty (AD 960–1279) in particular were periods of great innovation. In the 7th century, book-printing was developed in China, Korea and Japan , using delicate hand-carved wooden blocks to print individual pages. The 9th century Diamond Sutra is the earliest known printed document. Movable type
3811-579: The two-stage rocket with a booster rocket , the naval mine and wheellock mechanism to ignite trains of fuses. The Jesuit China missions of the 16th and 17th centuries introduced Western science and astronomy, then undergoing its own revolution, to China. One modern historian writes that in late Ming courts, the Jesuits were "regarded as impressive especially for their knowledge of astronomy, calendar-making, mathematics, hydraulics, and geography." The Society of Jesus introduced, according to Thomas Woods , "a substantial body of scientific knowledge and
3914-459: The 14th century. For gunpowder weapons, it outlined the use of fire arrows and rockets , fire lances and firearms , land mines and naval mines , bombards and cannons , two stage rockets , along with different compositions of gunpowder, including 'magic gunpowder', 'poisonous gunpowder', and 'blinding and burning gunpowder' (refer to his article). For the 11th century invention of ceramic movable type printing by Bi Sheng (990–1051), it
4017-435: The 1930s, large intercontinental flying boats were also sometimes referred to as "ships of the air" or "flying-ships". — though none had yet been built. The advent of powered balloons, called dirigible balloons, and later of rigid hulls allowing a great increase in size, began to change the way these words were used. Huge powered aerostats, characterized by a rigid outer framework and separate aerodynamic skin surrounding
4120-637: The 1st millennium BC and some scientists believe that there is evidence that practices similar to acupuncture were used in Eurasia during the early Bronze Age . Using shadow clocks and the abacus (both invented in the ancient Near East before spreading to China), the Chinese were able to record observations, documenting the first recorded solar eclipse in 2137 BC, and making the first recording of any planetary grouping in 500 BC. These claims, however, are highly disputed and rely on much supposition. The Book of Silk
4223-597: The Chinese Astronomical Bureau established by Kublai Khan, while some Chinese astronomers also worked at the Persian Maragha observatory . Before this, in ancient times, Indian astronomers had lent their expertise to the Chinese court. As Toby E. Huff notes, pre-modern Chinese science developed precariously without solid scientific theory , while there was a lacking of consistent systemic treatment in comparison to contemporaneous European works such as
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4326-466: The Moon was spherical, using a metaphor of observing different angles of a silver ball with white powder thrown onto one side. Although the Chinese accepted the idea of spherical-shaped heavenly bodies, the concept of a spherical Earth (as opposed to a flat Earth ) was not accepted in Chinese thought until the works of Italian Jesuit Matteo Ricci (1552–1610) and Chinese astronomer Xu Guangqi (1562–1633) in
4429-671: The Song dynasty, Chinese medicine classified drugs under the system of the Zhenghe bencao (Herbal of the Zhenghe Era): These early forms of drugs were made using primitive methods, usually just simple dried herbs, or unprocessed minerals. They were developed into combinations known as "elixirs of immortality". These early magical practices, supported by the imperial courts of Qin Shi Huang (259–210 BCE) and Emperor Wu (156–87 BCE) eventually led to
4532-523: The Telescope, in 1626, in Latin and Chinese. Schall's book referred to the telescopic observations of Galileo. Conversely, the Jesuits were very active in transmitting Chinese knowledge to Europe. Confucius 's works were translated into European languages through the agency of Jesuit scholars stationed in China. Matteo Ricci started to report on the thoughts of Confucius, and Father Prospero Intorcetta published
4635-498: The West. In 1259–1260 military alliance of the Franks knights of the ruler of Antioch , Bohemond VI and his father-in-law Hetoum I with the Mongols under Hulagu , in which they fought together for the conquests of Muslim Syria , taking together the city of Aleppo , and later Damascus . William of Rubruck , an ambassador to the Mongols in 1254–1255, a personal friend of Roger Bacon ,
4738-470: The aircraft's weight. There are two ways to produce dynamic upthrust — aerodynamic lift by having air flowing past an aerofoil (such dynamic interaction of aerofoils with air is the origin of the term "aerodyne"), or powered lift in the form of reactional lift from downward engine thrust . Aerodynamic lift involving wings is the most common, and can be achieved via two methods. Fixed-wing aircraft ( airplanes and gliders ) achieve airflow past
