22-479: Cyazofamid is a fungicide that is highly-specific in controlling oomycete plant pathogens such as Phytophthora infestans , the organism which causes late blight in potato. Its mode of action is thought to involve binding to the Q i center of Coenzyme Q – cytochrome c reductase . Cyazofamid is most often sold under the brand name Ranman. Processes to manufacture cyazofamid were disclosed in patents from Ishihara Sangyo Kaisha, Ltd. An acetophenone derivative
44-795: A "whiplash" morphology, and the other a branched "tinsel" morphology. The "tinsel" flagellum is unique to the Kingdom Heterokonta. Spores of the few fungal groups which retain flagella (such as the Chytridiomycetes ) have only one whiplash flagellum. Oomycota and fungi have different metabolic pathways for synthesizing lysine and have a number of enzymes that differ. The ultrastructure is also different, with oomycota having tubular mitochondrial cristae and fungi having flattened cristae. In spite of this, many species of oomycetes are still described or listed as types of fungi and may sometimes be referred to as pseudo fungi, or lower fungi. Most of
66-633: A human, professional translator. Douglas Hofstadter gave an example of a failure of machine translation: the English sentence "In their house, everything comes in pairs. There's his car and her car, his towels and her towels, and his library and hers." might be translated into French as " Dans leur maison, tout vient en paires. Il y a sa voiture et sa voiture, ses serviettes et ses serviettes, sa bibliothèque et les siennes. " That does not make sense because it does not distinguish between "his" car and "hers". Often, first-generation immigrants create something of
88-456: A literal translation in how they speak their parents' native language. This results in a mix of the two languages that is something of a pidgin . Many such mixes have specific names, e.g., Spanglish or Denglisch . For example, American children of German immigrants are heard using "rockingstool" from the German word Schaukelstuhl instead of "rocking chair". Literal translation of idioms
110-453: A translation that represents the precise meaning of the original text but does not attempt to convey its style, beauty, or poetry. There is, however, a great deal of difference between a literal translation of a poetic work and a prose translation. A literal translation of poetry may be in prose rather than verse but also be error-free. Charles Singleton's 1975 translation of the Divine Comedy
132-406: A work written in a language they do not know. For example, Robert Pinsky is reported to have used a literal translation in preparing his translation of Dante 's Inferno (1994), as he does not know Italian. Similarly, Richard Pevear worked from literal translations provided by his wife, Larissa Volokhonsky, in their translations of several Russian novels. Literal translation can also denote
154-549: Is metaphrase (as opposed to paraphrase for an analogous translation). It is to be distinguished from an interpretation (done, for example, by an interpreter ). Literal translation leads to mistranslation of idioms , which can be a serious problem for machine translation . The term "literal translation" often appeared in the titles of 19th-century English translations of the classical Bible and other texts. Word-for-word translations ("cribs", "ponies", or "trots") are sometimes prepared for writers who are translating
176-445: Is a pathogen of mammals. The majority of the plant pathogenic species can be classified into four groups, although more exist. Literal translation Literal translation , direct translation , or word-for-word translation is a translation of a text done by translating each word separately without looking at how the words are used together in a phrase or sentence. In translation theory , another term for literal translation
198-521: Is clearly not a phrase that would generally be used in English, even though its meaning might be clear. Literal translations in which individual components within words or compounds are translated to create new lexical items in the target language (a process also known as "loan translation") are called calques , e.g., beer garden from German Biergarten . The literal translation of the Italian sentence, " So che questo non va bene " ("I know that this
220-424: Is not good"), produces "(I) know that this not (it) goes well", which has English words and Italian grammar . Early machine translations (as of 1962 at least) were notorious for this type of translation, as they simply employed a database of words and their translations. Later attempts utilized common phrases , which resulted in better grammatical structure and the capture of idioms, but with many words left in
242-457: Is regarded as a prose translation. The term literal translation implies that it is probably full of errors, since the translator has made no effort to (or is unable to) convey correct idioms or shades of meaning, for example, but it can also be a useful way of seeing how words are used to convey meaning in the source language. A literal English translation of the German phrase " Ich habe Hunger " would be "I have hunger" in English, but this
