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74-527: Rapid Bay is a locality that includes a small seaside town and bay on the west coast of the Fleurieu Peninsula , South Australia . It lies within the District Council of Yankalilla and its township is approximately 100 km south of the state capital, Adelaide . A pair of jetties are popular attractions for recreational fishing , scuba diving and snorkelling . The bay particularly known as

148-543: A 1,650-acre artificial reef created in 2017 in the Gulf of Mexico off the coast of Texas, is being studied to assess its potential for carbon capture. Another study area is located off Juehua Island in the Bohai Sea . Biological, physical, social and technological factors must all be considered in calculating carbon capture flow in aquatic systems. Near Juehua Island, M-shaped artificial reefs improved hydrodynamic conditions for creating

222-456: A better understanding of the processes and refined methods for predicting shoreline response". Even in cases which were initially seen as successful, subsequent changes and deterioration of structures have led to poor outcomes. Surfers' expectations of artificial reefs, particularly "an expectation by the general public of consistent, quality waves during a wide range of environmental conditions" have also led to disappointment. Surfing science

296-481: A biologist with the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), have argued that the amount of biomass found on artificial reefs is attracted away from nearby areas rather than developing there. According to this view, artificial reefs do not increase fish populations. Instead they operate as a type of fish aggregating device (FAD) bringing in fish, eggs and larvae from other reefs. However, there

370-517: A carbon sink, but local marine species had limited availability. Development of active marine management strategies and the introduction of appropriate biological species were suggested as ways to increase carbon capture potential. In the Caribbean, researchers have found that the placement of breeze blocks as artificial reefs near tropical seagrass meadows can create a positive feedback loop. The reef structures attracted fish by providing shelter, and

444-404: A crane to assist with loading and unloading cargoes but the crane was lost in transit from Second Valley in some four-and-a-half fathoms of water where it was abandoned. The first jetty at Rapid Bay was constructed of timber and was intended for the export of wool and wheat. Wheat and lead were exported from Second Valley during the 1860s owing to the lack of a suitable road to bring those cargoes to

518-472: A crushing plant, jetty and loading wharf, were eventually sold to Adelaide Brighton Cement in 1981. On 1 January 1982, ownership of the jetty was transferred to the Government of South Australia at no cost. Total production from 1942 to 2013 is estimated at 17 million tonnes, most of which was used for industrial purposes. Incomplete figures indicate production for construction material between 1977 and 2013

592-598: A first phase, and woven polyester bags in a second stage filling an area of approximately 1600 cubic meters. The area involved was too small to be successful. Even after doubling the original budget, the materials used degraded rapidly, and the resulting remediation cost more than the installation. Mount Reef at Mount Maunganui in New Zealand used more durable containers and a volume of around 6,000 cubic meters of sand. Although somewhat successful in creating waves, it too deteriorated and had to be removed. The Narrowneck Reef

666-443: A food source for coral, causing the coral to die. PVCs , plastics , oil , paint , asbestos , iron and other rusting metal, can release toxic contaminants such as Poly-chlorinated biphenols (PCBs) and heavy metals ( Pb, Cu, Ni, Cd, Zn, Ag, and Hg ). Toxic materials can potentially enter the food chain and affect it at all levels, including fish and humans. However, consumption of seafood from artificial reefs and wrecks

740-724: A hazard, for use in artificial reefs. For example, oil and coal fly ash have been stabilized with cement and lime to create experimental artificial reef blocks. However, as with the use of tires, there continue to be environmental concerns about the potential for leaching. In the United States, best practices for preparing vessels for use in artificial reefs include assuming that divers may access all locations, removing potential hazards to divers, removing all polluting or toxic materials, including PCBs (in compliance with applicable water quality standards for class III ocean waters), and clearing debris and floatables. However, if materials over

