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47-615: Acharya Ravisena was a seventh century Digambara Jain Acharya , who wrote Padmapurana ( Jain Ramayana ) in Sanskrit in 678 AD. In Padmapurana , he mentions about a ceremony called suttakantha , which means the thread hanging from neck. Ravishena and his Padmapurana has been mentioned in Kuvalaya-mālā of Udyotana Suri (Vikram 835) and Jinasena in his Harivansha Purana (Vikram 840). Padmapurana

94-642: A commentary on the Dhavala ), Samantabhadra and Siddhasena Divakara . The Satkhandagama and Kasayapahuda have major significance in the Digambara tradition. There have been several Digambara monastic lineages that all trace their descent to Mahavira. The historical lineages included Mula Sangha (further divided into Nandi , Sena , Simha and Deva Sanghas) and now largely extinct Kashtha Sangha (which included Mathura sangha, ""Lat-Vagad" etc.), Dravida Sangh. The text Darshana-Sara of Devasena discusses

141-591: A renowned Jain scholar, after researching the scriptures of the Digambara sect described several points of critique: - Nalini Balbir , another renowned scholar of Jainism , has criticised the Digambara views on liberation of women and advocates for a more inclusive and gender-equal interpretation of the scriptures. She lists her criticism in the following manner: - Balbir states that: The Digambara sect's view that women cannot achieve liberation in their present birth

188-449: A scholar of Hindu and Jain studies, less than one fifth of all Jains in India have a Digambara heritage. According to Heinrich Zimmer , the word Digambara is a combination of two Sanskrit words: dik (दिक्) (space, sky) and ambara (अम्बर) (garment), referring to those whose garments are of the element that fills the four quarters of space. The Digambaras and Śvetāmbara disagree on how

235-507: A treatise about the soul and Karma theory, written in Prakrit language. Philologically, the text belongs to about the 2nd-century, and has nothing that suggests it is of "immemorial antiquity". In details, the text is quite similar in its teachings to those found in Prajnapana – the 4th upanga – of Śvetāmbaras. Between the two, the poetic meter of Satkhandagama suggests it was composed after

282-470: A visiting lecturer position in philosophy at Columbia University . Here, Joseph Campbell , who was then working on his first book, A Skeleton Key to Finnegans Wake (1944) attended his lectures. The two men became good friends. Zimmer died unexpectedly of pneumonia in 1943, two years after his arrival in the United States. According to Joseph Campbell, "Zimmer was at the opening of what would have been

329-895: Is a 'biological determinism' that is not supported by Jain scriptures. This view is a 'patriarchal interpretation' that has been 'superimposed' on the original teachings of Mahavira. Kristi L. Wiley, a scholar of Jainism , has also criticized the Digambara sect's views on liberation of women. Specifically, she highlights the following points of critique: Scriptures of other religions and schools of thought such as Buddhism , Islam , and Sikhism also criticize and condemn public nudity followed by Digambara monks. Other than rejecting or accepting different ancient Jain texts, Digambaras and Śvetāmbara differ in other significant ways such as: These are as follows 1. Ahimsa - nonviolence, non-injury, and absence of desire to harm any life forms. 2. Satya - truthful in one's thoughts, speech and action. 3. Asteya - non-stealing". One must not steal, nor have

376-724: Is awarded by the Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR) in New Delhi and is based both at the Cluster of Excellence "Asia and Europe in a Global Context" and at the South Asia Institute at Heidelberg University. The first holder of this new endowed chair in Indian philosophy and intellectual history was the Indian historian of science Dhruv Raina . Heeraman Tiwari, the second holder of

423-460: Is completely unrelated to Digambar Jain tradition, even though they also practice nudity. The Digambara Jains worship completely nude idols of tirthankaras (omniscient beings) and siddha (liberated souls). The tirthankara is represented either seated in yoga posture or standing in the Kayotsarga posture. The truly "sky-clad" ( digambara ) Jaina statue expresses the perfect isolation of

