Robert Ardrey (October 16, 1908 – January 14, 1980) was an American playwright , screenwriter and science writer perhaps best known for The Territorial Imperative (1966). After a Broadway and Hollywood career, he returned to his academic training in anthropology in the 1950s.
139-582: Raymond Arthur Dart (4 February 1893 – 22 November 1988) was an Australian anatomist and anthropologist , best known for his involvement in the 1924 discovery of the first fossil found of Australopithecus africanus , an extinct hominin closely related to humans, at Taung in the North of South Africa in the Northwest province. Raymond Dart was born in Toowong , a suburb of Brisbane, Queensland , Australia,
278-874: A Guggenheim fellowship for promise as a young playwright. The award allowed Ardrey the financial independence to remain in Chicago and focus on writing plays. While in Chicago Ardrey wrote two more plays. The first, Casey Jones , was a play about railroad men and their love for their machines. The second, How to Get Tough About It , Ardrey describes as "A proletarian love story of pleasant dimensions." In 1938 Guthrie McClintic presented How to Get Tough About It and Elia Kazan directed Casey Jones . The plays opened ten days apart and were massive failures. In his preface to Plays of Three Decades Ardrey writes: No author in Broadway memory had attained two such failures on
417-412: A basal lamina , the upper layer of the basement membrane , the lower layer is the reticular lamina lying next to the connective tissue in the extracellular matrix secreted by the epithelial cells. There are many different types of epithelium, modified to suit a particular function. In the respiratory tract there is a type of ciliated epithelial lining; in the small intestine there are microvilli on
556-450: A copulatory organ present in most species. The eggs are surrounded by amniotic membranes which prevents them from drying out and are laid on land, or develop internally in some species. The bladder is small as nitrogenous waste is excreted as uric acid . Turtles are notable for their protective shells. They have an inflexible trunk encased in a horny carapace above and a plastron below. These are formed from bony plates embedded in
695-481: A microscope . Human anatomy, physiology and biochemistry are complementary basic medical sciences, which are generally taught to medical students in their first year at medical school. Human anatomy can be taught regionally or systemically; that is, respectively, studying anatomy by bodily regions such as the head and chest, or studying by specific systems, such as the nervous or respiratory systems. The major anatomy textbook, Gray's Anatomy , has been reorganized from
834-470: A sessile lifestyle). Most animals have bodies differentiated into separate tissues and these animals are also known as eumetazoans . They have an internal digestive chamber, with one or two openings; the gametes are produced in multicellular sex organs, and the zygotes include a blastula stage in their embryonic development . Metazoans do not include the sponges , which have undifferentiated cells. Unlike plant cells , animal cells have neither
973-402: A "treatise on the heart", with vessels carrying all the body's fluids to or from every member of the body. Ancient Greek anatomy and physiology underwent great changes and advances throughout the early medieval world. Over time, this medical practice expanded due to a continually developing understanding of the functions of organs and structures in the body. Phenomenal anatomical observations of
1112-532: A better world. In his depths, he takes a job as keeper of a lonely lighthouse on a rock in Lake Michigan. On that rock, a century earlier, had been wrecked a ship carrying immigrants to the New World. It was a time of legitimate hope – he thought. And there – within this lighthouse, symbolically the shape of his mind – he recreated a little world populated by the hopeful immigrants to the New World. The play consists of
1251-466: A cameo from famed Negro leagues pitcher Satchel Paige ). He also wrote original screenplays, including the screenplay for Khartoum (1966, directed by Basil Dearden, starring Charlton Heston and Laurence Olivier ) for which he was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Writing, Story, and Screenplay. During the 1950s Ardrey became increasingly disenchanted with Hollywood and what he saw as
1390-528: A cell wall nor chloroplasts . Vacuoles, when present, are more in number and much smaller than those in the plant cell. The body tissues are composed of numerous types of cells, including those found in muscles, nerves and skin. Each typically has a cell membrane formed of phospholipids , cytoplasm and a nucleus . All of the different cells of an animal are derived from the embryonic germ layers . Those simpler invertebrates which are formed from two germ layers of ectoderm and endoderm are called diploblastic and
1529-433: A class of arachnids have four pairs of legs; a body of two segments—a cephalothorax and an abdomen . Spiders have no wings and no antennae. They have mouthparts called chelicerae which are often connected to venom glands as most spiders are venomous. They have a second pair of appendages called pedipalps attached to the cephalothorax. These have similar segmentation to the legs and function as taste and smell organs. At
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#17328921264801668-552: A coat of glycoproteins . In more advanced animals, many glands are formed of epithelial cells. Muscle cells (myocytes) form the active contractile tissue of the body. Muscle tissue functions to produce force and cause motion, either locomotion or movement within internal organs. Muscle is formed of contractile filaments and is separated into three main types; smooth muscle , skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle . Smooth muscle has no striations when examined microscopically. It contracts slowly but maintains contractibility over
1807-779: A contract with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and moved for the first time to Hollywood to work as a screenwriter. He worked on several projects, including Samuel Goldwyn's notorious boondoggle remake of Graustark , which was cancelled, and a western called The Cowboy and the Lady , from which he was dropped (though he later used most of the plot for his smash success Lady Takes A Chance ). While in Los Angeles he would meet and work with Samuel Goldwyn , Clarence Brown , Pandro Berman , Garson Kanin , Gene Fowler , Lillian Hellman , Sidney Howard , and S.N. Behrman . In 1938, however, he received word that his Broadway agent, Harold Freedman, had sold
1946-457: A few species have no limbs and resemble snakes. Lizards have moveable eyelids, eardrums are present and some species have a central parietal eye. Snakes are closely related to lizards, having branched off from a common ancestral lineage during the Cretaceous period, and they share many of the same features. The skeleton consists of a skull, a hyoid bone, spine and ribs though a few species retain
2085-513: A high metabolic rate , a light skeletal system and powerful muscles . The long bones are thin, hollow and very light. Air sac extensions from the lungs occupy the centre of some bones. The sternum is wide and usually has a keel and the caudal vertebrae are fused. There are no teeth and the narrow jaws are adapted into a horn-covered beak. The eyes are relatively large, particularly in nocturnal species such as owls. They face forwards in predators and sideways in ducks. The feathers are outgrowths of
2224-665: A lasting legacy. Later in 1940 the BBC broadcast a live radio version, and in 1946 they produced an adaption for television. In 1942, Thunder Rock was turned into a film, directed by the Boulting Brothers , also starring Michael Redgrave . ( See Thunder Rock (film) ) Shortly following the war, productions of Thunder Rock were quickly launched in Vienna , Prague , Budapest , and, most famously, in Allied-occupied Berlin where it