814-449: A high voltage power line from Willunga during the period 1938 to 1942 as part of the works undertaken to establish a limestone quarry. During the construction of the jetty, a worker named John Gamlin went missing and was presumed to have fallen from a platform that lacked rails and drowned. The tide was running quickly and wind speeds were reaching 40 miles per hour on the day of his disappearance. Quarrying commenced in 1942. The limestone

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888-482: A mining town . Rapid Bay is known for its steep cliffs, caves, beach, two jetties and associated artificial reef . A resident leafy seadragon population inhabits the bay and weedy seadragons are also occasionally seen. It is considered to be among the best scuba diving sites in South Australia and Australia and has been featured on SportDiver as one of the world's top nine dives. The ecological communities on

962-429: A much higher attraction to living in vertical artificial reef structures than older Red Snapper. By ages 6–8, adults return to muddy and sand bottom habitats, which provide a home for the species' pelagic larval phase. Being aware of how organisms relate to the marine habitat is critical to mapping marine resources and understanding how artificial reefs affect marine processes. The siting of artificial reefs should consider

1036-453: A new jetty of 240 metres (790 feet) length located 50 metres (160 feet) east of the BHP jetty was completed in 2009 to replace the public amenity lost by the progressive closure of the BHP jetty. The new jetty has since been colonised by marine life and augments the more established ecological communities on and around the historic jetty. At the seaward end, a staircase provides safe and easy entry to

1110-493: A pH-level that is compatible with coral. The tiles are small enough to be handled and installed by a diver. An installation in Hong Kong reported a 95 percent coral survival rate after three years, more than four times the survival rate of more traditional restoration methods. Restoration and mitigation actions on artificial reefs can include activities such as coral transplantation, larval resettlement, and gardening. For example,

1184-626: A popular campsite at Rapid Bay, whose name probably means "place of the separate country". However, there is no evidence that any of these names was a place name for Rapid Bay, though the bay is officially dual-named Patpangga . Prior to the establishment of the South Australian colony, whalers based on Kangaroo Island were known to have called at Rapid Bay though it was not so named until 1836. South Australia Colonial Surveyor General Colonel William Light made his first landfall on mainland South Australia at Rapid Bay on 8 September 1836. The site

1258-535: A shipwreck led to increases in algae and a sea anemone called a corallimorph, smothering existing coral to create a "black reef". Artificial reefs can show quick increases in local fish population, coral reef and algae growth. However, the attraction–production dilemma is the question of whether local increases in fish stocks result from broader-area distributional changes in populations (the attraction hypothesis) or increases in local production (the production hypothesis). Some researchers, such as James Bohnsack,

1332-516: A site for observing leafy seadragons in the wild. Its postcode is 5204. Rapid Bay features in the creation myths of the Kaurna and Ramindjeri peoples most notably as the burial site of the nephew of the Kaurna creator ancestor known as Tjilbruke . There is uncertainty as to the Kaurna name for Rapid Bay, which has been cited as Patparno, Patpangga (meaning "south" or "south place"), and Yarta-kulangga,

1406-434: A surfing reef, off Hermosa Beach, California (1971). Artificial surfing reefs have been created at Cable Station Reef ( Perth , Western Australia , 1999) Narrowneck Reef ( Gold Coast, Queensland , 2000) Chevron Reef , also known as Pratte's Reef ( El Segundo, California , 2000, removed 2008). and Boscombe Surf Reef (Dorset, England, 2009, closed 2011). The construction of artificial surfing reefs has involved

1480-1062: A variety of intended uses, ranging from the protection, enhancement and restoration of marine ecosystems to the support of human activities like fishing, recreational diving and surfing. Artificial reefs can be used as active restoration tools to mitigate environmental damage and habitat loss, restore degraded ecosystems such as kelp forests and coral reefs, and promote biodiversity. In fisheries management, artificial reefs may be intended to increase production of species of recreational and commercial interest, enhance fishing yield, and support recreational, artisanal or commercial fisheries. They may be designed to protect benthic habitats from illegal trawling and restore fish stocks. They may be placed to protect against coastal erosion. They may also be developed to support eco-tourism, promote recreational activities like scuba diving and surfing, and mitigate tourism pressure on corals. The design and construction of an artificial reef may be very different depending on its proposed location and intended goals. A reef that