SECTION 10
#1733093663707264-485: Is the result of contact between hyphae of male antheridia and female oogonia ; these spores can overwinter and are known as resting spores. Asexual reproduction involves the formation of chlamydospores and sporangia , producing motile zoospores . Oomycetes occupy both saprophytic and pathogenic lifestyles, and include some of the most notorious pathogens of plants, causing devastating diseases such as late blight of potato and sudden oak death . One oomycete,
286-549: The class Oomycota along with other classes such as Phaeophyceae (brown algae) within the phylum Heterokonta . This relationship is supported by a number of observed differences between the characteristics of oomycetes and fungi. For instance, the cell walls of oomycetes are composed of cellulose rather than chitin and generally do not have septations . Also, in the vegetative state they have diploid nuclei, whereas fungi have haploid nuclei. Most oomycetes produce self-motile zoospores with two flagella . One flagellum has
308-519: The mycoparasite Pythium oligandrum , is used for biocontrol , attacking plant pathogenic fungi. The oomycetes are also often referred to as water molds (or water moulds ), although the water-preferring nature which led to that name is not true of most species, which are terrestrial pathogens. Oomycetes were originally grouped with fungi due to similarities in morphology and lifestyle. However, molecular and phylogenetic studies revealed significant differences between fungi and oomycetes which means
330-450: The bases of sporangia, and sometimes in older parts of the filaments. Some are unicellular, while others are filamentous and branching. Previously the group was arranged into six orders. However more recently this has been expanded considerably. Haptoglossales Eurychasmales Haliphthorales Olpidiopsidales Atkinsiellales Saprolegniales Leptomitales Rhipidiales Albuginales Peronosporales This group
352-420: The large round oogonia , structures containing the female gametes, that are characteristic of the oomycetes. The name "water mold" refers to their earlier classification as fungi and their preference for conditions of high humidity and running surface water, which is characteristic for the basal taxa of the oomycetes. The oomycetes rarely have septa (see hypha ), and if they do, they are scarce, appearing at
374-457: The latter are now grouped with the stramenopiles (which include some types of algae ). The Oomycota have a very sparse fossil record; a possible oomycete has been described from Cretaceous amber . Oomycota comes from oo- ( Ancient Greek : ωόν , romanized : ōon , lit. 'egg') and -mycete ( Ancient Greek : μύκητας , romanized : mýkitas , lit. 'fungus'), referring to
396-715: The oomycetes produce two distinct types of spores. The main dispersive spores are asexual, self-motile spores called zoospores , which are capable of chemotaxis (movement toward or away from a chemical signal, such as those released by potential food sources) in surface water (including precipitation on plant surfaces). A few oomycetes produce aerial asexual spores that are distributed by wind. They also produce sexual spores, called oospores , that are translucent, double-walled, spherical structures used to survive adverse environmental conditions. Many oomycetes species are economically important, aggressive algae and plant pathogens . Some species can cause disease in fish , and at least one
418-413: The original language. For translating synthetic languages , a morphosyntactic analyzer and synthesizer are required. The best systems today use a combination of the above technologies and apply algorithms to correct the "natural" sound of the translation. In the end, though, professional translation firms that employ machine translation use it as a tool to create a rough translation that is then tweaked by
440-572: The sulfamoyl group on the nitrogen adjacent to the phenyl ring rather than the chlorine atom. The structure of the fungicide has been confirmed by X-ray crystallography . Oomycete The Oomycetes ( / ˌ oʊ . ə ˈ m aɪ s iː t s / ), or Oomycota , form a distinct phylogenetic lineage of fungus -like eukaryotic microorganisms within the Stramenopiles . They are filamentous and heterotrophic , and can reproduce both sexually and asexually . Sexual reproduction of an oospore
462-423: Was first treated with aqueous glyoxal and hydroxylamine to form an oxime -substituted imidazole ring system. This intermediate was treated with thionyl chloride and disulfur dichloride to convert the oxime to a cyano group and chlorinate the imidazole in the position next to the phenyl ring. Finally, treatment with dimethylsulfamoyl chloride gave cyazofamid, with the desired regiochemistry . This placed
SECTION 20
#1733093663707484-427: Was originally classified among the fungi (the name "oomycota" means "egg fungus") and later treated as protists , based on general morphology and lifestyle. A cladistic analysis based on modern discoveries about the biology of these organisms supports a relatively close relationship with some photosynthetic organisms, such as brown algae and diatoms . A common taxonomic classification based on these data, places
#706293