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66-605: Ralung Monastery ( Wylie : ra lung dgon ), located in the Tsang region of western Tibet south of Karo Pass, is the traditional seat of the Drukpa Lineage of Tibetan Buddhism . It was founded in 1180 by Tsangpa Gyare , 1st Gyalwang Drukpa , a disciple of Lingje Répa ( Wylie : gling rje ras pa ) who founded the Drukpa Lineage. Ralung is one of the most sacred places in Tibet, for it

132-468: A   (GA) , alg ae , qu ay , b ea ch , b ee , dec ei t , p eo ple , k ey , k eye d , f ie ld ( hyg ie n e ), am oe ba , cham oi s   (GA) , deng ue   (GA) , beg ui ne , g uy ot , and y nambu (See Sound-to-spelling correspondences ). (These examples assume a more-or-less standard non-regional British English accent. Other accents will vary.) Sometimes everyday speakers of English change counterintuitive spellings, with

198-435: A period between a prefix g and initial y . E.g. གྱང "wall" is gyang , while གཡང་ "chasm" is g.yang . The four vowel marks (here applied to the base letter ཨ ) are transliterated: When a syllable has no explicit vowel marking, the letter a is used to represent the default vowel "a" (e.g. ཨ་ = a). Many previous systems of Tibetan transliteration included internal capitalisation schemes—essentially, capitalising

264-541: A Latin keyboard. Since the Wylie system is not intuitive for use by linguists unfamiliar with Tibetan, a new transliteration system based on the International Phonetic Alphabet has been proposed to replace Wylie in articles on Tibetan historical phonology . (Some of the following links require installation of Tibetan fonts to display properly) English orthography English orthography comprises

330-447: A few phonological rules, but that is not the reason why its spelling is fixed. Another example involves the vowel differences (with accompanying stress pattern changes) in several related words. For instance, photographer is derived from photograph by adding the derivational suffix - ⟨er⟩ . When this suffix is added, the vowel pronunciations change largely owing to the moveable stress: Other examples of this type are

396-543: A large number of Germanic words have ⟨y⟩ in word-final position. Some other examples are ⟨ph⟩ pronounced / f / (which is most commonly ⟨f⟩ ), and ⟨ch⟩ pronounced / k / (which is most commonly ⟨c⟩ or ⟨k⟩ ). The use of these spellings for these sounds often marks words that have been borrowed from Greek . Some researchers, such as Brengelman (1970), have suggested that, in addition to this marking of word origin, these spellings indicate

462-413: A large number of other languages throughout the history of English , without successful attempts at complete spelling reforms , and partly due to accidents of history, such as some of the earliest mass-produced English publications being typeset by highly trained, multilingual printing compositors , who occasionally used a spelling pattern more typical for another language. For example, the word ghost

528-530: A more formal level of style or register in a given text, although Rollings (2004) finds this point to be exaggerated as there would be many exceptions where a word with one of these spellings, such as ⟨ph⟩ for / f / (like telephone ), could occur in an informal text. Spelling may also be useful to distinguish in written language between homophones (words with the same pronunciation but different meanings), and thus resolve potential ambiguities that would arise otherwise. However in most cases

594-910: A similar degree of difficulty when encoding (writing), English is more difficult when decoding (reading), as there are clearly many more possible pronunciations of a group of letters. For example, in French, /u/ (as in "true", but short), can be spelled ⟨ou, ous, out, oux⟩ ( ou , nous , tout , choux ), but the pronunciation of each of those sequences is always the same. However, in English, while /uː/ can be spelled in up to 24 different ways, including ⟨oo, u, ui, ue, o, oe, ou, ough, ew⟩ ( spook , truth , suit , blues , to , shoe , group , through , few ) (see Sound-to-spelling correspondences below), all of these spellings have other pronunciations as well (e.g., as in foot , us , build , bluest , so , toe , grout , plough , sew ) (See