1554-679: A variety of structures including concrete, rock, and geotextile bags filled with sand. Life expectancy of such materials varies widely. Geotextile structures have been found to degrade more quickly than anticipated under ocean conditions. Some analysts argue that they are fundamentally flawed. While use of stone blocks has raised concerns about possible safety hazards for surfers, it has been suggested that using stone may be structurally preferable. In addition to improving surfing conditions, objectives of building an artificial surfing reef or multi-purpose reef have included stabilizing beachfront, coastal protection and coastal research. Habitat enhancement

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1628-934: Is a relatively new field. The ability to achieve consistency of surfing waves in a range of conditions in natural environments generally requires wave pre-conditioning or large scale breaking features or both. The scale of early artificial surfing reefs was too small to achieve such consistency. Thousands of popular wreck diving sites throughout the world are shipwrecks sunk as artificial reefs. Some of these wrecks were sunk deliberately to attract divers . The USS  Spiegel Grove and USS  Oriskany in Florida , USS  Indra and USS  Aeolus in North Carolina, and Bianca C. in Grenada draw thousands of divers annually. In other areas, dive sites have been developed in collaboration with artists as artworks. For example,

1702-575: Is applied to a sub-sea metallic structures that causes limestone to precipitate onto a metal frame onto which coral planulae can then attach and grow; the process also speeds up post-attachment growth. 3D printing technology has been employed both to create molds to optimize the environment for target species, and to directly create cast ceramic and concrete artificial reefs. Work has also been done to develop environmentally friendly materials. For example, Archireef has designed 3D-printed terracotta Reef Tiles, which are nontoxic, biodegradable, and have

1776-684: Is being done into construction methods and the effects of artificial reefs. Many of the materials used early on are now considered undesirable. A 2001 literature review suggested that about half of the reefs studied met their objectives. Long-term planning and ongoing management were identified as essential factors in success. A more recent analysis of reefs world wide between 1990 and 2020 concludes that artificial reefs can be useful tools for restoring marine ecosystems if they are strategically designed to suit their specific location and its resource needs. The construction of artificial reefs began in ancient times. According to historian Diodorus Siculus ,

1850-1115: Is built from objects that were intended for other purposes, such as sinking oil rigs (through the Rigs-to-Reefs program), scuttling ships , or by deploying rubble or construction debris . Shipwrecks may become artificial reefs when preserved on the seafloor. A conventional artificial reef uses materials such as concrete, which can be molded into specialized forms (e.g. reef balls ). Green artificial reefs incorporate renewable and organic materials such as vegetable fibres and seashells to improve sustainability and reduce energy consumption, pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions. In some cases, artificial reefs have been developed as artworks. Artificial reefs generally provide hard surfaces where algae and invertebrates such as barnacles , corals , and oysters attach and spaces where different sizes of fishes can hide. The accumulation of attached marine life in turn provides intricate structures and food for assemblages of fish. The ecological impact of an artificial reef depends on multiple factors including where it

1924-689: Is considered unlikely to pose a long-term health risk for humans at average levels of consumption, with the exception of urchins and other grazing shellfish which should be avoided. International recommendations state that artificial reefs should use inert materials. Under the 2009 "Specific Guidelines for Assessment of Inert, Inorganic Geological Material" developed by the London Convention and Protocol/UNEP, inert materials cannot cause contamination through leaching, physical and chemical deterioration, or biological activity. Attempts continue to be made to create stable waste-based materials that will not pose