2363-746: A mammal. Humans have a head, neck, trunk (which includes the thorax and abdomen ), two arms and hands, and two legs and feet. Generally, students of certain biological sciences , paramedics , prosthetists and orthotists, physiotherapists , occupational therapists , nurses , podiatrists , and medical students learn gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy from anatomical models, skeletons, textbooks, diagrams, photographs, lectures and tutorials and in addition, medical students generally also learn gross anatomy through practical experience of dissection and inspection of cadavers . The study of microscopic anatomy (or histology ) can be aided by practical experience examining histological preparations (or slides) under
2502-491: A medical missionary to China and wished to study medicine at the University of Sydney, but his father argued that he should accept the scholarship he won to the newly established University of Queensland and study science. He was a member of the first intake of students to the university in 1911 and studied geology under H.C. Richards and zoology, taking his BSc in 1913. Dart became the first student to graduate with honours from
2641-451: A play about the conflict until he was struck by a moment of inspiration during a performance of Swan Lake , in which he conceived of "the play from beginning to end, complete with first, second, and third act curtains." In his autobiography, Ardrey gives the following summary of the play: My story was that of a renowned journalist who having experienced the disillusionments of the 1930s had given up all hope of influencing man toward
2780-622: A production starring Michael Redgrave . The play had been so successful that the British Minister of Information, Duff Cooper , arranged to have the Treasury department fund a production at the Globe Theatre in London's West End . The play deeply resonated with a British public under siege. Eminent theater critic Harold Hobson wrote of Thunder Rock : "The theatre ... did a great deal to keep
2919-413: A public wary of war. It received largely negative reviews and a poor reception. In the introduction to Plays of Three Decades , Ardrey writes that it opened "to the worst reviews I have ever received. Our most eminent critic deplored a play containing so much thunder and so little rock." Despite the negative initial reception, later commentators have described the play as prescient. Though unpopular at
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#17328921264803058-420: A pump action in which air is first drawn into the buccopharyngeal region through the nostrils. These are then closed and the air is forced into the lungs by contraction of the throat. They supplement this with gas exchange through the skin which needs to be kept moist. In frogs the pelvic girdle is robust and the hind legs are much longer and stronger than the forelimbs. The feet have four or five digits and
3197-400: A scale quite so grand on evenings quite so close together. Had they opened six months apart, none would have noticed. Coming as they did, I became a kind of upside-down white-headed boy, a figure thundering toward literary glory in reverse gear. Hollywood, incapable of resisting the colossal, bid lavishly for my services. And Samuel Goldwyn, buyer of none but the best, bought me. Ardrey signed
3336-415: A screenplay of Baroness Karen Blixen 's memoir Out of Africa , but it was never produced. ) While this work at first appears disparate with his early career, later commentators have emphasized the continuity. In his New York Times obituary, Bayard Webster wrote, "A closer look at his dramas and his behavioral books disclose that he was writing about social conditions in both genres. One involved humans,
3475-543: A skeleton to support or protect the body. An exoskeleton is a thickened, rigid cuticle which is stiffened by mineralization , as in crustaceans or by the cross-linking of its proteins as in insects . An endoskeleton is internal and present in all developed animals, as well as in many of those less developed. Epithelial tissue is composed of closely packed cells, bound to each other by cell adhesion molecules , with little intercellular space. Epithelial cells can be squamous (flat), cuboidal or columnar and rest on
3614-497: A systems format to a regional format, in line with modern teaching methods. A thorough working knowledge of anatomy is required by physicians, especially surgeons and doctors working in some diagnostic specialties, such as histopathology and radiology . Academic anatomists are usually employed by universities, medical schools or teaching hospitals. They are often involved in teaching anatomy, and research into certain systems, organs, tissues or cells. Invertebrates constitute
3753-431: A vast array of living organisms ranging from the simplest unicellular eukaryotes such as Paramecium to such complex multicellular animals as the octopus , lobster and dragonfly . They constitute about 95% of the animal species. By definition, none of these creatures has a backbone. The cells of single-cell protozoans have the same basic structure as those of multicellular animals but some parts are specialized into
3892-479: A vertebrate is the vertebral column , formed in the development of the segmented series of vertebrae . In most vertebrates the notochord becomes the nucleus pulposus of the intervertebral discs . However, a few vertebrates, such as the sturgeon and the coelacanth , retain the notochord into adulthood. Jawed vertebrates are typified by paired appendages, fins or legs, which may be secondarily lost. The limbs of vertebrates are considered to be homologous because
4031-693: A vestige of the pelvis and rear limbs in the form of pelvic spurs . The bar under the second fenestra has also been lost and the jaws have extreme flexibility allowing the snake to swallow its prey whole. Snakes lack moveable eyelids, the eyes being covered by transparent "spectacle" scales. They do not have eardrums but can detect ground vibrations through the bones of their skull. Their forked tongues are used as organs of taste and smell and some species have sensory pits on their heads enabling them to locate warm-blooded prey. Crocodilians are large, low-slung aquatic reptiles with long snouts and large numbers of teeth. The head and trunk are dorso-ventrally flattened and
4170-594: A wide range of stretch lengths. It is found in such organs as sea anemone tentacles and the body wall of sea cucumbers . Skeletal muscle contracts rapidly but has a limited range of extension. It is found in the movement of appendages and jaws. Obliquely striated muscle is intermediate between the other two. The filaments are staggered and this is the type of muscle found in earthworms that can extend slowly or make rapid contractions. In higher animals striated muscles occur in bundles attached to bone to provide movement and are often arranged in antagonistic sets. Smooth muscle
4309-480: Is constantly evolving as discoveries are made. In recent years, there has been a significant increase in the use of advanced imaging techniques, such as MRI and CT scans , which allow for more detailed and accurate visualizations of the body's structures. The discipline of anatomy is divided into macroscopic and microscopic parts. Macroscopic anatomy , or gross anatomy, is the examination of an animal's body parts using unaided eyesight. Gross anatomy also includes
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4448-473: Is found in the walls of the uterus , bladder , intestines , stomach , oesophagus , respiratory airways , and blood vessels . Cardiac muscle is found only in the heart , allowing it to contract and pump blood round the body. Nervous tissue is composed of many nerve cells known as neurons which transmit information. In some slow-moving radially symmetrical marine animals such as ctenophores and cnidarians (including sea anemones and jellyfish ),
