Misplaced Pages

#460539

60-574: In 1802 Charles Henri Reclam (1776–1844), whose family originated from Savoy , had moved to Leipzig where he established a bookselling business. His son Anton Philipp completed his apprenticeship as a book printer and bookseller and borrowed money to purchase the Literarisches Museum , a lending library in Leipzig-Mitte , Grimmaische Strasse . During the Restoration period and under the terms of

120-780: A French ally during the first phase of the War of the Spanish Succession , but changed sides later. France invaded again, and Savoy was saved by Austrian troops led by the duke's cousin, Prince Eugene of Savoy at the siege of Turin . At the end of the war in 1713, Victor Amadeus II received the Kingdom of Sicily . By the Treaty of London , Victor Amadeus II reluctantly exchanged Sicily for Sardinia in 1720. The various dominions held in personal union by Victor Amadeus II included Sardinia, Savoy, Piedmont , Aosta Valley, Nice , and Oneglia . The collection

180-583: A consequence of its participation in the Burgundian Wars , Savoy lost all its possessions north and south-east of Lake Geneva to the Swiss . When Philibert II died in 1504, he was succeeded by Charles III the Good , a weak ruler. Since 1515, Savoy had been occupied by foreign armies, and Francis I of France was just waiting for the opportunity to permanently annex Savoy and its possessions. In 1536, Francis I ordered

240-409: A different political party or faction is in power. A re-nationalization process may also be called "reverse privatization". Nationalization has been used to refer to either direct state-ownership and management of an enterprise or to a government acquiring a large controlling share of a publicly listed corporation . According to research by Paasha Mahdavi, leaders who consider nationalization face

300-482: A dilemma: "nationalize and reap immediate gains while risking future prosperity, or maintain private operations, thereby passing on revenue windfalls but securing long-term fiscal streams." He argues that leaders "nationalize extractive resources to extend the duration of their power" by using "this increased capital to secure political support." Nationalization can have positive and negative effects. In 2019 research based on studies from Greenwich University found that

360-426: A government to take property in certain situations. Due to political risks that are involved when countries engage in international business, it is important to understand the expropriation risks and laws within each of the countries in which business is conducted in order to understand the risks as an investor in that country. Studies have found that nationalization follows a cyclical trend. Nationalization rose in

420-537: A strategy to build socialism, more commonly nationalization was also undertaken and used to protect and develop industries perceived as being vital to a nation's competitiveness (such as aerospace and shipbuilding), or to protect jobs in certain industries. Nationalization has had varying levels of support throughout history. After the Second World War , nationalization was supported by social democratic and democratic socialist parties throughout Western Europe, such as

480-614: Is the process of transforming privately owned assets into public assets by bringing them under the public ownership of a national government or state . Nationalization contrasts with privatization and with demutualization . When previously nationalized assets are privatized and subsequently returned to public ownership at a later stage, they are said to have undergone renationalization . Industries often subject to nationalization include telecommunications , electric power , fossil fuels , railways , airlines , iron ore , media , postal services , banks , and water (sometimes called

540-401: Is the seizure of private property by a public agency for a purpose deemed to be in the public interest. It may also be used as a penalty for criminal proceedings. Expropriation differs from eminent domain in that the property owner is not compensated for the seized property. Unlike eminent domain, expropriation may also refer to the taking of private property by a private entity authorized by

600-463: The Carlsbad Decrees , it quickly evolved to a centre of intellectual and literary circles of the pre-revolutionary Vormärz era. On 1 October 1828 Anton Philipp Reclam founded his own publishing house, first named Verlag des literarischen Museums . When he sold the library in 1837, the company was renamed Philipp Reclam jun. Two years later, he also acquired a Leipzig printing workshop and he

660-632: The French Revolutionary Army in 1792 and annexed to France. Savoy was first incorporated as the department of Mont-Blanc ; then, in 1798, it was divided between the departments of Mont-Blanc and Léman . Savoy, Piedmont, and Nice were restored to the House of Savoy at the Congress of Vienna in 1814–1815. Under the 1847 Perfect Fusion the duchy was merged with the other parts of the Savoyard state into

SECTION 10

#1732877120461

720-589: The Universal-Bibliothek series, Goethe's Faust I , was published on 10 November 1867. The Universal-Bibliothek enabled a wide range of literary texts to be made widely available, contributing significantly to popular education and the promotion of European classical literature. The firm strongly relied on the latest production methods and marketing strategies to attain consistently low sales prices. When Anton Philipp Reclam died in 1896, his Universal-Bibliothek comprised about 3,500 books. Title number 5,000