1998-522: Is designed for one purpose may be unsuitable for others. Early attempts to create artificial reefs frequently failed, or at best, met with mixed results. More recent reviews of work from 1990-2020 suggest that a correctly implemented artificial reef, designed to fit its target ecosystem, can be useful as a tool for the restoration of marine ecosystems. Reviewers call for better before/after and control comparisons of artificial and natural reefs, increased monitoring of reefs over their lifespan, and attention to

2072-427: Is situated, how it is constructed, and the ages and types of species involved. While the artificial reefs allow for coral growth, it changes the ecosystem as the relative growth for different species is not always the same. Studies have found that macroalgal, cyanobacterial groups, and coral that are fast growing, grow in artificial reefs at different rates than they would grow in natural reefs. Considerable research

2146-446: Is some evidence to suggest that artificial reefs can be a source of production as well as attraction. A 2022 review concluded that "the attraction-production question around ARs ... can only be assessed on a case-by-case basis for each AR, and validated after their installation." Concentrating fish on a reef makes for easier fishing. The increased concentration of fish on artificial reefs can make it easier to harvest fish stocks, with

2220-464: Is sometimes considered as well. However, different materials are preferred for the construction of artificial surfing reefs and the development of reefs for ecosystem enhancement. A 2012 review of artificial reefs indicated that artificial surfing reefs performed poorly in terms of their intended purpose and successfulness, rarely achieving primary or secondary objectives of "Surfing Enhancement". For Pratte's reef, woven polypropylene bags were used in

2294-631: The Coral Restoration Foundation in the Florida Keys raises keystone species such as elkhorn ( Acropora palmata ) and staghorn ( Acropora cervicornis ) in coral tree nurseries and replants the corals onto degrading coral reefs. Application of such technologies to artificial reefs could help to restore marine ecosystems. A 2023 review article states: "The implementation of artificial reefs to restore marine ecosystems can be well done, investing resources in studies specifically aimed at determining

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2368-527: The Museo Subacuático de Arte in the Cancún National Marine Park contains hundreds of life-size statues, offering divers an alternative to sensitive coral reefs in the region. Each statue is made from a plaster mold of a living person, using a PH neutral "marine cement", by Jason deCaires Taylor . In Lisbon, 13 artworks by Alexandre Farto ( Vhils ) will be placed in an artificial reef off

2442-774: The Romans blocked the harbor of Lilybaeum during the First Punic War against the Carthaginians around 250 BC. They built an artificial reef "with stones and construction material" and put poles in the channels using "large timbers and anchors". Persians blocked the mouth of the Tigris River to thwart Arabian pirates by building an artificial reef. Artificial reefs to increase fish yields or for algaculture began no later than 17th-century Japan, when rubble and rocks were used to grow kelp . The earliest recorded artificial reef in

2516-459: The state government that the unnamed peninsula terminating in Cape Jervis be given the name Fleurieu Peninsula "in honour of one who is worthy to be remembered in the annals of Australian geography". The government approved the name later that year. The Geographical Names Advisory Committee advised in 2001 that the extent of the peninsula is: that portion of land between Gulf St. Vincent and

2590-439: The 1840s, US fishermen used interlaced logs to build artificial reefs. More recently, refuse such as old refrigerators, shopping carts, ditched cars and out-of-service vending machines replaced the logs in ad hoc reefs. Officially sanctioned projects have incorporated decommissioned ships , subway cars, battle tanks, armored personnel carriers , oil drilling rigs and beehive-like reef balls. Artificial reef structures (ARs) have

2664-500: The Far South Coast. Surf spots of note include Waitpinga and Middleton on the Far South Coast. In the past, there were extensive swamps and woodlands , which provided habitat and food sources for a range of birds, fish, and other animals, included snake-necked turtles , yabbies , rakali , ducks and black swans . Flora included the native orchid ( leek orchid ), guinea flower and swamp wattle (Wirilda). The swamps of