4587-422: Is generated, both over immediate and long-term timescales. Anatomy and physiology , which study the structure and function of organisms and their parts respectively, make a natural pair of related disciplines, and are often studied together. Human anatomy is one of the essential basic sciences that are applied in medicine, and is often studied alongside physiology . Anatomy is a complex and dynamic field that
4726-464: Is opened and its organs studied, and endoscopy , in which a video camera -equipped instrument is inserted through a small incision in the body wall and used to explore the internal organs and other structures. Angiography using X-rays or magnetic resonance angiography are methods to visualize blood vessels. The term "anatomy" is commonly taken to refer to human anatomy . However, substantially similar structures and tissues are found throughout
4865-489: Is startlingly rapid". Between 1275 and 1326, the anatomists Mondino de Luzzi , Alessandro Achillini and Antonio Benivieni at Bologna carried out the first systematic human dissections since ancient times. Mondino's Anatomy of 1316 was the first textbook in the medieval rediscovery of human anatomy. It describes the body in the order followed in Mondino's dissections, starting with the abdomen, thorax, head, and limbs. It
5004-403: Is the study of the structures that make up a discrete body system—that is, a group of structures that work together to perform a unique body function, such as the digestive system. Anatomy can be studied using both invasive and non-invasive methods with the goal of obtaining information about the structure and organization of organs and systems. Methods used include dissection , in which a body
5143-411: Is the vertebral column, composed of articulating vertebrae which are lightweight yet strong. The ribs attach to the spine and there are no limbs or limb girdles. The main external features of the fish, the fins , are composed of either bony or soft spines called rays, which with the exception of the caudal fins , have no direct connection with the spine. They are supported by the muscles which compose
5282-590: The Hippocratic Corpus , an Ancient Greek medical work written by unknown authors. Aristotle described vertebrate anatomy based on animal dissection . Praxagoras identified the difference between arteries and veins . Also in the 4th century BCE, Herophilos and Erasistratus produced more accurate anatomical descriptions based on vivisection of criminals in Alexandria during the Ptolemaic period . In
5421-585: The Makapan cave. Among the fossils, some bones that could be used as tools—the lower jaw bones of small gazelles, which could be used as cutting tools, and the humerus of antelope, which could be used as clubs—were overrepresented (more frequent) by a factor of ten. This led Dart to theorize that in australopithecines , as man's direct ancestors, the use of weapons evolutionarily predated the development of large brains. Ardrey wrote an article about Dart's theory for The Reporter. After receiving significant attention, it
5560-506: The Triassic period. There is one living species, Sphenodon punctatus . The skull has two openings (fenestrae) on either side and the jaw is rigidly attached to the skull. There is one row of teeth in the lower jaw and this fits between the two rows in the upper jaw when the animal chews. The teeth are merely projections of bony material from the jaw and eventually wear down. The brain and heart are more primitive than those of other reptiles, and
5699-542: The University of Southern California . His work was so popular that some scientists cited it as inspiring them to enter their fields. Ardrey wrote for popular audiences on topics in paleoanthropology , which encompasses anthropology , ethology , paleontology , zoology and human evolution . He was praised for crossing the boundaries of scientific specialism. The Observer , for instance, in its review of The Social Contract , wrote that "Robert Ardrey ... leaps across
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5838-400: The epidermis and are found in localized bands from where they fan out over the skin. Large flight feathers are found on the wings and tail, contour feathers cover the bird's surface and fine down occurs on young birds and under the contour feathers of water birds. The only cutaneous gland is the single uropygial gland near the base of the tail. This produces an oily secretion that waterproofs
5977-529: The extracellular matrix . Often called fascia (from the Latin "fascia," meaning "band" or "bandage"), connective tissues give shape to organs and holds them in place. The main types are loose connective tissue, adipose tissue , fibrous connective tissue, cartilage and bone. The extracellular matrix contains proteins , the chief and most abundant of which is collagen . Collagen plays a major part in organizing and maintaining tissues. The matrix can be modified to form
6116-477: The influenza epidemic and he was raised by his mother. He grew up on the South Side of Chicago and attended the nearby University of Chicago , graduating Phi Beta Kappa in 1930 as a Ph.B . While in attendance, he studied creative writing with Thornton Wilder , who would become his lifelong mentor. His first play, Star Spangled , opened on Broadway in 1935 and lasted only a few days, but resulted in
6255-497: The killer ape theory . Ardrey postulated that precursors of Australopithecus survived millions of years of drought in the Miocene and Pliocene epochs, as the savannah spread and the forests shrank, by adapting the hunting ways of carnivorous species. Changes in survival techniques and social organization gradually differentiated pre-humans from other primates . Concomitant changes in diet potentiated unique developments in
6394-461: The mouthparts . The thorax has three pairs of segmented legs , one pair each for the three segments that compose the thorax and one or two pairs of wings . The abdomen is composed of eleven segments, some of which may be fused and houses the digestive , respiratory , excretory and reproductive systems. There is considerable variation between species and many adaptations to the body parts, especially wings, legs, antennae and mouthparts. Spiders
6533-400: The stomach . All vertebrates have a similar basic body plan and at some point in their lives, mostly in the embryonic stage, share the major chordate characteristics: a stiffening rod, the notochord ; a dorsal hollow tube of nervous material, the neural tube ; pharyngeal arches ; and a tail posterior to the anus. The spinal cord is protected by the vertebral column and is above
6672-420: The 2nd century, Galen of Pergamum , an anatomist, clinician , writer, and philosopher, wrote the final and highly influential anatomy treatise of ancient times. He compiled existing knowledge and studied anatomy through the dissection of animals. He was one of the first experimental physiologists through his vivisection experiments on animals. Galen's drawings, based mostly on dog anatomy, became effectively
6811-511: The Achievement of Human Potential (IAHP), an organisation founded by Glenn Doman that treats brain injured children. Dart's son, Galen, had suffered motor damage during birth in 1941. Dart spent much of the next twenty years working with the IAHP. Anatomist Anatomy (from Ancient Greek ἀνατομή ( anatomḗ ) ' dissection ') is the branch of morphology concerned with
6950-584: The Animal Origins of Property and Nations (1966), The Social Contract: A Personal Inquiry into the Evolutionary Sources of Order and Disorder (1970), and The Hunting Hypothesis: A Personal Conclusion Concerning the Evolutionary Nature of Man (1976). Along with Raymond Dart and Konrad Lorenz , Robert Ardrey became one of the three most famous proponents of the hunting hypothesis and
7089-532: The Atlantic to Hitler, Mussolini, and Europe." During the summer of 1940 Ardrey discovered, when he read a syndicated column from Britain, that unbeknownst to him Thunder Rock had been having a massively successful run in London. In the column Vincent Sheehan wrote that it had become so emblematic as to be "London's Chu Chin Chow of World War II." The British rights had been sold to Herbert Marshall, who had launched