660-509: A source of spelling innovations: diminutive versions of women's names that sound the same as men's names have been spelled differently: Nikki and Nicky , Toni and Tony , Jo and Joe . The differentiation in between names that are spelled differently but have the same phonetic sound may come from modernisation or different countries of origin. For example, Isabelle and Isabel sound the same but are spelled differently; these versions are from France and Spain respectively. As an example of

726-448: A syllable may be represented through the use of prefixed or suffixed letters or by letters superscripted or subscripted to the root letter (forming a "stack"). The Wylie system does not normally distinguish these as in practice no ambiguity is possible under the rules of Tibetan spelling. The exception is the sequence gy- , which may be written either with a prefix g or a subfix y . In the Wylie system, these are distinguished by inserting

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792-471: A word. For instance, ⟨gh⟩ represents /f/ at the end of some words ( tough / t ʌ f / ) but not in others ( plough / p l aʊ / ). At the beginning of syllables , ⟨gh⟩ is pronounced /ɡ/ , as in ghost / ɡ oʊ s t / . Conversely, ⟨gh⟩ is never pronounced /f/ in syllable onsets other than in inflected forms, and is almost never pronounced /ɡ/ in syllable codas (the proper name Pittsburgh

858-477: Is an exception). Some words contain silent letters , which do not represent any sound in modern English pronunciation. Examples include the ⟨l⟩ in talk , half , calf , etc., the ⟨w⟩ in two and sword , ⟨gh⟩ as mentioned above in numerous words such as though , daughter , night , brought , and the commonly encountered silent ⟨e⟩ (discussed further below). Another type of spelling characteristic

924-406: Is broadly standardised. This standardisation began to develop when movable type spread to England in the late 15th century. However, unlike with most languages, there are multiple ways to spell every phoneme , and most letters also represent multiple pronunciations depending on their position in a word and the context. This is partly due to the large number of words that have been loaned from

990-537: Is capitalised Bka' brgyud and not bKa' brgyud . Wylie's original scheme is not capable of transliterating all Tibetan-script texts. In particular, it has no correspondences for most Tibetan punctuation symbols, and lacks the ability to represent non-Tibetan words written in Tibetan script (Sanskrit and phonetic Chinese are the most common cases). Accordingly, various scholars have adopted ad hoc and incomplete conventions as needed. The Tibetan and Himalayan Library at

1056-503: Is frequently seen with the -ed suffix in archaic and pseudoarchaic writing, e.g. cursèd indicates the ⟨e⟩ should be fully pronounced. The grave being to indicate that an ordinarily silent or elided syllable is pronounced ( warnèd , parlìament ). In certain older texts (typically British ), the use of the ligatures ⟨æ⟩ and ⟨œ⟩ is common in words such as archæology , diarrhœa , and encyclopædia , all of Latin or Greek origin. Nowadays,

1122-575: Is here that the great Dugpa school of red-hat monks originated, a school still influential with numerous adherents in Southern, Northern, and Eastern Tibet, and in Bhutan , which latter country is, in fact, called Dugpa owing to the preponderance of this sect. The Ralung-til, the head monastery of the Dugpa, is to the south-east of this village. This monastery owes its name to the fact that it is surrounded by mountains as

1188-432: Is marked by the ⟨e⟩ as having the value /eɪ/ . In this context, the ⟨e⟩ is not pronounced, and is referred to as a " silent e ". A single letter may even fill multiple pronunciation-marking roles simultaneously. For example, in the word ace , ⟨e⟩ marks not only the change of ⟨a⟩ from / æ / to /eɪ/ , but also of ⟨c⟩ from / k / to / s / . In

1254-432: Is not a one-to-one correspondence between letters and sounds. Many sounds are spelled using different letters or multiple letters, and for those words whose pronunciation is predictable from the spelling, the sounds denoted by the letters depend on the surrounding letters. For example, ⟨th⟩ represents two different sounds (the voiced and voiceless dental fricatives ) (see Pronunciation of English th ), and