2738-545: The Fleurieu Peninsula swamps at Yundi , which is about 40 kilometres (25 mi) south of Adelaide. The Yundi Nature Conservancy, containing about 5 hectares (12 acres) of swamp, is south-east of McLaren Vale , near Mount Compass . There, Ngarrindjeri elders and scientists from various disciplines share their knowledge and plan for rewilding some more of the peninsula. A seed bank has been created to this end. Artificial reef An opportunity artificial reef

2812-454: The Fleurieu Peninsula were listed as critically endangered under the EPBC Act in 2003; however, there is no adopted or made recovery plan for this ecological community, only "Approved Conservation Advice" (2013). Less than four percent of the original swampland remain today. A group that includes Aboriginal elders and scientists are as of 2021 documenting Aboriginal cultural knowledge for

2886-763: The Gold Coast of Australia, stone boulders were used to adapt the shape of an existing breakwater and protect added sand. Another artificial stone reef, located in Borth , Wales , was designed primarily for coastal protection. A major issue is that changes occurring in the lee of submerged reef structures are complex, not well understood, and difficult to model and predict. As of 2012, existing prototypes have been characterized as "trial or experimental only", and predictive models have not achieved "accuracy or reliability", although it has been hoped that "ongoing construction and monitoring of submerged constructed reefs (SCRs) will result in

2960-753: The International Coastal Cleanup in September of each year. Since 2021, 4Ocean has added collecting tires from the bottom to their cleanup operations as well. Some attempts to construct artificial surfing reefs have also been problematic. A number of early surfing installations used geotextile bags filled with sand which degraded more quickly than anticipated. Cases such as Pratte's Reef in California and Mount Reef at Mount Maunganui in New Zealand have required extensive remediation work to remove materials. In some cases, remediation has cost more than

3034-510: The Southern Ocean (sic) , a line from Aldinga (sic) (southern end of Aldinga Bay ) to Middleton (eastern end) being the cut-off for the peninsula. This boundary has not to be gazetted at present, and is intended to be the extent of the geographic feature only and is not to be applied to any industry or interest group regional identification. The coast of the peninsula stretches from around 140 kilometres (87 mi) from Sellicks Beach in

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3108-836: The United States is from the 1830s, when logs from huts were used off the coast of South Carolina to improve fishing. In the Philippines a traditional native fishing technique known as fish nests (natively known by various names like gango , amatong , or balirong ), is basically an artificial reef. It uses rocks and waterlogged wood to build mounds inside excavated trenches on shallow tidal waters that attract fish and crustaceans. The mounds are then harvested every few weeks during low tide by surrounding them with nets and dismantling them piece by piece. They are rebuilt after every harvest. Fish nests are often used to capture grouper fingerlings to be used as seeds for aquaculture . Fish nests were in common use since before 1939. Beginning before

3182-465: The appropriate characteristics of ARs for each location." There is interest in the possibility that artificial reefs can be used to support carbon sequestration and counter climate change . Coastal vegetation ecosystems (mangrove, salt marsh, and seagrass), algal beds, and phytoplankton have been identified as potential carbon sinks . It is hoped that increasing biomass at artificial reefs can provide another form of blue carbon storage. RGV Reef,

3256-518: The coast of Albufeira as of June 2024. The works are made from parts of decommissioned power stations. A study in Barbados showed a marked variation in diver satisfaction with artificial reef diving experiences. Novice divers tended to be more satisfied than more experienced divers, who had a strong preference for natural reefs and large shipwrecks. Environmental concerns about artificial reefs include possible physical damage to existing natural sites in

3330-412: The coastline. Other reefs are designed to hold sediment on beaches by trapping the sediment. Reefs are generally custom-designed for each unique zone. Some are designed to support customizable habitat for local target species as well. Some types of artificial reefs, such as surfing reefs, do not have ecosystem enhancement as a major goal. Hoppy's Reef was an early but unsuccessful attempt to create