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#17328921264807228-636: The Guild, Ardrey worked with Thurman Arnold to lodge a suit against the Hollywood blacklist with the Supreme Court . The suit came up for review four years later, but the Guild dropped it. In the early '50s, partly due to its enforcement of the blacklists and partly due to the increasing role banks were playing in creative decisions, Ardrey began to feel a growing dissatisfaction with Hollywood and started to travel abroad. He travelled to Paris, Madrid, Barcelona,
7367-479: The Holy Trinity Church overlooking False Bay. After graduating from the University of Chicago , under the continuing mentorship of Thornton Wilder , Ardrey wrote a novel, several plays, and many short stories, all of which remained unpublished. It was Wilder's rule that "A young author should not write for market until his style [has] 'crystallized'". Wilder and Ardrey agreed that this moment came with
7506-580: The Limeworks manager, Mr. A.E. Spiers. As Dart was not part of the scientific establishment, and because Raymond found the fossil in Africa, and not Europe or Asia, where the establishment supposed man's origins, his findings were initially dismissed. Dart's closest ally was Robert Broom whose discoveries of further Australopithecines (as well as Wilfrid Le Gros Clark 's support) eventually vindicated Dart, so much so that in 1947 Sir Arthur Keith said "...Dart
7645-594: The Riviera, Venice, Yugoslavia, where he spent a month living in Belgrade, Greece, Istanbul, and Munich. He later described these travels as "necessary exercises" for his book African Genesis. In 1952 Ardrey joined the presidential campaign of Democratic Senator Adlai Stevenson against the Republican nominee, Dwight D. Eisenhower , as a part of the group "Hollywood for Stevenson". The group sponsored an investigator to go to
7784-548: The University of Queensland in 1914 and took his MSc with honours from UQ in 1916. He studied medicine at the University of Sydney taking his MB and M.Surgery in 1917, and conducting his residency at St Andrews College, University of Sydney. He was awarded his M.D. from the University of Sydney in 1927. Dart served as a captain and medic in the Australian Army in England and France during the last year of World War I . Following
7923-675: The University of Witwatersrand in Johannesburg, South Africa in 1936 and they had two children. Dart died in Johannesburg in 1988. The Institute for the Study of Man in Africa was established in 1956 at Witwatersrand in his honour by Phillip Tobias . In 1964 the Raymond Dart Memorial Lecture was inaugurated at the Institute. Dart was director of the School of Anatomy at the University of
8062-629: The Witwatersrand , Johannesburg until 1958. There he worked with Tobias, who continued his work in the study of the Cradle of Humankind and other paleoanthropological sites. In 1959, an autobiographical account of Dart's discoveries, Adventures with the Missing Link , was published (with Dennis Craig as co-author). In the book he acknowledges the crucial role played by his first female student and demonstrator, Josephine Salmons. She brought to his attention
8201-425: The appearance and position of the various parts, the materials from which they are composed, and their relationships with other parts. Anatomy is quite distinct from physiology and biochemistry , which deal respectively with the functions of those parts and the chemical processes involved. For example, an anatomist is concerned with the shape, size, position, structure, blood supply and innervation of an organ such as
8340-531: The arts and sciences from the Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt helped raise Alexandria up, further rivalling other Greek states' cultural and scientific achievements. Some of the most striking advances in early anatomy and physiology took place in Hellenistic Alexandria. Two of the most famous anatomists and physiologists of the third century were Herophilus and Erasistratus . These two physicians helped pioneer human dissection for medical research, using
8479-490: The atria were parts of the heart. Herophilus's knowledge of the human body has provided vital input towards understanding the brain, eye, liver, reproductive organs, and nervous system and characterizing the course of the disease. Erasistratus accurately described the structure of the brain, including the cavities and membranes, and made a distinction between its cerebrum and cerebellum During his study in Alexandria, Erasistratus
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#17328921264808618-705: The award of a Guggenheim Fellowship . The award granted Ardrey the financial independence to focus on writing plays. Several of his subsequent plays, including Casey Jones , How to Get Tough About It , and his most famous play, Thunder Rock , were produced on Broadway. In 1938 he moved to Hollywood to work as a screenwriter for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer , where he would eventually become MGM's highest paid writer. There he wrote many screenplays, including those for adaptations such as The Three Musketeers (1948, with Gene Kelly), Madame Bovary (1949), The Secret Garden (1949), and The Wonderful Country (1959, with Robert Mitchum; The Wonderful Country also had
8757-518: The basis of sense organs and there is a central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and a peripheral nervous system . The latter consists of sensory nerves that transmit information from sense organs and motor nerves that influence target organs. The peripheral nervous system is divided into the somatic nervous system which conveys sensation and controls voluntary muscle , and the autonomic nervous system which involuntarily controls smooth muscle , certain glands and internal organs, including
8896-462: The body and they swim by undulating their body from side to side. Reptiles are a class of animals comprising turtles , tuataras , lizards , snakes and crocodiles . They are tetrapods , but the snakes and a few species of lizard either have no limbs or their limbs are much reduced in size. Their bones are better ossified and their skeletons stronger than those of amphibians. The teeth are conical and mostly uniform in size. The surface cells of
9035-399: The brain, appreciated the division between cerebellum and cerebrum and recognized that the brain was the "seat of intellect" and not a "cooling chamber" as propounded by Aristotle Herophilus is also credited with describing the optic, oculomotor, motor division of the trigeminal, facial, vestibulocochlear and hypoglossal nerves. Incredible feats were made during the third century BCE in both
9174-401: The branch of superficial anatomy . Microscopic anatomy involves the use of optical instruments in the study of the tissues of various structures, known as histology , and also in the study of cells . The history of anatomy is characterized by a progressive understanding of the functions of the organs and structures of the human body. Methods have also improved dramatically, advancing from
9313-516: The cadavers of condemned criminals, which was considered taboo until the Renaissance—Herophilus was recognized as the first person to perform systematic dissections. Herophilus became known for his anatomical works, making impressive contributions to many branches of anatomy and many other aspects of medicine. Some of the works included classifying the system of the pulse, the discovery that human arteries had thicker walls than veins, and that
9452-418: The dermis which are overlain by horny ones and are partially fused with the ribs and spine. The neck is long and flexible and the head and the legs can be drawn back inside the shell. Turtles are vegetarians and the typical reptile teeth have been replaced by sharp, horny plates. In aquatic species, the front legs are modified into flippers. Tuataras superficially resemble lizards but the lineages diverged in