470-448: Is considered to be parigraha (possession), which ultimately leads to attachment. The monks carry picchi , a broom made up of fallen peacock feathers for removing small insects to avoid causing injury and Kamandalu (the gourd for carrying pure, sterilized water). The head of all monastics is called Āchārya , while the saintly preceptor of saints is the upādhyāya . The Āchārya has 36 primary attributes ( mūla guņa ) in addition to

517-548: Is guided by a code called mulacara ( mulachara ). This includes 28 mūla guņas (primary attributes) for the monk. The oldest text containing these norms is the 2nd-century Mulachara attributed to Vattekara, that probably originated in the Mathura region. These are: 5 mahāvratas (great vows); 5 samitis (restraints); 5 indriya nirodha (control of the five senses); 6 āvaśyakas (essential observations); and 7 niyamas (rules). Digambara monks do not wear any clothes as it

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564-423: Is one of the two major schools of Jainism , the other being Śvetāmbara (white-clad). The Sanskrit word Digambara means "sky-clad", referring to their traditional monastic practice of neither possessing nor wearing any clothes. Digambara and Śvetāmbara traditions have had historical differences ranging from their dress code, their temples and iconography, attitude towards female monastics, their legends, and

611-512: Is said to follow Paumachariya , although it sometimes departs from it. In the Jain tradition, Rama is a Balabhadra, who is non-violent. According to Padma Purana, Ravana was killed by Lakshmana. After having rules for many years, Rama, became a muni and eventually attained nirvana. This Jainism -related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Digambara Digambara ( / d ɪ ˈ ɡ ʌ m b ər ə / ; "sky-clad")

658-506: The moksha of Mahavira. That anga was also lost with the death of those two. Dharasena's teachings that have survived are Ṣaṭkhaṅḍāgama (Scripture of Six Parts) and Kasayapahuda (Treatise on the Passions), which were written on palm leaves near a cave in Mount Girnar (Gujarat) and a copy of which with a 12th-century commentary came to Tulu Nadu (south Karnataka). This has survived as

705-581: The University of Greifswald , moving to Heidelberg University to fill the Chair of Indian Philology (1924–1938). In 1938, he was dismissed by the Nazis based on the fact that his Christian wife was the great-great-granddaughter of a Jewish Austrian , and he emigrated to England, where between 1939 and 1940 he taught at Balliol College , Oxford . In 1940 he moved to New Rochelle, New York , where he eventually accepted

752-404: The dravyanuyoga (entity exposition) contains metaphysical discussions. In the Digambara tradition, it is not the oldest texts that have survived in its temples and monasteries that attract the most study or reverence, rather it is the late 9th-century Mahapurana (universal history) of Jinasena that is the most revered and cherished. The Mahapurana includes not only religious history, but also

799-554: The Ācārāṅga Sūtra . Heinrich Zimmer He was born in Greifswald , Germany. Zimmer began studying Sanskrit and linguistics at the University of Berlin in 1909. He earned his doctorate in 1914 with a thesis entitled Studien zur Geschichte der Gotras and directed by Heinrich Lüders . He completed his Ph.D. in philology and comparative linguistics in 1914 at the University of Berlin. Between 1920 and 1924, he lectured at

846-467: The 28 mentioned above. The monks perform kayotsarga daily, in a rigid and immobile posture, with the arms held stiffly down, knees straight, and toes directed forward. Female monastics in Digambara tradition are known as aryikas . Digambara nuns, unlike the monks in their tradition, wear clothes. Given their beliefs such as non-attachment and non-possession, the Digambara tradition has held that women cannot achieve salvation (moksha) as men can, and

893-452: The Corpse , which in turn became Zimmer's lasting legacy. "On all levels there are rituals capable of transforming man. But it is everywhere the tradition and trend to rank the spiritual, sublime practices above the sensual and magical ones, since the general course of cultural development has favored the spiritual element over the material and feminine. This development has taken place under

940-576: The Digambara subtradition started in Jainism. According to Digambaras, they are the original followers of Mahavira and Śvetāmbara branched off later in the time of Bhadrabahu when their forecast twelve-year famine triggered their migration from central India. One group of Jain monks headed west and north towards Rajasthan , while the second group headed south towards Karnataka . The former became Śvetāmbara and retained their "heretic" beliefs and practices such as wearing "white clothes" they adopted there, say