1320-644: Is probably fairly close to optimal for all modern English dialects, as well as for the attested dialects of the past several hundred years. In these cases, a given morpheme (i.e., a component of a word) has a fixed spelling even though it is pronounced differently in different words. An example is the past tense suffix - ⟨ed⟩ , which may be pronounced variously as /t/ , /d/ , or /ᵻd/ (for example, pay / ˈ p eɪ / , payed / ˈ p eɪ d / , hate / ˈ h eɪ t / , hated / ˈ h eɪ t ɪ d / ). As it happens, these different pronunciations of - ⟨ed⟩ can be predicted by

1386-413: Is related to word origin. For example, when representing a vowel, ⟨y⟩ represents the sound / ɪ / in some words borrowed from Greek (reflecting an original upsilon ), whereas the letter usually representing this sound in non-Greek words is the letter ⟨i⟩ . Thus, myth / ˈ m ɪ θ / is of Greek origin, while pith / ˈ p ɪ θ / is a Germanic word. However,

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1452-440: Is written and spoken in any given location. Letters in English orthography positioned at one location within a specific word usually represent a particular phoneme . For example, at / ˈ æ t / consists of 2 letters ⟨a⟩ and ⟨t⟩ , which represent / æ / and / t / , respectively. Sequences of letters may perform this role as well as single letters. Thus, in thrash / θ r æ ʃ / ,

1518-770: The Spelling-to-sound correspondences below). Thus, in unfamiliar words and proper nouns , the pronunciation of some sequences, ⟨ough⟩ being the prime example, is unpredictable to even educated native English speakers. Attempts to regularise or reform the spelling of English have usually failed. However, Noah Webster promoted more phonetic spellings in the United States, such as flavor for British flavour , fiber for fibre , defense for defence , analyze for analyse , catalog for catalogue , and so forth. These spellings already existed as alternatives, but Webster's dictionaries helped standardise them in

1584-540: The University of Virginia developed a standard, EWTS —the Extended Wylie Transliteration Scheme—that addresses these deficiencies systematically. It uses capital letters and Latin punctuation to represent the missing characters. Several software systems, including Tise , now use this standard to allow one to type unrestricted Tibetan script (including the full Unicode Tibetan character set) on

1650-522: The communicative competence of native speakers. Followers of these arguments believe the less abstract surface forms are more "psychologically real" and thus more useful in terms of pedagogy . Some English words can be written with diacritics ; these are mostly loanwords , usually from French. As vocabulary becomes naturalised, there is an increasing tendency to omit the accent marks, even in formal writing. For example, rôle and hôtel originally had accents when they were borrowed into English, but now

1716-495: The digraph ⟨th⟩ (two letters) represents /θ/ . In hatch / h æ tʃ / , the trigraph ⟨tch⟩ represents /tʃ/ . Less commonly, a single letter can represent multiple successive sounds. The most common example is ⟨x⟩ , which normally represents the consonant cluster /ks/ (for example, in tax / t æ k s / ). The same letter (or sequence of letters) may be pronounced differently when occurring in different positions within

1782-776: The history of the English language . There are a number of contributing factors. First, gradual changes in pronunciation, such as the Great Vowel Shift , account for a tremendous number of irregularities. Second, relatively recent loan words generally carry their original spellings, which are often not phonetic in English. The romanization of languages (e.g., Chinese) has further complicated this problem, for example when pronouncing Chinese proper names (of people or places), which use either pinyin (official in China) or Wade–Giles (official in Taiwan). The regular spelling system of Old English

1848-661: The insertion of /ᵻ/ before the /z/ in the spelling - ⟨es⟩ , but does not indicate the devoiced /s/ distinctly from the unaffected /z/ in the spelling - ⟨s⟩ . The abstract representation of words as indicated by the orthography can be considered advantageous since it makes etymological relationships more apparent to English readers. This makes writing English more complex, but arguably makes reading English more efficient. However, very abstract underlying representations, such as that of Chomsky & Halle (1968) or of underspecification theories, are sometimes considered too abstract to accurately reflect