4841-501: The autogyro moves forward, air blows upward across the rotor, making it spin. This spinning increases the speed of airflow over the rotor, to provide lift. Rotor kites are unpowered autogyros, which are towed to give them forward speed or tethered to a static anchor in high-wind for kited flight. Compound rotorcraft have wings that provide some or all of the lift in forward flight. They are nowadays classified as powered lift types and not as rotorcraft. Tiltrotor aircraft (such as
4944-446: The beliefs of the later Leopold von Ranke (1795–1886), some Song gentry—such as Zhao Mingcheng (1081–1129)—supported the primacy of contemporaneous archaeological finds of ancient inscriptions over historical works written after the fact, which they contested to be unreliable in regard to the former evidence. Hong Mai (1123–1202) used ancient Han dynasty era vessels to debunk what he found to be fallacious descriptions of Han vessels in
5047-571: The brass container as fitted with a horizontal pump, and a nozzle of small diameter. The records of a battle on the Yangtze near Nanjing in 975 offer an insight into the dangers of the weapon, as a change of wind direction blew the fire back onto the Song forces. The Song dynasty (960–1279) brought a new stability for China after a century of civil war, and started a new area of modernisation by encouraging examinations and meritocracy . The first Song Emperor created political institutions that allowed
5150-602: The capital city , as well as reservoirs and marshes of Hebei . Although the Bencao Tujing was an important pharmaceutical work of the age, Su Song is perhaps better known for his work in horology . His book Xinyi Xiangfayao (新儀象法要; lit. 'Essentials of a New Method for Mechanizing the Rotation of an Armillary Sphere and a Celestial Globe') documented the intricate mechanics of his astronomical clock tower in Kaifeng . This included
5253-404: The clepsydra tanks during winter. Shen Kuo's written work of 1088 also contains the first written description of the magnetic needle compass , the first description in China of experiments with camera obscura , the invention of movable type printing by the artisan Bi Sheng (990–1051), a method of repeated forging of cast iron under a cold blast similar to the modern Bessemer process , and
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#17330844914735356-435: The design process is regulated by national airworthiness authorities. The key parts of an aircraft are generally divided into three categories: The approach to structural design varies widely between different types of aircraft. Some, such as paragliders, comprise only flexible materials that act in tension and rely on aerodynamic pressure to hold their shape. A balloon similarly relies on internal gas pressure, but may have
5459-561: The discovery of the concept of true north (with magnetic declination towards the North Pole ). Shen Kuo also devised a geological theory for land formation, or geomorphology , and theorized that there was climate change in geological regions over an enormous span of time. The equally talented statesman Su Song was best known for his engineering project of the Astronomical Clock Tower of Kaifeng , by 1088 AD. The clock tower
5562-543: The early 17th century. There were noted advances in traditional Chinese medicine during the Middle Ages. Emperor Gaozong (reigned 649–683) of the Tang dynasty (618–907) commissioned the scholarly compilation of a materia medica in 657 that documented 833 medicinal substances taken from stones, minerals, metals, plants, herbs, animals, vegetables, fruits, and cereal crops. In his Bencao Tujing ('Illustrated Pharmacopoeia'),
5665-801: The early half of the Song dynasty (960–1279), the study of archaeology developed out of the antiquarian interests of the educated gentry and their desire to revive the use of ancient vessels in state rituals and ceremonies. This and the belief that ancient vessels were products of 'sages' and not common people was criticized by Shen Kuo, who took an interdisciplinary approach to archaeology, incorporating his archaeological findings into studies on metallurgy, optics, astronomy, geometry, and ancient music measures . His contemporary Ouyang Xiu (1007–1072) compiled an analytical catalogue of ancient rubbings on stone and bronze, which Patricia B. Ebrey says pioneered ideas in early epigraphy and archaeology. In accordance with
5768-405: The first motive power to the armillary sphere via hydraulics in 125 CE, it was Yi Xing (683–727) in 725 CE who first applied an escapement mechanism to a water-powered celestial globe and striking clock. The early Song dynasty horologist Zhang Sixun (fl. late 10th century) employed liquid mercury in his astronomical clock because there were complaints that water would freeze too easily in
5871-479: The first banknotes were produced in 1023. These coins were so durable that they would still be in use 700 years later, in the 18th century. There were many famous inventors and early scientists in the Song dynasty period. The statesman Shen Kuo is best known for his book known as the Dream Pool Essays (1088 AD). In it, he wrote of use for a drydock to repair boats, the navigational magnetic compass , and