780-815: The Upper Rhenish Circle . Its territory included the current French departments of Savoie , Haute-Savoie , and the Alpes-Maritimes , the current Italian region of Aosta Valley , a large part of Piedmont and the County of Geneva in Switzerland, which was then lost to the Old Swiss Confederacy . The main Vulgar languages that were spoken within the Duchy of Savoy were Piedmontese and Arpitan . The Duchy of Savoy

840-451: The commanding heights of the economy ), and in many jurisdictions such entities have no history of private ownership. Nationalization may occur with or without financial compensation to the former owners . Nationalization is distinguished from property redistribution in that the government retains control of nationalized property . Some nationalizations take place when a government seizes property acquired illegally. For example, in 1945

900-593: The partition of Germany in the aftermath of the war, the publishing house was divided after its owner, Ernst Reclam, was partially dispossessed in Leipzig, then part of the Soviet occupation zone . In September 1947, Reclam established a subsidiary in Stuttgart American occupation zone, later part of West Germany ), which finally became the new main office in 1950. The original publishing house in Leipzig remained there, but

960-633: The 1960s and 1970s, followed by an increase in privatization in the 80s and 90s, followed again by an increase in nationalization in the 2000s and 2010s. The term appears as "expropriation of expropriators ( ruling classes )" in Marxist theory , and also as the slogan "Loot the looters!" ("грабь награбленное"), which was very popular during the Russian October Revolution . The term is also used to describe nationalization campaigns by communist states , such as dekulakization and collectivization in

1020-528: The British Labour Party . In the United States, potentially nationalizing healthcare is often a topic of political disagreement and makes frequent appearances in debates between political candidates. A 2020 poll shows that a majority (63%) of Americans support a nationalized healthcare system. A re-nationalization occurs when state-owned assets are privatized and later nationalized again, often when

1080-587: The Cittadella (remnants of the Cittadella can still be seen, although it was largely destroyed by the subsequent expansion of the city). From his military experience in Flanders , Emmanuel Philibert learned how to run an army, having won the famous Battle of St. Quentin (1557) . He was the first duke of Savoy to establish a stable military apparatus that was not composed of mercenaries but rather by specially trained Savoyard soldiers. His son, Charles Emmanuel I , extended

1140-506: The Duchy of Savoy. The Savoys themselves referred to their possessions as a whole as " the States of the Duke of Savoy " ( Italian : "gli Stati del Duca di Savoia"). Today, historians use the term Savoyard state to indicate this entity, which is an example of composite monarchy where many different and distinct territories are united in a personal union by having the same ruler. The duchy

1200-509: The East German branch in Leipzig was reprivatised. The Leipzig office was closed in March 2006. The company remains a family owned business. The Reclam Museum opened on 24 October 2018 in Leipzig. It is at Kreuzstraße 12 , opposite the building which housed the firm's original headquarters. The museum has over 10,000 volumes of historic books published by the company and related ephemera, including

1260-552: The European powers and found support from the Habsburgs . The policy of Charles Emmanuel was in fact based more on actions of international warfare, such as the possessions of the Marquis of Saluzzo, and the wars of succession in the duchies of Mantua and Montferrat. Generally, Savoy sided with Spain, but on occasion allied with France (as, for example, the Treaty of Susa required). During

SECTION 20

#1732877120461

1320-453: The French government seized the car-maker Renault because its owners had collaborated with the 1940–1944 Nazi occupiers of France . In September 2021, Berliners voted to expropriate over 240,000 housing units , many of which were being held unoccupied as investment property. Economists distinguish between nationalization and socialization , which refers to the process of restructuring

1380-626: The German language and classics of other languages translated into German. Annotated foreign language classics in their original language (English, French, Spanish, Italian, Latin, and Russian) have red covers. Bilingual books (German and the original language) have orange covers, study guides are blue, the original historical sources are in green, and non-fiction books (politics, history, society, natural sciences, art, music and religion) are in magenta. Duchy of Savoy The Duchy of Savoy ( Italian : Ducato di Savoia ; French : Duché de Savoie )

1440-469: The House of Savoy becoming rulers of Portugal. After Victor Amadeus II assumed power, Savoy became hostile to France, which invaded in the Nine Years' War . Savoy defeated the French in the siege of Cuneo , but was dramatically defeated in the battles of Staffarda and Marsaglia . Savoy became a French satellite, and Victor Amadeus II married Anne Marie d'Orléans , niece of King Louis XIV. Savoy remained

