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76-397: John Francis Duffy (born 1958) and David Mulcahy (born 1959) are two British serial rapists and serial killers who together attacked numerous women and children at railway stations in southern England during the 1980s. Their crimes are often referred to as "the railway murders", and they are often referred to as the "railway rapists" or the "railway killers"; Duffy, once identified,

152-475: A 14-year-old girl was raped in a park. This inquiry led Canter to set up investigative psychology. As well as working together with Mulcahy, Duffy had started to rape alone; he was arrested on 26 November 1986 while following a woman in a secluded park. Items linking him to the Tamboezer murder were discovered, and rape victims identified him. There was evidence to charge him with the three murders and some rapes. He

228-401: A chance that the guilty would be overlooked and not convicted of their crime. Because of this many states do not want to implement a law that mandates sequential lineups. These states accept their benefits but do not want to rule out other types of lineup. There are different feelings about the advantages and disadvantages of sequential lineups. Gronlund, Carlson, Dailey, and Goodsell state one of

304-451: A chilling insight into the serial killer/rapist's mind". Duffy told Bolland that a song by Michael Jackson called Thriller had played a part in the offences; the two men would play it loud in their car to psych themselves up before an attack (the tape was found in Mulcahy's house when he was arrested on Duffy's evidence). Duffy also explained how the way they approached and then controlled

380-414: A criminal record by this time: in the years following Duffy's conviction he had been convicted of assault occasioning actual bodily harm for beating one of his sons and received a non-custodial sentence. Duffy was going to appear as a prosecution witness at Mulcahy's trial; Mulcahy's defence team sent letters to prisoners on Duffy's wing claiming to be under lawyer/client privilege, informing them that Duffy

456-550: A documentary about the case with dramatisation of the murders and interviews with key figures, was broadcast on Channel 5 in three parts, starting on 16 August 2021. Serial rapists In some instances, a group of serial rapists will work together. These rapists can have a pattern of behavior that is sometimes used to predict their activities and aid in their arrest and conviction . Serial rapists also differ from one-time offenders because "serial rapists more often involved kidnapping , verbally and physically threatening

532-498: A face can contribute to the illusion that an innocent person is the guilty party. For example, a witness might identify a receptionist as the guilty suspect simply because they had met briefly before, misattributing the familiarity to seeing the individual committing the crime. This is a source-monitoring error , where the familiarity is misattributed and unconsciously transferred to an innocent bystander. See also Familiarity heuristic . Witnesses are more likely to correctly identify

608-521: A further separate investigation, Operation Lea. Police further stepped up their search for the attacker who had been nicknamed by the press the "Railway Rapist". The murder of Day changed this name to the "Railway Killer", a tag reinforced by the rape and murder of 15-year-old Dutch schoolgirl Maartje Tamboezer in West Horsley in Surrey on the afternoon of 17 April 1986 after knocking her from her bicycle with

684-542: A knife and both men sexually assaulted her. The two men then forced her to walk across live railway lines to the parapet of a bridge. Day fell from the bridge into the canal, but was able to swim to the bank where Duffy and Mulcahy pulled her from the water and then to a wasteland where she was strangled to death with her blouse. Her body was sunk into the River Lea using discarded cobbles (granite setts ) placed into her coat pockets. The Metropolitan Police in east London set up

760-414: A position where he could commence or progress an investigation; he visited John Duffy, who agreed to be interviewed, but said it would take a very long time. A series of visits followed, and Duffy eventually requested assistance from the prison psychological service. In late 1997 a new psychologist started work at the prison. Bolland told her that real progress could be made if Duffy received counselling; this

836-472: A questionnaire, then asked to identify the robber in a photo lineup. They were given different videotapes, different lineups, and different instructions. There were 175 participants, all undergraduate college students. The results were: Mistaken rate in target-absent condition: 19% for sequential lineups and 39% for sequential lineups. In this study, the correct identification rates were very much higher across all situations than normal. They also did not find

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912-411: A room for the purpose, one which may feature a one-way mirror to allow a witness to remain anonymous, and may include markings on the wall to aid identifying the person's height. For evidence from a lineup to be admissible in court, the lineup itself must be conducted fairly. The police may not say or do anything that persuades the witness to identify the suspect that they prefer. This includes loading

988-678: A serial rapist is possible, according to law enforcement organizations. Identity parade A police lineup (in American English ) or identity parade (in British English ) is a process by which a crime victim or witness 's putative identification of a suspect is confirmed to a level that can count as evidence at trial. The suspect, along with several "fillers" or "foils"—people of similar height, build, and complexion who may be prisoners, actors, police officers, or volunteers—stand side-by-side, both facing and in profile. There