5974-492: The first known written formulas for gunpowder, meant for light-weight bombs lobbed from catapults or thrown down from defenders behind city walls. By the 13th century, the iron-cased bomb shell, hand cannon , land mine , and rocket were developed. As evidenced by the Huolongjing of Jiao Yu and Liu Bowen , by the 14th century the Chinese had developed the heavy cannon , hollow and gunpowder-packed exploding cannonballs ,
6077-477: The first manned ascent — and safe descent — in modern times took place by larger hot-air balloons developed in the 18th century. Each of the two World Wars led to great technical advances. Consequently, the history of aircraft can be divided into five eras: Lighter-than-air aircraft or aerostats use buoyancy to float in the air in much the same way that ships float on the water. They are characterized by one or more large cells or canopies, filled with
6180-432: The first observations of chemistry in ancient China. Chinese alchemists searched for ways to make cinnabar , gold and other minerals water soluble so they could be ingested, such as using a solution of potassium nitrate in vinegar . Solubilzation of cinnabar was found to occur only if an impurity ( chloride ion ) was present. Gold also was soluble when iodate was present in crude niter deposits. Mongol rule under
6283-547: The first to record observations of a supernova , the first being the SN 185 , recorded during the Han dynasty . Chinese astronomers made two more notable supernova observations during the Song dynasty: the SN 1006 , the brightest recorded supernova in history; and the SN 1054 , making the Crab Nebula the first astronomical object recognized as being connected to a supernova explosion. During
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#17330844914736386-532: The first true manned, controlled flight in 1853. The first powered and controllable fixed-wing aircraft (the airplane or aeroplane) was invented by Wilbur and Orville Wright . Besides the method of propulsion (if any), fixed-wing aircraft are in general characterized by their wing configuration . The most important wing characteristics are: A variable geometry aircraft can change its wing configuration during flight. A flying wing has no fuselage, though it may have small blisters or pods. The opposite of this
6489-418: The fuselage or wings. On a fixed-wing aircraft the wings are rigidly attached to the fuselage, while on a rotorcraft the wings are attached to a rotating vertical shaft. Smaller designs sometimes use flexible materials for part or all of the structure, held in place either by a rigid frame or by air pressure. The fixed parts of the structure comprise the airframe . The source of motive power for an aircraft
6592-416: The futile experiments of Chinese alchemists did lead to the discovery of new metal alloys , porcelain types, and dyes . However, Nathan Sivin discounts such a close connection between Taoism and alchemy , which some sinologists have asserted, stating that alchemy was more prevalent in the secular sphere and practiced by laymen. Experimentation with various materials and ingredients in China during
6695-503: The gas bags, were produced, the Zeppelins being the largest and most famous. There were still no fixed-wing aircraft or non-rigid balloons large enough to be called airships, so "airship" came to be synonymous with these aircraft. Then several accidents, such as the Hindenburg disaster in 1937, led to the demise of these airships. Nowadays a "balloon" is an unpowered aerostat and an "airship"
6798-509: The idea that rainbows were the result of the contact between sunlight and moisture in the air, while Shen Kuo (1031–1095) expanded upon this with description of atmospheric refraction . Shen believed that rays of sunlight refracted before reaching the surface of the Earth, hence the appearance of the observed Sun from Earth did not match its exact location. Coinciding with the astronomical work of his colleague Wei Pu , Shen and Wei realized that
6901-490: The interest of Chinese scholars in these sciences. They made very extensive astronomical observation and carried out the first modern cartographic work in China. They also learned to appreciate the scientific achievements of this ancient culture and made them known in Europe. Through their correspondence European scientists first learned about the Chinese science and culture. Johann Adam Schall published Yuan Jing Shuo, Explanation of
7004-700: The life and works of Confucius into Latin in 1687. It is thought that such works had considerable importance on European thinkers of the period, particularly among the Deists and other philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into Christianity . The followers of the French physiocrat François Quesnay habitually referred to him as "the Confucius of Europe", and he personally identified himself with
7107-482: The mathematical basis for spherical trigonometry that would later be mastered by the astronomer and engineer Guo Shoujing (1231–1316). While using a sighting tube of improved width to correct the position of the pole star (which had shifted over the centuries), Shen discovered the concept of true north and magnetic declination towards the North Magnetic Pole , a concept which would aid navigators in