1500-510: The USSR . However, nationalization is not a specifically socialist strategy, and Marxism's founders were skeptical of its value. As Engels put it: Therein precisely lies the rub; for, so long as the propertied classes remain at the helm, nationalisation never abolishes exploitation but merely changes its form — in the French, American or Swiss republics no less than in monarchist Central, and despotic Eastern, Europe. Nikolai Bukharin also criticised

1560-517: The autographs of Hermann Hesse and Thomas Mann and one of the firm's book vending machines. The collection was put together over a period of more than 50 years by Hans-Jochen Marquardt, the director of the museum, who began collecting the material when he was 14 years old. His father, Hans Marquardt  [ de ] , was the director of the East German Reclam business from 1961 to 1986. The popular yellow books series cover classic works of

1620-469: The baroque style. After his death in 1675, there followed the period of the regency (1675-1684) of his widow, the new Madama Reale , Marie Jeanne Baptiste of Savoy-Nemours . Charles Emmanuel II was succeeded by his 11-year-old son, Victor Amadeus II ; his mother, the French born Marie Jeanne Baptiste of Savoy-Nemours was regent. Marie Jeanne sought to marry her son to the daughter and heir presumptive of King Peter II of Portugal . This could have led to

1680-518: The cultivation of the arts in the Italian Piedmont. However, his first son Amedeo died prematurely in 1431 and was succeeded by his second son Louis . Louis was in turn succeeded by the weak Amadeus IX , who was extremely religious (he was eventually declared blessed), but of little practical power, to the point that he allowed his wife, Yolande (Violante) of Valois , sister of Louis XI , to make very important decisions. During this period, France

1740-606: The death of Victor Amadeus I in 1637. He was succeeded for a short period of time by his eldest surviving son, the 5-year-old Francis Hyacinth . The post of regent for the next-oldest son, Charles Emmanuel II , also went to his mother Christine of France , whose followers became known as madamisti (supporters of Madama Reale ). Because of this, Savoy became a satellite state of the regent's brother, King Louis XIII of France. The supporters of Cardinal Prince Maurice of Savoy and Thomas Francis, Prince of Carignano (both sons of Charles Emmanuel I), together with their followers, took

1800-487: The death of Charles Emmanuel I (26 July 1630). First of all, the plague ran rampant in 1630 and contributed significantly to the already widespread poverty. The War of the Mantuan Succession (1628–1631) was very bloody in the countryside and subjected Casale Monferrato to a long siege (1629). Developments of arms and politics affected the economy and future history, exacerbating the already difficult situation after

1860-452: The duchy to the detriment of the lordships of Montferrat and the territory of Saluzzo, previously ceded to France, in 1601 under the Treaty of Lyon . The wars of Charles Emmanuel ended mostly in defeats. Nevertheless, he is remembered as "Charles the Great", since he was a versatile and cultured man, a poet and a skillful reformer. He was able to manage the duchy at a time of severe crisis vis-a-vis

Reclam - Misplaced Pages Continue

1920-408: The economic framework, organizational structure, and institutions of an economy on a socialist basis. By contrast, nationalization does not necessarily imply social ownership and the restructuring of the economic system . Historically, states have carried out nationalizations for various different purposes under a wide variety of different political systems and economic systems . Nationalization

1980-532: The establishment of the first public school-system in 1661. A cultured man, but also a great statesman, Charles Emmanuel imitated King Louis XIV of France at the sumptuous Palace of Venaria , a masterpiece of Baroque architecture , and a copy recreated in Italy of the magnificence of the Palace of Versailles . It was a time of great urban expansion, and Charles Emmanuel II promoted the growth of Turin and its reconstruction in

2040-674: The flag of the Knights of Malta (whence the modern Flag of Malta and of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta ), and others (flags of Denmark and Switzerland , with inverted colors to those of England and Genoa , among others). In the 18th century, the letters " FERT " were sometimes added in the cantons to distinguish the flag from the Maltese one. Nationalization Nationalization ( nationalisation in British English )

2100-430: The future policy of Savoy, managing to put an end to the more than twenty-year long occupation. The Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis , signed in 1559, restored full autonomy to the duchy, with his marriage to Margaret of France . Emmanuel Philibert realized that Savoy could no longer trust France. He therefore moved the capital from Chambéry to Turin in 1562, which he protected with a complex system of fortifications known as

2160-516: The main speech. During Nazi rule in Germany, Reclam was forbidden to publish books by Jewish authors, including Heinrich Heine and Ferdinand Lassalle , and works of 'politically unreliable' writers like Thomas Mann, Stefan Zweig, and Franz Werfel. In an allied bombing raid on Leipzig in World War II on 4 December 1943, its building was severely damaged and 450 tons of books were destroyed. After