1064-487: A short ginger-haired man and a larger man. DNA technology was not then available, but some suspects could be eliminated by blood grouping: one attacker, believed to be the ginger-haired man, was an "'A' secretor with a certain PGM factor of his blood". Unlike DNA, many people share the same blood grouping, so this evidence could eliminate suspects but not identify the offenders. On the evening of 29 December 1985, Alison Day, aged 19,

1140-425: A significant enough difference in correct identification rate between simultaneous and sequential lineups when the target was present. Most studies found that the correct identification rate is higher for simultaneous lineups. In 2011, Steblay, Dysart, and Wells attempted to answer a debate that has been around since the concept of sequential lineups. Are they superior to simultaneous lineups? In an effort to reproduce

1216-451: A single case of rape, serial rapists often go unrecognized due to the slow process of analyzing the backlog of rape kits. It may take many years for a past rape to be identified as being committed by one person. Case Western Reserve University has identified the tendency of sexual offenders of being previously arrested. 26% had previously been arrested for sexual assault. 60% were arrested for at least one other sexual assault unrelated to

1292-489: A single-victim rapist and may be used by law enforcement as an investigative aid. Serial rapists are more likely to target sex workers than are single-victim rapists. They have also been described as being able to improve their ability and expertise to commit their assault through the "study" of serial rape. This includes rehearsal by viewing films, pornography, and reading relevant literature, using sexual fantasies, growth in knowledge in assault-related skills, learning from

1368-400: A single-victim rapist. A serial rapist is more prone to exhibit "criminally sophisticated behaviors" such as using a condom and gloves. Serial rapists are more likely to control physical resistance by gagging , binding , blindfolding , and smothering . They are more likely to question the victim. Awareness of investigative , forensic methodology characterizes a serial rapist rather than

1444-478: A standard sequential lineup, the suspects or their photos are presented one at a time to the witnesses only once. Witnesses make decisions about each individual suspect before the next one is shown and they do not know the total number of suspects. Although it is hard to pinpoint exactly when sequential lineups were first studied, the knowledge that simultaneous lineups often failed and convicted an innocent person has been common knowledge for many years. The advance of

1520-445: A study to explore the impact of pose reinstatement and active exploration on witness discriminability during police lineups. The study involved nearly 10,000 participants and compared sequential photo lineups with sequential interactive lineups, as well as simultaneous interactive lineups (where faces could be moved independently or jointly). Results: This research underlined the potential of interactive lineups to significantly enhance

1596-443: A suspect are presented. See also Framing effect (psychology) . Either confirming or refuting feedback to the witness has been shown to distort witnesses' reported perception of a suspect. Providing feedback to a witness after identifying a suspect can change the way they recall the quality and clarity of their perception of the incident, the speed and certainty of their identification, and other factors, even when witnesses believed

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1672-443: A suspect than simultaneous lineups, but that when a suspect was identified he/she was more likely to be guilty using this method than a simultaneous lineup. They found that there is an 8% difference in suspect identification between sequential and simultaneous lineups, favoring simultaneous lineups; meaning that simultaneous lineups are more likely overall to identify the guilty suspect. This finding has decreased since 2001 where there

1748-528: A victim developed over time, so that they became in Bolland's words "shockingly skilled". Duffy spoke in a calm, matter-of-fact way, except when speaking about the Tamboezer murder. Nine months after the series of interviews Duffy was charged with seventeen offences of rape and conspiracy to rape; he admitted guilt to all offences, all of which he said he carried out with David Mulcahy. He could not be charged with murdering Anne Lock as he had been found not guilty, but

1824-452: A wire that had been tied between two trees. As well as suffering rape and strangulation, Tamboezer had been repeatedly struck in the head with a rock and her body was set on fire. Surrey Police set up Operation Bluebell. Meanwhile, the Day murder inquiry was taken over by Detective Superintendent Charles Farquhar (a highly experienced east London murder investigator) and he linked that murder with

1900-400: Is accomplished is by having not just sequential lineups, but also double-blind sequential lineups. A double-blind sequential lineup is conducted by making sure that neither the witness nor the person conducting the lineup has any idea who the suspect is. This eliminates any bias the person conducting the lineup may have. The research for double-blind studies has shown that "now we have proof from

1976-401: Is complicated, invasive, time-consuming and may re-traumatize victims. The FBI maintains a DNA database and comparisons between cases can be made. Unfortunately, the backlog of analyzing rape kits can allow the perpetrator to continue their crime before being identified with other assaults. Though no victim of a serial rapist can be blamed for the crime, reducing the risk of becoming raped by

2052-413: Is crucial information that should be conveyed to the eyewitness prior to viewing the lineup. It is necessary to inform the eyewitness that it is possible the perpetrator is not present in the lineup. The eyewitness should also be told that they do not have to choose one of the people from the lineup. Including these details has shown to result in fewer misidentifications. The lineup sometimes takes place in