9591-402: The digestive and reproductive systems. Herophilus discovered and described not only the salivary glands but also the small intestine and liver. He showed that the uterus is a hollow organ and described the ovaries and uterine tubes. He recognized that spermatozoa were produced by the testes and was the first to identify the prostate gland. The anatomy of the muscles and skeleton is described in
9730-477: The east coast and set to work, first on a minor project which he would abandon, and then on the play that would become Thunder Rock . Robert Ardrey wrote Thunder Rock during the period of escalation in Europe which would lead to World War II. Despairing of the growing isolationism among Americans, Ardrey became convinced that American involvement in the war was a moral necessity. However he did not intend to write
9869-402: The egg-laying monotremes , the platypus and the echidnas of Australia. Most other mammals have a placenta through which the developing foetus obtains nourishment, but in marsupials , the foetal stage is very short and the immature young is born and finds its way to its mother's pouch where it latches on to a teat and completes its development. Humans have the overall body plan of
10008-435: The end be vindicated. A number of his theories, including that of the killer ape , have been refuted. However, some of his ideas retain support. His work was clearly influenced by the mentors he worked with in his early career, in particular Grafton Elliot Smith. Dart proposed the idea of dual evolutionary origins of the neocortex. During his research in the 1930s in Africa, he studied the architecture of reptilian brains. He
10147-523: The end of each male pedipalp is a spoon-shaped cymbium that acts to support the copulatory organ . In 1600 BCE, the Edwin Smith Papyrus , an Ancient Egyptian medical text , described the heart and its vessels, as well as the brain and its meninges and cerebrospinal fluid , and the liver , spleen , kidneys , uterus and bladder . It showed the blood vessels diverging from the heart. The Ebers Papyrus ( c. 1550 BCE ) features
10286-467: The epidermis are modified into horny scales which create a waterproof layer. Reptiles are unable to use their skin for respiration as do amphibians and have a more efficient respiratory system drawing air into their lungs by expanding their chest walls. The heart resembles that of the amphibian but there is a septum which more completely separates the oxygenated and deoxygenated bloodstreams. The reproductive system has evolved for internal fertilization, with
10425-413: The epidermis is normally formed of epithelial cells and secretes an extracellular matrix which provides support to the organism. An endoskeleton derived from the mesoderm is present in echinoderms , sponges and some cephalopods . Exoskeletons are derived from the epidermis and is composed of chitin in arthropods (insects, spiders, ticks, shrimps, crabs, lobsters). Calcium carbonate constitutes
10564-429: The epithelial lining and in the large intestine there are intestinal villi . Skin consists of an outer layer of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium that covers the exterior of the vertebrate body. Keratinocytes make up to 95% of the cells in the skin . The epithelial cells on the external surface of the body typically secrete an extracellular matrix in the form of a cuticle . In simple animals this may just be
10703-610: The equivalent of tissues and organs. Locomotion is often provided by cilia or flagella or may proceed via the advance of pseudopodia , food may be gathered by phagocytosis , energy needs may be supplied by photosynthesis and the cell may be supported by an endoskeleton or an exoskeleton . Some protozoans can form multicellular colonies. Metazoans are a multicellular organism, with different groups of cells serving different functions. The most basic types of metazoan tissues are epithelium and connective tissue, both of which are present in nearly all invertebrates. The outer surface of
10842-527: The examination of animals by dissection of carcasses and cadavers (corpses) to 20th-century medical imaging techniques, including X-ray , ultrasound , and magnetic resonance imaging . Derived from the Greek ἀνατομή anatomē "dissection" (from ἀνατέμνω anatémnō "I cut up, cut open" from ἀνά aná "up", and τέμνω témnō "I cut"), anatomy is the scientific study of the structure of organisms including their systems, organs and tissues . It includes
10981-631: The existence of a fossilised baboon skull at the house of Edwin Gilbert Izod , director of the Northern Lime Company and proprietor of a quarry in Taung. The skull was kept as an ornament on the mantlepiece above the fireplace at his home. In bringing the skull to show Dart, she set in motion a chain of events that led to the discovery of the "child skull of Taung". At the age of 73, Dart began dividing his time between South Africa and The Institutes for
11120-405: The father of microscopical anatomy, discovered that plants had tubules similar to those he saw in insects like the silk worm. He observed that when a ring-like portion of bark was removed on a trunk a swelling occurred in the tissues above the ring, and he unmistakably interpreted this as growth stimulated by food coming down from the leaves, and being captured above the ring. Arthropods comprise
11259-435: The feathers when the bird preens . There are scales on the legs, feet and claws on the tips of the toes. Mammals are a diverse class of animals, mostly terrestrial but some are aquatic and others have evolved flapping or gliding flight. They mostly have four limbs, but some aquatic mammals have no limbs or limbs modified into fins, and the forelimbs of bats are modified into wings. The legs of most mammals are situated below
11398-443: The features of ancient fish. They have a bony skeleton, are generally laterally flattened, have five pairs of gills protected by an operculum , and a mouth at or near the tip of the snout. The dermis is covered with overlapping scales . Bony fish have a swim bladder which helps them maintain a constant depth in the water column, but not a cloaca. They mostly spawn a large number of small eggs with little yolk which they broadcast into
11537-547: The fences with which scientists nowadays surround their special subjects. He reports their findings in clear English. He attempts to relate them in a single science of Man, by which all of us may try to know ourselves." This single "science of Man" was postulated in Ardrey's influential Nature of Man Series , which is composed of four books: African Genesis: A Personal Investigation into the Animal Origins and Nature of Man (1961), The Territorial Imperative: A Personal Inquiry Into
11676-472: The fifth of nine children and son of a farmer and tradesman. His birth occurred during the 1893 flood , which filled his parents' home and shop in Toowong. The family moved alternately between their country property near Laidley and their shop in Toowong. The young Dart attended Toowong State School, Blenheim State School and earned a scholarship to Ipswich Grammar School from 1906 to 1909. Dart considered becoming
11815-444: The film rights to his play How to Get Tough About It. Ardrey decided to use the opportunity to take time off to write a play. He travelled to Tucson where he married Helen Johnson with famed Hollywood director Garson Kanin as his best man. Following his wedding, he sent a note to Samuel Goldwyn which read: "Dear Mr. Goldwyn. I fear that I am wasting your money, and I'm sure you are wasting my time." He moved with his new wife back to
11954-475: The growing role money had started to play in creative decisions. At the same time and largely by accident, he renewed his interest in human origins and human behavior, which he had studied at the University of Chicago. In the summer of 1956 he moved with his wife and two sons to Geneva. He spent the following years traveling in Southern and Eastern Africa, conducting research for what was to become his first book on