1914-502: The voiceless alveolar sibilant can be represented by ⟨s⟩ or ⟨c⟩ . It is, however, not (solely) the shortage of letters which makes English spelling irregular. Its irregularities are caused mainly by the use of many different spellings for some of its sounds, such as /uː/, /iː/ and /oʊ/ ( t oo , tr ue , sh oe , fl ew , thr ough ; sl ee ve , l ea ve , e ven , s ei ze , s ie ge ; st o l e , c oa l , b ow l , r ol l , o ld , m ou ld ), and

1980-424: The - ⟨ity⟩ suffix (as in agile vs. agility , acid vs. acidity , divine vs. divinity , sane vs. sanity ). See also: Trisyllabic laxing . Another example includes words like mean / ˈ m iː n / and meant / ˈ m ɛ n t / , where ⟨ea⟩ is pronounced differently in the two related words. Thus, again, the orthography uses only a single spelling that corresponds to

2046-531: The Latin debitum , and ⟨s⟩ in island to link it to Latin insula instead of its true origin, the Old English word īġland . ⟨p⟩ in ptarmigan has no etymological justification whatsoever, only seeking to show Greek origin despite being a Gaelic word. The spelling of English continues to evolve. Many loanwords come from languages where the pronunciation of vowels corresponds to

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2112-573: The Royal Government of Bhutan . Chart of the hereditary Palden Drukpa lineage ( Wylie : དཔལ་ལྡན་འབྲུག་པའི་གདུང་བརྒྱུད་ ) of Ralung from the founder, Tsangpa Gyare , to the last hereditary throne holder, Ngawang Namgyal. Successive throne holders are numbered with their names in bold text. Samding Dorje Phagmo 28°50′05″N 90°05′59″E  /  28.8347°N 90.0997°E  / 28.8347; 90.0997 Wylie transliteration Any Tibetan language romanization scheme faces

2178-805: The UK. Partly because English has never had any official regulating authority for spelling, such as the Spanish Real Academia Española , the French Académie française , the German Rat für deutsche Rechtschreibung , the Danish Sprognævn , and the Thai Ratchabandittayasapha , English spelling, compared to many other languages, is quite irregular and complex. Although French, Danish, and Thai, among other languages, present

2244-410: The United States. (See American and British English spelling differences for details.) Besides the quirks the English spelling system has inherited from its past, there are other irregularities in spelling that make it tricky to learn. English contains, depending on dialect , 24–27 consonant phonemes and 13–20 vowels . However, there are only 26 letters in the modern English alphabet , so there

2310-451: The accents are almost never used. The words were originally considered foreign—and some people considered that English alternatives were preferable—but today their foreign origin is largely forgotten. Words most likely to retain the accent are those atypical of English morphology and therefore still perceived as slightly foreign. For example, café and pâté both have a pronounced final ⟨e⟩ , which would otherwise be silent under

2376-412: The beginning of a sentence). On the grounds that internal capitalisation was overly cumbersome, of limited usefulness in determining pronunciation, and probably superfluous to a reader able to use a Tibetan dictionary, Wylie specified that if a word was to be capitalised, the first letter should be capital, in conformity with Western capitalisation practices. Thus a particular Tibetan Buddhist sect ( Kagyu )

2442-648: The consonant sound itself when they come from different morphemes, as with the ⟨nn⟩ in unnamed ( un + named ). Any given letters may have dual functions. For example, ⟨u⟩ in statue has a sound-representing function (representing the sound / u / ) and a pronunciation-marking function (marking the ⟨t⟩ as having the value / tʃ / opposed to the value / t / ). Like many other alphabetic orthographies, English spelling does not represent non-contrastive phonetic sounds (that is, minor differences in pronunciation which are not used to distinguish between different words). Although