987-532: The Digambaras. In contrast, according to Śvetāmbara, they are the original followers, and Digambaras arose 609 years after the death of Mahavira (about 1st century CE) because of an arrogant man named Sivabhuti who became a Jain monk in a fit of pique after a fight at home. He is accused of starting the Digambara Jain tradition with what Śvetāmbara call as "eight concealments", of rejecting Jain texts preserved by

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1034-566: The Mudbidri manuscripts, which were used by regional Jains not for reading and study, but as an object of devotional worship for centuries. In the 19th century, the fragile and decaying manuscript was copied and portions of it leaked to scholars between 1896 and 1922 despite objections of Digambara monks. It is considered to be the oldest known Digambara text ultimately traceable to the 2nd-century. These two oldest known Digambara tradition texts – Satkhandagama and Kasayapahuda – are predominantly

1081-629: The Self ). The two men first met in 1932, after which Zimmer, along with Richard Wilhelm , became one of the few male friends of Jung . Zimmer is credited by many for the popularizing of Hindu art in the West, as he was the first to identify the radical difference between Western classical and Indian art . In 1929 he married Christiane von Hofmannsthal (1902–1987), daughter of Austrian novelist Hugo von Hofmannsthal and Gertrud ( née Schlesinger) von Hofmannsthal. Her younger brother, Raimund von Hofmannsthal ,

1128-544: The archeological evidences which indicate that Jain monks moved from the practice of total nudity towards wearing clothes in later period. Tirthankara statues found in Mathura and dated to 2nd-century CE or after are naked. The oldest Tirthankara statue wearing a cloth is dated in 5th century CE. Digamabara statues of tirthankara belonging to Gupta period has half-closed eyes. In 17th-century, adhyatma movement in Agra led to rise of terapanthi and bisapanthi sub-sects based on

1175-548: The art, insights that were appreciated by Joseph Campbell among others. Campbell edited many of Zimmer's writings after his death. In the foreword to Zimmer's book, Artistic Form and Yoga in the Sacred Images of India , Campbell makes reference to a memorial to Heinrich Zimmer, which was read at the New York Oriental Club meeting in the spring of 1949: "Dr. Zimmer stood alone, forming a class by himself, not only for

1222-426: The best a nun can achieve is to be reborn as a man in the next rebirth. The monks are held to be of higher status than nuns in Digambara monasteries, states Jeffery Long. From the Digambara monk's perspective, both Digambara nuns and Śvetāmbara monastic community are simply more pious Jain laypeople, who do not or are unable to fully practice the Jain monastic vows. Digambara nuns are relatively rare in comparison to

1269-426: The castle. To avoid expropriation by the Nazis due to the family's Jewish heritage, she wanted to give the castle away to Christiane and Heinrich Zimmer, who could then have sold the property to Gustav Kapsreiter, a friend of the family, but the sale, which was initially approved, was ultimately prohibited and the family property was expropriated. Kapsreiter's attempts to acquire the property were unsuccessful, instead

1316-707: The differences over acceptance of authority of bhattarakas . King Jai Singh II (1688–1743) of Amer kingdom built separate temples for the two sub-sects in his newly established capital of Jaipur . Terapanthis , led by scholars like Pandit Todarmal and Banarasidas , rejected the authority of bhattarakas . Early Jain images from Mathura depict Digambara iconography until late fifth century CE where Śvetāmbara iconography starts appearing. According to Digambara texts, after liberation of Mahavira , three Anubaddha Kevalīs attained Kevalajñāna (omniscience) sequentially – Gautama Gaņadhara , Acharya Sudharma Swami, and Jambusvami in next 62 years. During

1363-577: The following lineage of teachers are revered: Mahavira , Gautama , Kundakunda , Bhadrabahu , Umaswami , Samantabhadra , Siddhasena Divakara , Pujyapada , Manatunga , Virasena , Jinasena , Nemichandra . Kundakunda is considered the most significant scholar monk of the Digambara tradition of Jainism. He authored Prakrit texts such as the Samayasāra and the Pravacanasāra . Other prominent Acharyas of this tradition were, Virasena (author of