12093-482: The head. The dermis is covered with separate dermal placoid scales . They have a cloaca into which the urinary and genital passages open, but not a swim bladder . Cartilaginous fish produce a small number of large, yolky eggs. Some species are ovoviviparous and the young develop internally but others are oviparous and the larvae develop externally in egg cases. The bony fish lineage shows more derived anatomical traits, often with major evolutionary changes from
12232-547: The hometown of Eisenhower's running mate, Richard Nixon , for research. While there the investigator discovered, in the high school newspaper archives, that Nixon had been known as "Tricky Dick". In 1954 Ardrey wrote a play about the persecution of accused communists in post- Cold War America. This play, Sing Me No Lullaby , was presented at the Phoenix Theatre in London. Brooks Atkinson , in his New York Times review, wrote: "...the contribution [Ardrey] has made in
12371-512: The human body were made, which contributed to the understanding of the brain, eye, liver, reproductive organs, and nervous system. The Hellenistic Egyptian city of Alexandria was the stepping-stone for Greek anatomy and physiology. Alexandria not only housed the biggest library for medical records and books of the liberal arts in the world during the time of the Greeks but was also home to many medical practitioners and philosophers. Great patronage of
12510-479: The journalist-lightkeeper and the long-dead people of his own resurrection, his relations with characters existing only in his own mind. Yet in the probing of his own creations, his integrity catches up with him. They were as much escaping problems of their world as he was of his. In the end he returns to reality. Thunder Rock , an anti-isolationist play, opened on Broadway in November, 1939 to isolationist critics and
12649-492: The largest phylum of invertebrates in the animal kingdom with over a million known species. Insects possess segmented bodies supported by a hard-jointed outer covering, the exoskeleton , made mostly of chitin . The segments of the body are organized into three distinct parts, a head, a thorax and an abdomen . The head typically bears a pair of sensory antennae , a pair of compound eyes , one to three simple eyes ( ocelli ) and three sets of modified appendages that form
12788-436: The last act is a clear and perceptive statement of this nameless, formless situation and an estimation of what it is doing to America ... Mr. Ardrey ... is a man of principle and taste. In Sing Me No Lullaby he has performed the function of a writer. He has found the words to describe something that is vague and elusive but ominous. And he has got far enough away from political recriminations to state it in terms of character and
12927-399: The length of the sides of fish, and these respond to nearby movements and to changes in water pressure. Sharks and rays are basal fish with numerous primitive anatomical features similar to those of ancient fish, including skeletons composed of cartilage. Their bodies tend to be dorso-ventrally flattened, they usually have five pairs of gill slits and a large mouth set on the underside of
13066-463: The life of the spirit." Also in 1954 Ardrey wrote the adaptation of John Masters' novel Bhowani Junction . Due in part to the intervention of the banks financing the film, Ardrey entered into contested negotiations over rewrites. Eventually he quit and took his name off the film. In 1958 Ardrey wrote the play Shadow of Heroes about the Hungarian Uprising of 1956. The play resulted in
13205-439: The liver; while a physiologist is interested in the production of bile , the role of the liver in nutrition and the regulation of bodily functions. The discipline of anatomy can be subdivided into a number of branches, including gross or macroscopic anatomy and microscopic anatomy. Gross anatomy is the study of structures large enough to be seen with the naked eye, and also includes superficial anatomy or surface anatomy,
13344-437: The lungs have a single chamber and lack bronchi . The tuatara has a well-developed parietal eye on its forehead. Lizards have skulls with only one fenestra on each side, the lower bar of bone below the second fenestra having been lost. This results in the jaws being less rigidly attached which allows the mouth to open wider. Lizards are mostly quadrupeds, with the trunk held off the ground by short, sideways-facing legs, but
13483-550: The lyric poet of human evolution, capturing the Homeric quality of the subject that so many scientists by and large feel but are unable to put into words. His opinions, like those in his earlier works, are controversial but more open, squarely stated, and closer to the truth than the protests of his most scandalized critics. In his 1964 book The Analysis of Prose , William D. Templeman used African Genesis as his third lesson. The volume included analysis and questions from his students at
13622-400: The main part of the trunk. The heart has two chambers and pumps the blood through the respiratory surfaces of the gills and on round the body in a single circulatory loop. The eyes are adapted for seeing underwater and have only local vision. There is an inner ear but no external or middle ear . Low frequency vibrations are detected by the lateral line system of sense organs that run along
13761-559: The morale of the British people high. One intellectual play had an enormous effect in keeping alight a spirit of hope at a time when it was nearer to extinction than it had ever been, either before or after. This was Thunder Rock , by Robert Ardrey. What he accomplished for the British people at a moment of supreme despair ... merits their lasting gratitude. ... He, more quietly but equally effectively as Churchill, urged us never to surrender." Following its success in London, Thunder Rock has had
13900-477: The more developed animals whose structures and organs are formed from three germ layers are called triploblastic . All of a triploblastic animal's tissues and organs are derived from the three germ layers of the embryo, the ectoderm , mesoderm and endoderm . Animal tissues can be grouped into four basic types: connective , epithelial , muscle and nervous tissue . Connective tissues are fibrous and made up of cells scattered among inorganic material called
14039-475: The nerves form a nerve net , but in most animals they are organized longitudinally into bundles. In simple animals, receptor neurons in the body wall cause a local reaction to a stimulus. In more complex animals, specialized receptor cells such as chemoreceptors and photoreceptors are found in groups and send messages along neural networks to other parts of the organism. Neurons can be connected together in ganglia . In higher animals, specialized receptors are
14178-540: The newly established department of anatomy at the University of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg , South Africa in 1922, after encouragement from Elliot Smith and Sir Arthur Keith. In 1924, Dart discovered the first Australopithecus africanus fossil, an extinct hominin closely related to humans. His colleague, Professor Robert Burns Young from the Buxton Limeworks, had sent Dart two crates of fossils from
14317-416: The notochord, and the gastrointestinal tract is below it. Nervous tissue is derived from the ectoderm , connective tissues are derived from mesoderm , and gut is derived from the endoderm . At the posterior end is a tail which continues the spinal cord and vertebrae but not the gut. The mouth is found at the anterior end of the animal, and the anus at the base of the tail. The defining characteristic of
14456-428: The only anatomical textbook for the next thousand years. His work was known to Renaissance doctors only through Islamic Golden Age medicine until it was translated from Greek sometime in the 15th century. Anatomy developed little from classical times until the sixteenth century; as the historian Marie Boas writes, "Progress in anatomy before the sixteenth century is as mysteriously slow as its development after 1500