7210-468: The middle period led to the discovery of many ointments, creams, and other mixtures with practical uses. In a 9th-century Arab work Kitāb al-Khawāss al Kabīr , there are numerous products listed that were native to China, including waterproof and dust-repelling cream or varnish for clothes and weapons, a Chinese lacquer , varnish, or cream that protected leather items, a completely fire-proof cement for glass and porcelain, recipes for Chinese and Indian ink ,
7313-509: The need for law by Lu Jia and by Shusun Tong , as defined by the scholars, rather than the generals. You conquered the empire on horseback, but from horseback you will never succeed in ruling it. Derived from Taoist philosophy, one of the newest longstanding contributions of the ancient Chinese are in Traditional Chinese medicine , including acupuncture and herbal medicine . The practice of acupuncture can be traced back as far as
7416-417: The old calculation technique for the mean Sun was inaccurate compared to the apparent Sun, since the latter was ahead of it in the accelerated phase of motion, and behind it in the retarded phase . Shen supported and expanded upon beliefs earlier proposed by Han dynasty (202 BCE – 220 CE) scholars such as Jing Fang (78–37 BCE) and Zhang Heng (78–139 CE) that lunar eclipse occurs when the Earth obstructs
7519-498: The princes and dukes of the states. At this time, there were also many nascent schools of thought in China—the Hundred Schools of Thought (諸子百家), scattered among many polities. The schools served as communities which advised the rulers of these states. Mo Di (墨翟 Mozi, 470 BCE–c. 391 BCE) introduced concepts useful to one of those rulers, such as defensive fortification. One of these concepts, fa (法 principle or method)
7622-411: The rotor forward, the downward flow is tilted backward, producing thrust for forward flight. Some helicopters have more than one rotor and a few have rotors turned by gas jets at the tips. Some have a tail rotor to counteract the rotation of the main rotor, and to aid directional control. Autogyros have unpowered rotors, with a separate power plant to provide thrust. The rotor is tilted backward. As
7725-473: The scholar-official Su Song (1020–1101) not only systematically categorized herbs and minerals according to their pharmaceutical uses, but he also took an interest in zoology . For example, Su made systematic descriptions of animal species and the environmental regions they could be found, such as the freshwater crab Eriocher sinensis found in the Huai River running through Anhui , in waterways near
7828-436: The second type of aircraft to fly, the first being kites , which were also first invented in ancient China over two thousand years ago (see Han Dynasty ). A balloon was originally any aerostat, while the term airship was used for large, powered aircraft designs — usually fixed-wing. In 1919, Frederick Handley Page was reported as referring to "ships of the air," with smaller passenger types as "Air yachts." In
7931-514: The succeeding Han dynasty until the 19th century. The Qin dynasty also developed the crossbow, which later became the mainstream weapon in Europe. Several remains of crossbows have been found among the soldiers of the Terracotta Army in the tomb of Qin Shi Huang. The Eastern Han dynasty scholar and astronomer Zhang Heng (78–139 AD) invented the first water-powered rotating armillary sphere (the first armillary sphere having been invented by
8034-456: The sunlight traveling towards the Moon, a solar eclipse is the Moon's obstruction of sunlight reaching Earth, the Moon is spherical like a ball and not flat like a disc, and moonlight is merely sunlight reflected from the Moon's surface. Shen also explained that the observance of a full moon occurred when the Sun's light was slanting at a certain degree and that crescent phases of the moon proved that
8137-770: The system of counting rods . Pascal's triangle was first illustrated in China by Yang Hui in his book Xiangjie Jiuzhang Suanfa (详解九章算法), although it was described earlier around 1100 by Jia Xian . Although the Introduction to Computational Studies (算学启蒙) written by Zhu Shijie (fl. 13th century) in 1299 contained nothing new in Chinese algebra , it had a great impact on the development of Japanese mathematics . In their pursuit for an elixir of life and desire to create gold from various mixtures of materials, Taoists became heavily associated with alchemy . Joseph Needham labeled their pursuits as proto-scientific rather than merely pseudoscience . Fairbank and Goldman write that
8240-530: The tether or kite line ; they rely on virtual or real wind blowing over and under them to generate lift and drag. Kytoons are balloon-kite hybrids that are shaped and tethered to obtain kiting deflections, and can be lighter-than-air, neutrally buoyant, or heavier-than-air. Powered aircraft have one or more onboard sources of mechanical power, typically aircraft engines although rubber and manpower have also been used. Most aircraft engines are either lightweight reciprocating engines or gas turbines . Engine fuel