3404-469: The deck of the public jetty. The historic industrial jetty is permanently closed due to its state of natural decay. The first jetty at Rapid Bay was built in the late 1860s, described as "new" in 1867 and assessed by the Marine Board in 1871. It was considered well made but poorly designed owing to its south-westerly heading and the shallowness of water at its terminus. The jetty had been intended to feature

3478-618: The early 1970s waste tires were used to create a number of artificial reefs. Tropical storms later demolished the tire containment system, washing tires onto beaches, destroying nearby coral reefs and inhibiting new coral growth. On the Osborne Reef off the coast of Fort Lauderdale, Florida , storms broke the nylon straps holding the original tire bundles together. As of November 2019, 250,000 of an estimated 700,000 tires have been removed. France has begun removing its tire reefs. The Ocean Conservancy now includes tire removal during

3552-716: The fish in turn fertilized the seagrass and increased its productivity, providing both food and shelter. The combination of seagrass and reef structures provided added protection from fish nets as well as increasing biomass in the seagrass meadow. Estimates suggest that Caribbean seagrass beds can provide substantial pools for global carbon. Some artificial reefs are used to prevent coastal erosion . Geometric and hydrodynamic properties of reefs are particularly important in determining their ability to mitigate coastal erosion. Artificial reefs to prevent erosion can be designed to act in multiple ways. Some are designed to force waves to deposit their energy offshore rather than directly on

3626-432: The installation area; their potential to disrupt existing patterns of marine life by introducing non-native species and by attracting fish, eggs and larvae from surrounding natural habitats; their potential to concentrate fish in areas where it becomes easier to catch them, leading to overfishing and long-term damage to fisheries; and the potential for the materials used in artificial reefs to degrade and cause damage to

3700-564: The jetty ceased commercial operations in 1991. It suffered storm damage in 2004, after which it was progressively closed in stages for the purpose of ensuring public safety. Above the water, the jetty is slowly decaying and is off-limits to the general public. Below the water, the jetty provides habitat for a wide variety of temperate marine species. Since its closure, the above-water structure has also become an increasingly valuable roost for seabirds. The Jetty collapsed in January 2022. Construction of

3774-574: The jetty piles are well-established and attract large schools of fish including Old Wives and Zebra Fish . Over 70 species of fish have been recorded in Rapid Bay. Many marine invertebrates can be observed on the jetty piles and living among the debris on the seafloor. Iconic examples include the Australian giant cuttlefish and the blue-ringed octopus . Rapid Bay is also a popular recreational fishing site, with fishing possible from shore, boat, kayak and

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3848-702: The natural habitat. This can include toxicity from contaminants such as paint , oil , and plastics , as well as parts of the reef breaking away and becoming ocean waste or washing onto natural reefs and beaches. Many marine organisms exhibit a high degree of movement or dispersal. The fish attracted to artificial reef zones vary from reef to reef depending on the reef's age, size and structure. Preferred habitats vary both between and within species, depending on an organism's developmental stage and behavior. Environments that are well-suited to larval to juvenile stages may differ from those favored by adults. For example, 1-2 year old Red Snapper ( Lutjanus campechanus ), show

3922-466: The north to Middleton in the south-east. Towns on the peninsula include Victor Harbor , Normanville , Yankalilla and Rapid Bay . Districts include Inman Valley and Hindmarsh Valley. A ferry travels between Cape Jervis , at the tip of the peninsula, and Kangaroo Island . There is surfing on both the west and south facing coasts – known locally to Adelaide surfers as the Mid South Coast and

3996-455: The ocean bottom nearer the beach in 2020, creating a new habitat to attract fish and kelp to a safer area. Florida is the site of many artificial reefs, many created from deliberately sunken ships, including Coast Guard cutters Duane and Bibb and the U.S. Navy landing ship Spiegel Grove . In the early 1970s, more than 2,000,000 used vehicle tires were dumped off the coast of Fort Lauderdale, Florida to form an artificial reef. However,