14595-409: The other concerned both humans and other animals. But the dramatic theme was the same: the difficulties humans and other animals have in dealing with each other, and the reasons for their actions." The writing quality of Ardrey's work was widely praised. The biologist and naturalist E. O. Wilson admired The Hunting Hypothesis , commenting: In his excellent new book Robert Ardrey continues as
14734-399: The play had to close after a run of only one week. The critical consensus, with which Ardrey came to agree, was that Jeb was far ahead of its time. Following the short run of Jeb Ardrey moved back to Hollywood and signed a two-picture deal with MGM. In 1946 and '47 he wrote The Secret Garden . In 1947 he wrote the screenplay for The Three Musketeers , (which would become
14873-454: The release from Soviet custody of two political prisoners, Julia Rajk and her son. Ardrey next turned his attention toward Africa. He was soon to begin his pioneering work in paleoanthropology, but he also continued his career as a screenwriter. In 1964 he wrote the first screenplay adaptation of Isak Dinesen 's novel Out of Africa . In 1966 he wrote another screenplay set in Africa, the Academy Award -nominated Khartoum . Khartoum
15012-419: The rest of the animal kingdom, and the term also includes the anatomy of other animals. The term zootomy is also sometimes used to specifically refer to non-human animals. The structure and tissues of plants are of a dissimilar nature and they are studied in plant anatomy . The kingdom Animalia contains multicellular organisms that are heterotrophic and motile (although some have secondarily adopted
15151-651: The role: "It's a good part, presents the challenge of doing a mystic, as well as the English thing. Also, it's a helluva good script." The academy agreed with Heston's assessment of the script. In 1967 Khartoum earned Ardrey a nomination for the Oscar for Best Original Screenplay . Ardrey died, aged 71, in South Africa . In 1955, when Ardrey was considering a trip to Africa, Max Ascoli , publisher of The Reporter , offered to buy anything that Ardrey would write there. At
15290-457: The same time, Ardrey renewed an acquaintance with prominent geologist Richard Foster Flint . Because of Ardrey's background in geology and paleontology, Flint arranged for Ardrey to investigate claims made by Raymond Dart about a specimen of Australopithecus africanus . Ardrey met Dart in South Africa and examined his evidence. Particularly, Dart had amassed a sample of 5,000 fossils from
15429-493: The same underlying skeletal structure was inherited from their last common ancestor. This is one of the arguments put forward by Charles Darwin to support his theory of evolution . The body of a fish is divided into a head, trunk and tail, although the divisions between the three are not always externally visible. The skeleton, which forms the support structure inside the fish, is either made of cartilage, in cartilaginous fish , or bone in bony fish . The main skeletal element
15568-458: The second-highest-grossing film of 1948. ) starring Lana Turner and Gene Kelly . This became Gene Kelly's favorite non-musical role. In 1949, Ardrey wrote the screenplay for Gustave Flaubert's classic novel Madame Bovary . The film starred Jennifer Jones with James Mason playing the role of Flaubert. The novel was originally tried for obscenity in France and Ardrey used this as a device to frame
15707-670: The shells of molluscs , brachiopods and some tube-building polychaete worms and silica forms the exoskeleton of the microscopic diatoms and radiolaria . Other invertebrates may have no rigid structures but the epidermis may secrete a variety of surface coatings such as the pinacoderm of sponges, the gelatinous cuticle of cnidarians ( polyps , sea anemones , jellyfish ) and the collagenous cuticle of annelids . The outer epithelial layer may include cells of several types including sensory cells, gland cells and stinging cells. There may also be protrusions such as microvilli , cilia, bristles, spines and tubercles . Marcello Malpighi ,
15846-501: The small town of Taung in the North West Province of South Africa . Upon seeing the fossils, Dart immediately recognised one as being an early human because its brain dimensions were too large for a baboon or chimpanzee. Blasting had exposed a breccia -filled cave and the child's skull had come to light together with several fossilised monkeys and hyraxes. M. de Bruyn had noticed their unusual nature in November 1924 and informed
15985-519: The social sciences of his time. African Genesis (1961) and The Territorial Imperative (1966), two of his most widely read works, increased public awareness of evolutionary science. However he was criticized by scientists for having misunderstood the science and misinterpreted the evidence. Ardrey was born in Chicago , the son of Robert Leslie Ardrey, an editor and publisher, and Marie (née Haswell). His father died in 1919 from pneumonia during
16124-750: The story and allow for a commentator. In 1947, Ardrey, amid growing persecution of Hollywood by the House Un-American Activities Committee , was elected to the board of the Screen Writers Guild and made chairman of its Political Advisory Committee. Following the founding of the Committee for the First Amendment , Ardrey flew to Washington, along with Lauren Bacall , Humphrey Bogart , Gene Kelly , Danny Kaye , and John Huston , to defend The Hollywood Ten . Later, on behalf of
16263-400: The study by sight of the external body features. Microscopic anatomy is the study of structures on a microscopic scale, along with histology (the study of tissues), and embryology (the study of an organism in its immature condition). Regional anatomy is the study of the interrelationships of all of the structures in a specific body region, such as the abdomen. In contrast, systemic anatomy
16402-416: The study of the internal structure of organisms and their parts. Anatomy is a branch of natural science that deals with the structural organization of living things. It is an old science, having its beginnings in prehistoric times. Anatomy is inherently tied to developmental biology , embryology , comparative anatomy , evolutionary biology , and phylogeny , as these are the processes by which anatomy
16541-599: The subject, African Genesis (1961), ultimately an international bestseller. Subsequently, he went on to write a total of four books in his widely read Nature of Man Series , including his best known book The Territorial Imperative (1966) . In October 1960 he moved with his second wife to Trastevere , Rome, where they lived for 17 years. In 1977 they moved to a small town named Kalk Bay just outside Cape Town, South Africa. He continued to publish influential works until his death on January 14, 1980, from lung cancer. His ashes, along with those of his wife, are interred in
16680-741: The tail is laterally compressed. It undulates from side to side to force the animal through the water when swimming. The tough keratinized scales provide body armour and some are fused to the skull. The nostrils, eyes and ears are elevated above the top of the flat head enabling them to remain above the surface of the water when the animal is floating. Valves seal the nostrils and ears when it is submerged. Unlike other reptiles, crocodilians have hearts with four chambers allowing complete separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. Birds are tetrapods but though their hind limbs are used for walking or hopping, their front limbs are wings covered with feathers and adapted for flight. Birds are endothermic , have
16819-575: The time, it presaged the collapse of American isolationism. It was also one of the few pieces of art to warn not only about the European, but also about the Asian threat. Albert Wertheim remarked, "Ardrey's play is remarkable in another way as well. It is one of the only—perhaps the only—play of the period to see the conflicts and dangers across the Pacific. All other pre-Pearl Harbor plays of note look exclusively across