1410-451: The intent to steal, another's property through action, speech, and thoughts. 4. Aparigraha - the virtue of non-possessiveness or non-greediness. Mahavira inserted 5th vow ie Brahmacharya - sexual restraint or practice of celibacy. Renunciation of sex and marriage. This was thought to be understood to within 4th vow of Aparigraha, but was more specified as 5th vow of Brahmacharya. Mahāvīra taught Five vows. The Digambara sect disagrees with

1457-561: The mid-second century Ṣaṭkhaṅḍāgama "Scripture in Six Parts" of Dharasena (the Moodabidri manuscripts). One of the most important scholar-monks of the Digambara tradition was Kundakunda . Digambara Jain communities are currently found mainly in most parts of North India in states like Rajasthan , Uttar Pradesh , Delhi , Bihar , Jharkhand , Madhya Pradesh , parts of south Maharashtra and Karnataka . According to Jeffery D. Long ,

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1504-639: The most productive period of his career. . . hardly had he begun to find his stride, however, when, suddenly stricken, he passed from full career to his death within seven days." After Zimmer's death, Campbell was given the task of editing and posthumously publishing Zimmer's papers, which he did over the next 12 years, turning Zimmer's lecture notes into four books, in the Bollingen Series: Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization , Philosophies of India , The Art of Indian Asia , and The King and

1551-401: The next hundred years, five Āchāryas had complete knowledge of the scriptures, as such, called Śruta Kevalīs , the last of them being Āchārya Bhadrabahu. Spiritual lineage of heads of monastic orders is known as Pattavali . Digambara tradition consider Dharasena to be the 33rd teacher in succession of Gautama, 683 years after the nirvana of Mahavira. In the Digambara tradition,

1598-415: The nuns found in Śvetāmbara traditions. According to a 1970s and 1980s survey of Jain subtraditions, there were about 125 Digambara monks in India and 50 Digambara nuns. This compared to 3,400 nuns and 1,200 monks in the Śvetāmbara tradition. The Digambar Akhara , which along with other akharas , also participates in various inter-sectarian ( sampradaya ) religious activities including Kumbh Melas ,

1645-1305: The one who has stripped off every bond. His is an absolute "abiding in itself," a strange but perfect aloofness, a nudity of chilling majesty, in its stony simplicity, rigid contours, and abstraction. Modern Digambara community is divided into various sub-sects viz. Terapanthi , Bispanthi , Taranpanthi (or Samayiapanthi ), Gumanapanthi , Totapanthi and Kanjipanthi . Both the terapanthis and bisapanthis worship with ashta-dravya which includes jal (water), chandan (sandal), akshata (sacred rice), pushp (yellow rice), deep (yellow dry coconut), dhup ( kapoor or cloves) and phal (almonds). Bisapanthi religious practices include aarti and offerings of flowers, fruits and prasad whereas terapanthis don't use them. Bispanthis worship minor gods and goddesses like Yaksha and Yakshini like Bhairava and Kshetrapala whereas terapanthis do not. Bisapanthis accept bhattarakas as their religious leaders but terapanthis do not. Terapanthis occur in large numbers in Rajasthan , Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh . Bisapanthis are concentrated in Rajasthan, Gujarat , Maharastra and South India. Padmanabh Jaini,

1692-619: The predominance of the male principle. But with the cult of the Great Goddess in late Hinduism , the archaic heritage of sensual earth-bound rites rises once again overwhelmingly to the zenith." Zimmer's method was to examine religious images using their sacred significance as a key to their psychic transformation. His use of (Indian) philosophy and religious history to interpret art was at odds with traditional scholarship. His vast knowledge of Hindu mythology and philosophy (particularly Puranic and Tantric works) gave him insights into

1739-419: The sculptor Josef Thorak was able to acquire the property for ℛℳ 60,000, which at the time was described as a "small fifteenth-century residence, beautifully furnished and immaculately maintained". In 1947, however, Schloss Prielau was restituted to the von Hofmannsthal family. A chair has been named after Heinrich Zimmer since 2010. The Heinrich Zimmer Chair for Indian Philosophy and Intellectual History