4070-406: The ocean's lethal openness—hole and crevice dwellers such as grouper , snapper , squirrelfish , eels and triggerfish . Opportunistic predators such as jack and barracuda also appear. Over months and years the reef structure becomes encrusted with algae , tunicates , hard and soft corals and sponges . An electrified reef is an artificial reef where a small low voltage electric charge

4144-409: The original installation. It has been argued that this approach to reef construction is fundamentally flawed. Artificial reefs, particularly opportunistic ones involving materials that were not originally intended for marine use, can degrade and cause damage to the natural habitat. If inappropriate materials are used in an artificial reef, they can interfere with the growth of algae which provide

4218-559: The pollutant threshold are too difficult to remove, permission to bypass their removal can be given by the EPA, as happened in the case of the ex- USS Oriskany . In spite of spending $ 20 million to decontaminate the vessel, the ship still contained an estimated 700 pounds of PCBs when it was sunk in 2006. Subsequent testing by the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission over a four-year period found elevated levels of PCBs in fish living in

4292-617: The potential for overfishing and long-term damage to fisheries. This has implications for artisanal and industrial fishing management. There are concerns that the placement of opportunity artificial reefs will be abused and become a pretext for disguised ocean dumping. Regulatory measures have been put forward by the U.S. and internationally in an effort to counter abuses, but may provide little protection. Some artificial reefs have been found to be less stable than originally hoped, breaking into component parts that become ocean refuse, washing onto natural reefs and beaches and damaging them. In

4366-426: The presence of existing natural habitats and the needs of species at multiple developmental stages, including the need for reproductive and early stage habitat. The opportunistic use of shipwrecks and oil derricks as artificial reefs creates a new trophic structure for the local ecosystem . The trophic structure of artificial and natural reefs has been shown to differ strongly. Artificial reefs do not develop

4440-609: The same functions and diversity as natural reefs over time, unless their structure is similar to natural reefs. For example, the Sint Eustatius reef, nearly 200 years old, has developed a diverse and healthy ecosystem, but it has different and less abundant coral species than a nearby natural reef. As a result, artificial reefs can unbalance the natural ecosystem and affect nearby habitats, in some cases attracting non-native and invasive species that disrupt local ecosystems. In 2008, at Palmyra Atoll south of Hawaii, iron leaching from

4514-597: The ship's "reef". Off the coast of California, an artificial reef has been constructed to lure fish away from a toxic site. Over 35 years, the Montrose Chemical Corporation of California , a maker of DDT , improperly disposed of toxic chemical waste through the sewer system and by dumping barrels of waste into the ocean. As part of remediation efforts by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 70,000 tons of quarry rock were placed on

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4588-520: The spatial orientation, complexity, and shape of reef substrate, among others. On artificial reef structures intended for ecosystem enhancement, reef communities tend to develop in more or less predictable stages. First, where an ocean current encounters a vertical structure, it can create a plankton -rich upwelling that provides a reliable feeding spot for small fish such as sardines and minnows , which draw in pelagic predators such as tuna and sharks . Next come creatures seeking protection from

4662-620: The tires were not properly secured to the reef structures, and ocean currents broke them loose, sending them crashing into the developing reef and its natural neighbors. Neptune Memorial Reef was originally conceived as an art project called The Atlantis Reef Project and was envisioned and created by Gary Levine and Kim Brandell. Burial at sea became a way of financing the project. As of 2011, about 200 "placements" had occurred. Cremated remains are mixed with concrete and either encased in columns or molded into sea-star, brain-coral, 15 feet (4.6 m) castings of lions or other shapes before entering

4736-424: The water for divers and snorkelers. The jetty features concrete decking, is artificially lit after dark and is a popular spot for recreational fishing. Cave dive sites: Fleurieu Peninsula The Fleurieu Peninsula ( / ˈ f l ɜːr i oʊ / ) is a peninsula in the Australian state of South Australia located south of the state capital of Adelaide . Before British colonisation of South Australia ,