8343-417: The use of an escapement mechanism and world's first known chain drive to power the rotating armillary sphere crowning the top as well as the 133 clock jack figurines positioned on a rotating wheel that sounded the hours by banging drums, clashing gongs, striking bells, and holding plaques with special announcements appearing from open-and-close shutter windows. While it had been Zhang Heng who applied
8446-546: The various systems in use by NATO members throughout Europe. Aircraft An aircraft ( pl. : aircraft) is a vehicle that is able to fly by gaining support from the air . It counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or the dynamic lift of an airfoil , or, in a few cases, direct downward thrust from its engines. Common examples of aircraft include airplanes , helicopters , airships (including blimps ), gliders , paramotors , and hot air balloons . The human activity that surrounds aircraft
8549-496: The whole face and state of things throughout the world; the first in literature , the second in warfare , the third in navigation ; whence have followed innumerable changes, in so much that no empire, no sect, no star seems to have exerted greater power and influence in human affairs than these mechanical discoveries. One of the most important military treatises of all Chinese history was the Huo Long Jing written by Jiao Yu in
8652-513: The whole house where they were working burned down. These four discoveries had an enormous impact on the development of Chinese civilization and a far-ranging global impact. Gunpowder, for example, spread to the Arabs in the 13th century and thence to Europe. According to English philosopher Francis Bacon , writing in Novum Organum : Printing, gunpowder and the compass: These three have changed
8755-460: The wind, though normally the pilot can control the altitude, either by heating the air or by releasing ballast, giving some directional control (since the wind direction changes with altitude). A wing-shaped hybrid balloon can glide directionally when rising or falling; but a spherically shaped balloon does not have such directional control. Kites are aircraft that are tethered to the ground or other object (fixed or mobile) that maintains tension in
8858-431: The wing. A flexible wing is a wing made of fabric or thin sheet material, often stretched over a rigid frame, similar to the flight membranes on many flying and gliding animals . A kite is tethered to the ground and relies on the speed of the wind over its wings, which may be flexible or rigid, fixed, or rotary. With powered lift, the aircraft directs its engine thrust vertically downward. V/STOL aircraft, such as
8961-402: The wings by having the entire aircraft moving forward through the air, while rotorcraft ( helicopters and autogyros ) do so by having mobile, elongated wings spinning rapidly around a mast in an assembly known as the rotor . As aerofoils, there must be air flowing over the wing to create pressure difference between above and below, thus generating upward lift over the entire wetted area of
9064-544: The years to come. In addition to the method similar to the Bessemer process mentioned above, there were other notable advancements in Chinese metallurgy during the Middle Ages. During the 11th century, the growth of the iron industry caused vast deforestation due to the use of charcoal in the smelting process. To remedy the problem of deforestation, the Song Chinese discovered how to produce coke from bituminous coal as
9167-430: Was a major factor in the modernization of China. Much of the early Western work in the history of science in China was done by Joseph Needham and his Chinese partner, Lu Gwei-djen . The Warring States period began 2500 years ago at the time of the invention of the crossbow . Needham notes that the invention of the crossbow "far outstripped the progress in defensive armor", which made the wearing of armor useless to
9270-478: Was a time of great innovation. A good deal of exchange occurred between Western and Chinese discoveries up to the Qing dynasty . The Jesuit China missions of the 16th and 17th centuries introduced Western science and astronomy, while undergoing its own scientific revolution , at the same time bringing Chinese knowledge of technology back to Europe. In the 19th and 20th centuries the introduction of Western technology
9373-651: Was also used in China for a time, but was abandoned because of the number of characters needed; it would not be until Johannes Gutenberg that the technique was reinvented in a suitable environment. In addition to gunpowder, the Chinese also developed improved delivery systems for the Byzantine weapon of Greek fire , Meng Huo You and Pen Huo Qi first used in China c. 900. Chinese illustrations were more realistic than in Byzantine manuscripts, and detailed accounts from 1044 recommending its use on city walls and ramparts show
9476-552: Was driven by a rotating waterwheel and escapement mechanism. Crowning the top of the clock tower was the large bronze, mechanically driven, rotating armillary sphere . In 1070, Su Song also compiled the Ben Cao Tu Jing (Illustrated Pharmacopoeia, original source material from 1058 to 1061 AD) with a team of scholars. This pharmaceutical treatise covered a wide range of other related subjects, including botany , zoology , mineralogy , and metallurgy . Chinese astronomers were