1786-522: The sociological history of the Jaina people – including the Jain caste system and its origins as formulated by Rishabhanatha – from the Digambara Jaina perspective. The Digamabara tradition maintains a long list of revered teachers, and this list includes Kundakunda, Samantabhadra, Pujyapada, Jinasena, Akalanka, Vidyanandi, Somadeva and Asadhara. The lifestyle and behavioral conduct of a Digambara monk

1833-536: The supposed differences among the orders. The Mula sangha orders include Deshiya Gana (Bhattarakas of Shravanabelgola etc.) and Balatkara Gana (Bhattarakas of Humcha , and numerous lineages of North/Central India) traditions. The Bhattarakas of Shravanabelagola and Mudbidri belong to Deshiya Gana and the Bhattaraka of Humbaj belongs to the Balatkara Gana . The Digambara sect of Jainism rejects

1880-529: The texts and canonical literature of the Śvetāmbara sect. They believe that the words of Mahavira neither survive nor could be recorded. The original teachings went through a rapid period of decline, state the Digambaras, and Śvetāmbara claims of preserving the sacred knowledge and ancient angas is false. According to the Digambaras , their 33rd achārya was Dharasena who knew one anga , and he taught these to Pushpadanta and Bhutabali , 683 years after

1927-429: The texts they consider as important. Digambara monks cherish the virtue of non-attachment and non-possession of any material goods. Monks carry a community-owned picchi , which is a broom made of fallen peacock feathers for removing and thus saving the life of insects in their path or before they sit. The Digambara literature can be traced only to the first millennium, with its oldest surviving sacred text being

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1974-516: The tradition of "naked ascetics" the Digambar monks. In 2011, Patrick Olivelle stated that the context in which the Greek records mention gymnosophists include ritual suicide by cremation traceable to ancient Brahmanism , rather than the traditional Jain ritual of embracing death by starvation and taking samadhi by voluntarily sacrificing everything including food and water ( sallekhana ). Dundas talks about

2021-438: The wide range of subjects he was proficient in, but also for his unique genius of interpretation. . . Zimmer strove to understand both Eastern and Western ideas from Universal conceptions lying at the root of spiritual and psychological developments everywhere." The psychiatrist Carl Jung also developed a long-standing relationship with Zimmer, and incidentally edited a volume of Zimmer's entitled Der Weg zum Selbst ( The Way to

2068-506: The Śvetāmbara interpretations, and reject the theory of difference in Parshvanatha and Mahāvīra's teachings. However, Digambaras as well as Śvetāmbaras follow Five vows as taught by Mahavira . The difference is only that Śvetāmbaras believe Parshvanatha taught one vow less (the Four vows except Brahmacharya ) than Mahavira . However, monks of Śvetāmbara sect also follow all 5 vows as stated in

2115-494: The Śvetāmbara text. Digambaras, unlike Śvetāmbaras, do not have a canon. They do have a quasi-canonical literature grouped into four literary categories called anuyoga (exposition) since the time of the Digambara scholar Rakshita. The prathmanuyoga (first exposition) contains the universal history, the karananuyoga (calculation exposition) contains works on cosmology, the charananuyoga (behaviour exposition) includes texts about proper behaviour for monks and lay people, while

2162-495: The Śvetāmbara tradition, and misunderstanding the Jain ideology including those related to nuns and clothes. Neither of these explanations can be found in early Jain or non-Jain texts. The earliest version of this Digambara story appears in the 10th century CE, while the earliest version of the Śvetāmbara story appears in the 5th century CE. In 1943, Heinrich Zimmer proposed that the Greek records of 4th-century BCE mention gymnosophists (naked philosophers) which may have links to

2209-554: Was twice married, first to American heiress Ava Alice Muriel Astor (whose daughter from a later marriage eventually married Zimmer's son) and Lady Elizabeth Paget (a daughter Charles Paget, 6th Marquess of Anglesey ). Together, they were the parents of: Zimmer died of pneumonia in New Rochelle, New York, on March 20, 1943. In 1932, his wife's widowed mother, Gerty von Hofmannsthal bought Schloss Prielau in Zell am See and began restoring

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