4810-687: The water. In 1921 the US battleship Massachusetts was scuttled in shallow water off the coast of Pensacola, Florida and then used as a target for experimental artillery. In 1956 the ship was declared the property of the state of Florida by the Florida Supreme Court . Since 1993 the wreck has been a Florida Underwater Archaeological Preserve and is included in the National Register of Historic Places . She serves as an artificial reef and recreational dive site. The world's largest artificial reef

4884-411: The waterfront at Rapid Bay. The first Rapid Bay jetty's landward end was some 50 yards distant from the later BHP construction. The BHP Jetty was originally 490 metres (1,600 ft) long, with a 'T' section of 200 metres (650 ft) length for ship-loading. The jetty terminated in 9.1 metres (30 ft) of water (at lowest tide). Originally built by BHP and later operated by Adelaide Brighton Cement,

4958-482: The western side of the peninsula was occupied by the Kaurna people , while several clans of the Ngarrindjeri lived on the eastern side. The people were sustained by the flora and fauna of the peninsula, for food and bush medicine . The bulrushes , reeds and sedges were used for basket-weaving or making rope , trees provided wood for spears , and stones were fashioned into tools . The Fleurieu Peninsula

5032-539: Was born at Rapid Bay have been refuted. Rapid Bay was briefly considered by Light as a potential site for the new colony's capital, but with the discovery of the Adelaide Plains it faded into quiet obscurity. On his first visit, Light created a garden then left the bay in the hands of Kangaroo Island sealers and indigenous people from the Encounter Bay area. The BHP constructed the town, an ore-loading jetty and

5106-436: Was created by sinking of the 44,000 ton aircraft carrier USS  Oriskany off the coast of Pensacola , Florida , in 2006. The second-largest artificial reef is USNS Hoyt S. Vandenberg , a former World War II era troop transport that served as a spacecraft-tracking ship after the war. The Vandenberg was scuttled seven miles off Key West on May 27, 2009, in 140 feet (43 m) of clear water. Supporters expected

5180-560: Was much larger, at least 60,000 cubic meters, and was somewhat successful in its primary objective of shoreline stabilization, but less so in improving surfing. Several projects in Australia have used stone to augment existing sites. Cable Station Reef added limestone rocks to an existing reef. At Burkitts Reef on the Woongarra Coast, large boulders were broken down to fill gaps in an existing boulder and gravel reef. At Palm Beach Reef on

5254-571: Was named after Charles Pierre Claret de Fleurieu , the French explorer and hydrographer , by the French explorer Nicolas Baudin as he explored the south coast of Australia in 1802. The name came into official use in 1911 after Fleurieu's great-nephew, Count Alphonse de Fleurieu, visited Adelaide and met with the Council of the Royal Geographical Society of South Australia , which recommended to

5328-606: Was named after Light's ship, the 162 ton brig Rapid . To mark this historic landfall the Colonel's initials, "W.L.", were carved into a large boulder – a replica is visible in the township, while the original is stored in the South Australian Museum , in Adelaide. John Rapid Hoare (7 November 1836 – perhaps 7 July 1916), also named for the brig Rapid , was the first European child born on mainland South Australia. Claims that he

5402-401: Was roughly 550,000 tonnes. A small volume of roadbase materials continues to be quarried from the site. The quarry and remaining buildings are located within tenements PM11 and PM12 which as of 2021 are held by Adelaide Brighton Cement and Croser Bros. The history of the township during the BHP years was recorded by Des Lord in the 2018 book Rapid Bay... Before we forget. History and memoirs of

5476-457: Was transported by sea and used as a flux at BHP's Whyalla Steelworks in South Australia, and Newcastle and Port Kembla in New South Wales . In 1948, production averaged 30,000 tonnes per month with a fully mechanised process from electric shovel to crushers, then by conveyor to ship. At that time there were 41 men employed at the project, including office staff. BHP's assets, including

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