9579-402: Was enhanced by the wooden movable type of Wang Zhen in 1298 and the bronze metal movable type of Hua Sui in 1490. Among the engineering accomplishments of early China were matches , dry docks , the double-action piston pump , cast iron , the iron plough , the horse collar , the multi-tube seed drill , the wheelbarrow , the suspension bridge , the parachute , natural gas as fuel,
9682-570: Was extended by the School of Names (名家 Ming jia , ming =name), which began a systematic exploration of logic. The development of a school of logic was cut short by the defeat of Mohism 's political sponsors by the Qin dynasty , and the subsumption of fa as law rather than method by the Legalists (法家 Fa jia ) . Needham further notes that the Han dynasty , which conquered the short-lived Qin, were made aware of
9785-424: Was given, there is no way of telling their theoretical origin or basis. Despite this, Chinese thinkers of the Middle Ages proposed some hypotheses which are in accordance with modern principles of science. Yang Hui provided theoretical proof for the proposition that the complements of the parallelograms which are about the diameter of any given parallelogram are equal to one another. Sun Sikong (1015–1076) proposed
9888-657: Was of the NASA X-43 A Pegasus , a scramjet -powered, hypersonic , lifting body experimental research aircraft, at Mach 9.68 or 6,755 mph (10,870 km/h) on 16 November 2004. Prior to the X-43A, the fastest recorded powered airplane flight, and still the record for the fastest manned powered airplane, was the North American X-15 , rocket-powered airplane at Mach 6.7 or 7,274 km/h (4,520 mph) on 3 October 1967. The fastest manned, air-breathing powered airplane
9991-576: Was recorded in China in the Tang dynasty , although the earliest surviving examples of printed cloth patterns date to before 220. Pin-pointing the development of the compass can be difficult: the magnetic attraction of a needle is attested by the Louen-heng , composed between AD 20 and 100, although the first undisputed magnetized needles in Chinese literature appear in 1086. By AD 300, Ge Hong, an alchemist of
10094-526: Was reshaped over time due to perpetual erosion , uplift, and deposition of silt , and cited his observance of horizontal strata of fossils embedded in a cliffside at Taihang as evidence that the area was once the location of an ancient seashore that had shifted hundreds of miles east over an enormous span of time. Shen also wrote that since petrified bamboos were found underground in a dry northern climate zone where they had never been known to grow, climates naturally shifted geographically over time. Until
10197-439: Was the south-pointing chariot , a complex mechanical device that acted as a mechanical compass vehicle. While the exact mechanism is unclear, scholars think it incorporated the use of a differential gear in order to apply equal amount of torque to wheels rotating at different speeds, a device that is found in all modern automobiles . Sliding calipers were invented in China almost 2,000 years ago. The Chinese civilization
10300-419: Was the earliest civilization to experiment successfully with aviation , with the kite and Kongming lantern (proto Hot air balloon ) being the first flying machines . The " Four Great Inventions " ( simplified Chinese : 四大发明 ; traditional Chinese : 四大發明 ; pinyin : sì dà fāmíng ) are the compass , gunpowder , papermaking and printing . Paper and printing were developed first. Printing
10403-522: Was the first definitive atlas of comets, written c. 400 BC. It listed 29 comets (referred to as sweeping stars ) that appeared over a period of about 300 years, with renderings of comets describing an event its appearance corresponded to. In architecture, the pinnacle of Chinese technology manifested itself in the Great Wall of China , under the first Chinese Emperor Qin Shi Huang between 220 and 200 BC. Typical Chinese architecture changed little from
10506-490: Was used for virtually all fixed-wing aircraft until World War II and is still used in many smaller aircraft. Some types use turbine engines to drive a propeller in the form of a turboprop or propfan . Human-powered flight has been achieved, but has not become a practical means of transport. Unmanned aircraft and models have also used power sources such as electric motors and rubber bands. Jet aircraft use airbreathing jet engines , which take in air, burn fuel with it in
10609-439: Was widely adopted for tethered balloons ; in windy weather, this both reduces the strain on the tether and stabilizes the balloon. The nickname blimp was adopted along with the shape. In modern times, any small dirigible or airship is called a blimp, though a blimp may be unpowered as well as powered. Heavier-than-air aircraft or aerodynes are denser than air and thus must find some way to obtain enough lift that can overcome
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