2220-590: The mass distribution of literary classics. From 1858 to 1865 he published the complete works of William Shakespeare . In 1856 the German Confederation passed a law giving 30 years copyright protection to the works of all authors who had died before 9 November 1837. From 9 November 1867, when all these rights ended, Reclam was able to publish German Enlightenment authors like Goethe , Schiller , Lessing and many others, without needing to pay any royalties, and thus sell them for lower prices. The first title of

2280-572: The military decisions made by the Duke. On 18 August 1655, the Pinerolo Declaration of Mercy was issued, which constituted a peace treaty between Charles Emmanuel II and the Waldensians. The government of Charles Emmanuel II was the first step towards major reforms carried out by his successor Victor Amadeus II in the next century. Of particular importance were the founding of militias in Savoy and

2340-732: The motivations of the nationalizing party. Nationalization was employed towards the Panama Canal by the Panamanian Government, which came under the Panama Canal Authority in 1999, to internationally positive effect. Likewise, the Suez Canal was nationalized multiple times throughout history. In Germany, the Federal Press [ Bundesdruckerei ] was nationalized in 2008 with positive revenue and net income since. Expropriation

2400-504: The name of principisti (supporters of the Princes). Each warring faction soon besieged the city of Turin . The principisti made early gains, severely looting Turin on 27 July 1639. Only in 1642 did the two factions reach an agreement; by now, the widow of Victor Amadeus I had placed Victor's son Charles Emmanuel II on the throne and ruled as regent in his place, even past his age of majority. A resurgence of religious wars took place during

2460-491: The nationalization of key services such as water, bus, railways and broadband in the United Kingdom could save £13bn every year. Nationalization may produce other effects, such as reducing competition in the marketplace, which in turn reduces incentives to innovation and maintains high prices. In the short run, nationalization can provide a larger revenue stream for government but may cause that industry to falter depending on

Reclam - Misplaced Pages Continue

2520-417: The occupation of the duchy, which was invaded by a strong military contingent. Charles III realized too late the weakness of the state, and tried to defend the city of Turin . However, the city was lost on 3 April of the same year. Charles III retreated to Vercelli , trying to continue the fight, but never saw the state free from occupation. Emmanuel Philibert was the duke who more than any other influenced

2580-412: The peacetime year of 1660, then 26,178 in 1672, and 35,000 in 1705 (with 10,000 militia called up to bolster them and more uncalled). The militia was relatively well-armed and consisted of 24,000 men in 1566, of whom about a third could be used outside of their immediate district. The flag of Savoy was a white cross on a red field. It is based on a crusader flag, and as such is identical in origin to

2640-630: The regency. Subsequently, in 1655, Savoyard troops massacred large numbers of the Protestant population of the Waldensian valleys, an event known as the Piedmontese Easter ( Pasque Piedmont ). Reports from the massacres spread quickly throughout Protestant Europe, sparking outrage, especially in Britain. Lord Protector Oliver Cromwell threatened the Duchy of Savoy with intervention, somewhat shaping

2700-505: The rest of the Renaissance era for Savoy. The reign of Amadeus VIII was a turning point for the economy and the policy of the state, which deeply marked the history of the nation. His long reign was highlighted by wars (the country expanded its territory by defeating the Duchy of Montferrat and Marquisate of Saluzzo ), as well as reforms and edicts, and also some controversial actions. The first

2760-564: The seventeenth century, the influence of the court of Versailles put pressure on Savoy. Due to the proximity of the Spanish controlled Duchy of Milan and Savoyard defeats in the previous century, French troops were garrisoned in forts (such as Pinerolo ) in a number of key Alpine passes on the Italian side. This severely threatened the independence of the duchy. During the Thirty Years' War , Savoy

2820-401: The size of the army quickly rose. In 1625, the duchy had an army of 26,600 regulars (25,381 infantry and 1,213 cavalry), plus about 8,000 militia. The regulars consisted of 5 to 7 regiments of Piedmontese, with mercenaries comprising the rest, including 9 regiments of French and 2 regiments of Italians. In 1635 the regular army was down to 12,250, then 15,710 in 1637, 18,000 in 1649, then 5,500 in

2880-479: The unitary Kingdom of Sardinia. Savoy itself would be given to France under the terms of the Treaty of Turin (1860) . The duchy was a notable regional military power, often getting involved in wars between the French and Habsburgs. In the 17th century, peacetime strength tended to hover around 4,800 professional soldiers (3,600 infantry and 1,200 cavalry), with a large peasant militia. In times of war, militiamen were trained and impressed and mercenaries were hired, and