2508-473: The conventional orthography ... and are, as is well known, related to the underlying forms of a much earlier historical stage of the language. There has, in other words, been little change in lexical representation since Middle English , and, consequently, we would expect ... that lexical representation would differ very little from dialect to dialect in Modern English ... [and] that conventional orthography

2574-409: The difference with the result that they achieved neither goal perfectly. Wylie transliteration was designed to precisely transcribe Tibetan script as written , which led to its acceptance in academic and historical studies. It is not intended to represent the pronunciation of Tibetan words. The Wylie scheme transliterates the Tibetan characters as follows: In Tibetan script, consonant clusters within

2640-458: The dilemma of whether it should seek to accurately reproduce the sounds of spoken Tibetan or the spelling of written Tibetan. These differ widely, as Tibetan orthography became fixed in the 11th century, while pronunciation continued to evolve , comparable to the English orthography and French orthography , which reflect late medieval pronunciation. Previous transcription schemes sought to split

2706-458: The first Zhabdrung Rinpoche , Ngawang Namgyal , was the 18th abbot of Ralung Monastery. In 1616, he fled Tibet when his recognition as the reincarnation of renowned scholar Kunkhyen Pema Karpo was challenged by the governor of Tsang province . Ngawang Namgyal unified the warring valleys of Bhutan, fending off attacks from Tibet, forming a national identity and establishing a dual system of government that continues to this day in modified form as

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2772-509: The heart ( mt'il ) of a lotus is by the corolla. The monastery is located in present-day Gyantse County several kilometers south of the road connecting Nakartse and Lungmar , immediately north of the Gasa district of Bhutan . In previous times, trade could be conducted across the Yak La pass across the high Himalayas , extending the influence of Ralung to the south. The monastery is surrounded by

2838-471: The irregular nature of English spelling, ⟨ou⟩ can be pronounced at least nine different ways: /aʊ/ in out , /oʊ/ in soul , / uː / in soup , / ʌ / in touch , / ʊ / in could , / ɔː / in four , / ɜː / in journal , / ɒ / in cough , and / ə / in famous (See Spelling-to-sound correspondences ). In the other direction, / iː / can be spelled in at least 18~21 different ways: b e ( c e d e ), sk i ( mach i n e ), bologn

2904-505: The letter ⟨t⟩ is pronounced by most speakers with aspiration [tʰ] at the beginning of words, this is never indicated in the spelling, and, indeed, this phonetic detail is probably not noticeable to the average native speaker not trained in phonetics. However, unlike some orthographies, English orthography often represents a very abstract underlying representation (or morphophonemic form) of English words. [T]he postulated underlying forms are systematically related to

2970-638: The ligatures have been generally replaced by the digraphs ⟨ae⟩ and ⟨oe⟩ ( encyclopaedia , diarrhoea ) in British English or just ⟨e⟩ ( encyclopedia , diarrhea ) in American English , though both spell some words with only ⟨e⟩ ( economy , ecology ) and others with ⟨ae⟩ and ⟨oe⟩ ( paean , amoeba , oedipal , Caesar ). In some cases, usage may vary; for instance, both encyclopedia and encyclopaedia are current in

3036-497: The mid-18th century. It used to be pronounced /ʃiː/ , similar to the Norwegian pronunciation, but the increasing popularity of the sport after the mid-20th century helped the /skiː/ pronunciation replace it. There was also a period when the spelling of a small number of words was altered to make them conform to their perceived etymological origins. For example, ⟨b⟩ was added to debt (originally dette ) to link it to

3102-707: The name Maria used to be pronounced like the name Mariah , but was changed to conform to this system. This only further complicates the spelling, however. On the one hand, words that retained anglicised spellings may be misread in a hyperforeign way. On the other hand, words that are respelled in a 'foreign' way may be misread as if they are English words, e.g. Muslim was formerly spelled Mooslim because of its original pronunciation. Commercial advertisers have also had an effect on English spelling. They introduced new or simplified spellings like lite instead of light , thru instead of through , and rucsac instead of rucksack . The spellings of personal names have also been