16958-401: The toes are often webbed for swimming or have suction pads for climbing. Frogs have large eyes and no tail. Salamanders resemble lizards in appearance; their short legs project sideways, the belly is close to or in contact with the ground and they have a long tail. Caecilians superficially resemble earthworms and are limbless. They burrow by means of zones of muscle contractions which move along
17097-538: The trunk, which is held well clear of the ground. The bones of mammals are well ossified and their teeth, which are usually differentiated, are coated in a layer of prismatic enamel . The teeth are shed once ( milk teeth ) during the animal's lifetime or not at all, as is the case in cetaceans . Mammals have three bones in the middle ear and a cochlea in the inner ear . They are clothed in hair and their skin contains glands which secrete sweat . Some of these glands are specialized as mammary glands , producing milk to feed
17236-442: The vertebrae. Their skulls are mostly broad and short, and are often incompletely ossified. Their skin contains little keratin and lacks scales, but contains many mucous glands and in some species, poison glands. The hearts of amphibians have three chambers, two atria and one ventricle . They have a urinary bladder and nitrogenous waste products are excreted primarily as urea . Amphibians breathe by means of buccal pumping ,
17375-527: The war in the Pacific. He has lost one leg, but gained the ability to run an adding machine. Seeking out employment, he is faced with the bigotry of his countrymen. Jeb opened in New York in 1946. It received largely positive reviews (famed American theatre critic George Jean Nathan called it the best play on the topic of civil rights) and found small but enthusiastic audiences. However, due to factors including high production costs and relatively low revenues,
17514-529: The war, he took up a position as a senior demonstrator at the University College, London in 1920 at the behest of Grafton Elliot Smith , famed anatomist, anthropologist and fellow Australian. This was followed by a year on a Rockefeller Foundation Fellowship at Washington University in St. Louis . Returning to England and work at the University College, London , he reluctantly took up the position of Professor at
17653-437: The water column. Amphibians are a class of animals comprising frogs , salamanders and caecilians . They are tetrapods , but the caecilians and a few species of salamander have either no limbs or their limbs are much reduced in size. Their main bones are hollow and lightweight and are fully ossified and the vertebrae interlock with each other and have articular processes . Their ribs are usually short and may be fused to
17792-463: The writing of the play Star Spangled . Star Spangled opened on Broadway in 1935. It was a comedy that brought to life the classic struggles of an immigrant family living on the South Side of Chicago. It received largely negative reviews and lasted only a few days. However it did catch the attention of notable playwright Sidney Howard , whom Ardrey claims was instrumental in the resulting award of
17931-411: The young. Mammals breathe with lungs and have a muscular diaphragm separating the thorax from the abdomen which helps them draw air into the lungs. The mammalian heart has four chambers, and oxygenated and deoxygenated blood are kept entirely separate. Nitrogenous waste is excreted primarily as urea. Mammals are amniotes , and most are viviparous , giving birth to live young. Exceptions to this are
18070-485: Was able to identify a primordial neocortex, the oldest structure that can be considered as a neocortex, in a reptile. He identified a distinction between the cytoarchitecture in an area that split it into a para-hippocampal and a para-pyriform region. Dart married Dora Tyree, a medical student from Virginia, U.S., in 1921 in Woods Hole, Massachusetts, U.S., and they divorced in 1934. He married Marjorie Frew, head librarian at
18209-425: Was also responsible for naming and describing the function of the epiglottis and the heart's valves, including the tricuspid. During the third century, Greek physicians were able to differentiate nerves from blood vessels and tendons and to realize that the nerves convey neural impulses. It was Herophilus who made the point that damage to motor nerves induced paralysis. Herophilus named the meninges and ventricles in
18348-612: Was directed by Garson Kanin , starred Carole Lombard and Charles Laughton , and was shot on location in Napa Valley . In 1946, after a series of talks with RKO, Ardrey and his new agent Harold Norling Swanson negotiated the first-ever independent contract with a major Hollywood studio for him to write the screen adaptation of the A. J. Cronin novel The Green Years . The contract stipulated that Ardrey could work at his home in Brentwood – an unprecedented studio concession – and he
18487-483: Was not to be bothered until he completed the screenplay in around six weeks. The Green Years debuted to record profits and went on to be one of the highest-grossing films of 1946. Following these successes in Hollywood, Ardrey returned to New York to reengage the theater. There he wrote Jeb . Jeb was a play about a disabled African American soldier returning to his home in the rural south after having fought in
18626-421: Was particularly concerned with studies of the circulatory and nervous systems. He could distinguish the human body's sensory and motor nerves and believed air entered the lungs and heart, which was then carried throughout the body. His distinction between the arteries and veins—the arteries carrying the air through the body, while the veins carry the blood from the heart was a great anatomical discovery. Erasistratus
18765-488: Was reprinted in Science Digest and led to The Smithsonian Institution contacting Dart. The theory was later refuted but was influential at the time. This trip would serve as the beginning of Ardrey's renewed interest in the human sciences and the initiation of his writing on paleoanthropology. Ardrey spent the latter part of his life working as a science writer . (In 1969 he was also contracted by Universal to write
18904-774: Was right, and I was wrong". Keith made this statement referring to his dismissal and scepticism of Dart's analysis of the Taung Child as an early human ancestor; Keith thought that it was more likely to be an ape, yet later research by Broom confirmed Dart's theories. Dart's theories were also popularised by playwright, screenwriter, and science writer Robert Ardrey , first in an article published in The Reporter and reprinted in Science Digest , and later in Ardrey's influential four-book Nature of Man Series , which began in 1961 with African Genesis . Not all of Dart's theories would in
19043-599: Was the first modern play to go up in the American zone. It continues to be commonly produced in American university theaters and productions have gone up all around the globe, including in Harare (formerly Salisbury), Zimbabwe , and Nairobi , Kenya . After Thunder Rock quickly closed on Broadway, Ardrey returned to Hollywood. His first official credit was the screenplay for the adaptation of Sidney Howard's Pulitzer Prize-winning play They Knew What They Wanted (1939) . It
19182-450: Was the standard anatomy textbook for the next century. Robert Ardrey As a playwright and screenwriter Ardrey received many accolades. He was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1937, won the inaugural Sidney Howard Memorial Award in 1940, and in 1966 received an Academy Award nomination for best screenplay for his script for Khartoum . His most famous play is Thunder Rock . Ardrey's science writing challenged models in
19321-635: Was written and produced in 1966, directed by Basil Dearden . The film is based on historical accounts of British Gen. Charles "Chinese" Gordon 's defense of the Sudanese city of Khartoum from the forces of the Mahdist army during the Siege of Khartoum . Khartoum starred Charlton Heston as General Gordon and Laurence Olivier as the Mahdi ( Muhammad Ahmed ). Heston, in his autobiography, wrote about his decision to take
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