2940-522: Was nationalized by the communist regime of East Germany . Both the West and the East German businesses continued to publish affordable paperback books. Reclam in Stuttgart introduced distinctive yellow covers for its Universal-Bibliothek series of German classics in 1970. In 1980, the company's West German head office moved from Stuttgart to new premises in nearby Ditzingen . After German reunification in 1990,

3000-618: Was a territorial entity of the Savoyard state that existed from 1416 until 1847 and was a possession of the House of Savoy . It was created when Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor , raised the County of Savoy into a duchy for Amadeus VIII . The duchy was an Imperial fief, subject of the Holy Roman Empire , until 1792, with a vote in the Imperial Diet . From the 16th century, Savoy belonged to

3060-447: Was created in 1416 when Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor ( r.   1433–1437) awarded the title of " Duke " to Count Amadeus VIII . Being landlocked at its conception in 1388, the then- County of Savoy acquired a few kilometres of coastline around Nice . Other than this expansion, the 14th century was generally a time of stagnation. Pressure from neighboring powers, particularly France , prevented development, which characterized

SECTION 50

#1732877120461

3120-568: Was in 1434, when he chose to withdraw to the Château de Ripaille, where, living the life of a hermit , he founded the Order of St. Maurice . In 1439, he received an appointment as antipope , which he accepted (under the name of Felix V), although he subsequently resigned a decade later out of a fear of undermining the religious unity of Christians. The second important action of the Government of Amadeus VIII

3180-512: Was more or less free to control the affairs of Savoy, which bound Savoy to the crown in Paris. The Duchy's economy suffered during these years, not only because of war, but also because of the poor administration by Violante. The future of the nation was entrusted to the hands of a boy, Philibert I , who died at the early age of seventeen, after reigning for ten years. He was succeeded by Charles I , who died aged 21, and Charles II , who died aged 6. As

3240-436: Was one of the major mechanisms advocated by reformist socialists and social democrats for gradually transitioning to socialism. In this context, the goals of nationalization were to dispossess large capitalists, redirect the profits of industry to the public purse, and establish some form of workers' self-management as a precursor to the establishment of a socialist economic system. Although sometimes undertaken as part of

3300-774: Was one of the states of the Holy Roman Empire that largely sided with France and against both the Emperor and Spain. Savoyard troops participated on the side of the French in the Savoyard-Genoese War , the War of the Montferrat Succession , the Tornavento campaign and, in part, in the Piedmontese Civil War , among other places. The strong French influence, plus various misfortunes, repeatedly hit Savoy following

3360-587: Was published in 1908. In 1912 Reclam became the first company to introduce book vending machines, designed by Peter Behrens , which soon became a great success and were found at train stations, hospitals and army barracks all over Germany. After World War I , it promoted the works of contemporary German-speaking authors, such as Klabund , Thomas Mann , Arthur Schnitzler , Hugo von Hofmannsthal , Gerhart Hauptmann , Franz Werfel , Stefan Zweig , Arnold Zweig , and Ricarda Huch . The publisher celebrated its centenary in 1928, with Nobel laureate Thomas Mann delivering

3420-543: Was the central and most prominent of the territories possessed by the House of Savoy, and hence this title was and still is used often to indicate the whole of their possessions. In reality, the Savoys ruled not a unitary state, but a complex array of different entities and titles with different institutional, cultural, and legal backgrounds. These included for example the Duchy of Aosta , Principality of Piedmont , and County of Nice , which were distinct and not juridically part of

3480-508: Was the creation of the Principality of Piedmont in August 1424, the management of which was entrusted to the firstborn of the family as a title of honor. The duke left the territory largely formed from the old Savoy domain. As a cultured and refined man, Duke Amadeus gave great importance to art. Among others, he worked with the famous Giacomo Jaquerio in literature and architecture, encouraging

3540-477: Was then able to produce his books in large numbers. However, the liberal leaning tone of his publications earned him a sales ban in the countries of the Austrian Empire and a prison sentence by a Leipzig court for publishing a German translation of Thomas Paine's The Age of Reason ( Das Zeitalter der Vernunft ). After the failed German revolutions of 1848–49 , Reclam changed his policies and concentrated on

3600-574: Was usually referred to as "Sardinia", meaning the kingdom. Charles Emmanuel III , son and successor of Victor Amadeus II, joined the War of the Austrian Succession and concluded it with a resounding victory against the French in the Battle of Assietta . Gaining parts of western Lombardy like Angera and Vigevano in the subsequent treaty. After the French Revolution , Savoy was invaded by

#460539