3168-408: The new spellings usually not judged to be entirely correct. However, such forms may gain acceptance if used enough. An example is the word miniscule , which still competes with its original spelling of minuscule , though this might also be because of analogy with the word mini . Inconsistencies and irregularities in English pronunciation and spelling have gradually increased in number throughout

3234-782: The normal English pronunciation rules. Moreover, in pâté , the acute accent is helpful to distinguish it from pate . Further examples of words sometimes retaining diacritics when used in English are: ångström —partly because its symbol is ⟨Å⟩ — appliqué , attaché , blasé , bric-à-brac , Brötchen , cliché , crème , crêpe , façade , fiancé(e) , flambé , jalapeño , naïve , naïveté , né(e) , papier-mâché , passé , piñata , protégé , résumé , risqué , and voilà . Italics , with appropriate accents, are generally applied to foreign terms that are uncommonly used in or have not been assimilated into English: for example, adiós , belles-lettres , crème brûlée , pièce de résistance , raison d'être , and vis-à-vis . It

3300-532: The peak behind Pokya appeared like a brimming vase; the Tsenchu peak appeared like a victory banner hoisted high; the Yangon hill appeared like a pair of golden fish; the ground at Gormo appeared like a golden wheel ; the hill in the direction of Penthang appeared like an open lotus stem with the twin streams appearing like two birds facing each other; and Gyamo meadow appeared like an auspicious knot. The founder of Bhutan,

3366-415: The preceding ⟨c⟩ is pronounced / s / , rather than the more common value of ⟨c⟩ in word-final position as the sound / k / , such as in attic / ˈ æ t ɪ k / . ⟨e⟩ also often marks an altered pronunciation of a preceding vowel. In the pair mat and mate , the ⟨a⟩ of mat has the value / æ / , whereas the ⟨a⟩ of mate

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3432-540: The reason for the difference is historical, and it was not introduced to resolve amibiguity. Nevertheless, many homophones remain that are unresolved by spelling (for example, the word bay has at least five fundamentally different meanings). Some letters in English provide information about the pronunciation of other letters in the word. Rollings (2004) uses the term "markers" for such letters. Letters may mark different types of information. For instance, ⟨e⟩ in once / ˈ w ʌ n s / indicates that

3498-412: The root letter rather than the first letter of a word, when the first letter is a prefix consonant. Tibetan dictionaries are organized by root letter, and prefixes are often silent, so knowing the root letter gives a better idea of pronunciation. However, these schemes were often applied inconsistently, and usually only when the word would normally be capitalised according to the norms of Latin text (i.e. at

3564-584: The same sentence. However, these were generally much better guides to the then-pronunciation than modern English spelling is. For example, / ʌ / , normally written ⟨u⟩ , is spelled with an ⟨o⟩ in one , some , love , etc., due to Norman spelling conventions which prohibited writing ⟨u⟩ before ⟨m, n, v⟩ due to the graphical confusion that would result. ( ⟨n, u, v⟩ were written identically with two minims in Norman handwriting; ⟨w⟩

3630-414: The set of rules used when writing the English language , allowing readers and writers to associate written graphemes with the sounds of spoken English, as well as other features of the language. English's orthography includes norms for spelling , hyphenation , capitalisation , word breaks , emphasis , and punctuation . As with the orthographies of most other world languages , written English

3696-469: The single morphemic form rather than to the surface phonological form. English orthography does not always provide an underlying representation; sometimes it provides an intermediate representation between the underlying form and the surface pronunciation. This is the case with the spelling of the regular plural morpheme, which is written as either - ⟨s⟩ (as in tat, tats and hat, hats ) or - ⟨es⟩ (as in glass, glasses ). Here,

3762-442: The spelling - ⟨s⟩ is pronounced either / s / or / z / (depending on the environment, e.g., tats / ˈ t æ t s / and tails / ˈ t eɪ l z / ) while - ⟨es⟩ is usually pronounced /ᵻz/ (e.g. classes /ˈklæsᵻz/ ). Thus, there are two different spellings that correspond to the single underlying representation | z | of the plural suffix and the three surface forms. The spelling indicates

3828-468: The towering peaks and glacier fields of Gyetong Soksum (6,244m), Jangzang Lhamo (6,324m) and Nojin Gangzang (7,191m). From the beginning the location was recognized as especially auspicious: The eight auspicious symbols adorned the surrounding: The mountain in front of the monastery appeared in the form of a white conch turning clock-wise; the peak of Rala pass appeared like a precious open parasol ;

3894-570: The use of identical sequences for spelling different sounds ( ove r , ove n , m ove ). Furthermore, English no longer makes any attempt to anglicise the spellings of loanwords , but preserves the foreign spellings, even when they do not follow English spelling conventions like the Polish ⟨cz⟩ in Czech (rather than *Check ) or the Norwegian ⟨fj⟩ in fjord (although fiord

3960-399: The various English dialects spoken from country to country and within different regions of the same country, there are only slight regional variations in English orthography, the two most recognised variations being British and American spelling , and its overall uniformity helps facilitate international communication. On the other hand, it also adds to the discrepancy between the way English

4026-511: The way they were pronounced in Old English, which is similar to the Italian or Spanish pronunciation of the vowels, and is the value the vowel symbols ⟨a, e, i, o, u⟩ have in the International Phonetic Alphabet . As a result, there is a somewhat regular system of pronouncing "foreign" words in English, and some borrowed words have had their spelling changed to conform to this system. For example, Hindu used to be spelled Hindoo , and

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4092-491: The word vague , ⟨e⟩ marks the long ⟨a⟩ sound, but ⟨u⟩ keeps the ⟨g⟩ hard rather than soft. Doubled consonants usually indicate that the preceding vowel is pronounced short. For example, the doubled ⟨t⟩ in batted indicates that the ⟨a⟩ is pronounced / æ / , while the single ⟨t⟩ of bated gives /eɪ/ . Doubled consonants only indicate any lengthening or gemination of

4158-754: Was formerly common in American English to use a diaeresis to indicate a hiatus , e.g. coöperate , daïs , and reëlect . The New Yorker and Technology Review magazines still use it for this purpose, even as general use became much rarer. Instead, modern orthography generally prefers no mark ( cooperate ) or a hyphen ( co-operate ) for a hiatus between two morphemes in a compound word. By contrast, use of diaereses in monomorphemic loanwords such as naïve and Noël remains relatively common. In poetry and performance arts, accent marks are occasionally used to indicate typically unstressed syllables that should be stressed when read for dramatic or prosodic effect. This

4224-424: Was formerly the most common spelling). In early Middle English, until roughly 1400, most imports from French were respelled according to English rules (e.g. bataille – battle , bouton – button , but not double , or trouble ). Instead of loans being respelled to conform to English spelling standards, sometimes the pronunciation changes as a result of pressure from the spelling, e.g. ski , adopted from Norwegian in

4290-516: Was spelled gost in Middle English , until the Flemish spelling pattern was unintentionally substituted, and happened to be accepted. Most of the spelling conventions in Modern English were derived from the phonemic spelling of a variety of Middle English , and generally do not reflect the sound changes that have occurred since the late 15th century (such as the Great Vowel Shift ). Despite

4356-486: Was swept away by the Norman Conquest , and English itself was supplanted in some spheres by Norman French for three centuries, eventually emerging with its spelling much influenced by French. English had also borrowed large numbers of words from French, and kept their French spellings. The spelling of Middle English is very irregular and inconsistent, with the same word being spelled in different ways, sometimes even in

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