2128-461: Is known to have believed that rape was a "natural male instinct". A rare type of string called 'somyarn' was found in his parents' house. This linked him to the second murder victim. His experience with traditional bow saws linked him to the unusual method of strangulation using a self-fashioned tourniquet, and his knowledge of the South Eastern railway system was part of his former job. David Mulcahy

2204-470: The 1980s excluded from evidence. Mulcahy was convicted of three counts of murder and seven counts of rape and was given three life sentences, with a 30-year recommendation, and 24 years' imprisonment for each full rape offence in February 2001. He was not later given a whole-life tariff, as the ruling barring politically set tariffs had been made by the time his case was due for review. A few weeks later Duffy

2280-565: The Central Criminal Court (Old Bailey) on 11 September 2000 before the Recorder of London ( HHJ Hyam ) and a jury. Bolland, an important witness, was accused of conspiring to talk Duffy into giving false evidence against Mulcahy. Duffy appeared as a prosecution witness against Mulcahy, and gave detailed evidence over a 14-day period. It was the first time a category A prisoner had given evidence against an accomplice. Prosecution evidence at

2356-484: The Innocence Project website, many states and law enforcement agencies have started to implement the tools that would be necessary to run double-blind sequential lineups but have yet to fully embrace them. Brain L. Cutler and Steven D. Penrod conducted this study in 1988 to examine multiple variables' influence on eyewitnesses' accuracy during a lineup. The participants were first given a videotaped store robbery and

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2432-429: The angle at which they saw the perpetrator - known as perpetrator pose reinstatement - which improves discrimination accuracy. Many UK police forces use Video Identification Parade Electronic Recording (VIPER), a digital system wherein witnesses view video recordings of suspects and unrelated volunteers. A sequential lineup is one of the two methods used for eyewitnesses to identify criminals in police station. In

2508-433: The attacker's lifestyle and habits. Such profiling became commonplace in policing thereafter. Following his conviction, Duffy revealed to a forensic psychologist what the police knew already: that he had not attacked the women alone. However, he did not reveal any more at the time. A junior police officer at the time of the investigation and 1988 trial, Les Bolland, was interested in the case and had risen by March 1995 to

2584-401: The badly executed Yorkshire Ripper inquiry. It was the first such investigation to utilize basic computers and an early version of HOLMES (Home Office Large Major Enquiry System). Duffy, a martial arts exponent and former railway carpenter, was identified by Detective Superintendent John Hurst as a suspect. He was known to police as he had been charged with the rape of his estranged wife. He

2660-559: The case by Simon Farquhar (the son of DS Charles Farquhar), entitled A Dangerous Place: The Story of the Railway Murders . It was shortlisted for the Crime Writers' Association Gold Dagger Award for Non-Fiction. Episode 6 of season 2 of the TV series Britain's Most Evil Killers is a documentary about the case, which was broadcast in 2018 on the TV channel Pick . The Railway Killers ,

2736-463: The country, suspecting that the two men may have committed more offences than those Duffy confessed to. Detective Superintendent Andy Murphy said that he suspected Mulcahy had committed other acts of violence against women both on his own and with Duffy, and encouraged any surviving victims to come forward. Despite these inquiries, neither man was ever charged with any further crime. In 2001, a television documentary Witness of Truth: The Railway Murders

2812-515: The disadvantages: "Sequential lineups do not enhance accuracy but rather make eyewitnesses more conservative in their willingness to choose. Although this is desirable when the police have an innocent suspect, it is problematic if the police have a guilty one." But Lindsay, Mansour, Beaudry, Leach, and Bertrand show one of the advantages of sequential lineups estimating that with them between 570 and 1425 innocent people would not be wrongfully convicted that would be with simultaneous lineups. According to

2888-443: The effectiveness of police identification procedures. Winsor and colleagues conducted a study in 2021 to explore the reliability of child witnesses using an interactive lineup system. The study involved 2,205 children across three age groups: young (ages 4-6), middle (ages 7-9), and late childhood (ages 10-17). Children watched a video and then identified a person from a lineup using an interactive lineup system, where they could rotate

2964-412: The examples of other serial rapists, and their own past experiences of physical or sexual abuse. Rachel Lovell, Case Western University describes her research: "Our findings suggest it is very likely that a sexual offender has either previously sexually assaulted or will offend again in the future...Investigating each sexual assault as possibly perpetrated by a serial offender has the potential to reduce

3040-403: The faces of those with whom they share common features, such as race, age, and gender. See also cross-race effect , in-group favoritism , sex differences in eyewitness memory. Subtle framing characteristics influence a witness' response to a question. For example, if a police officer asks which of the individuals in a lineup committed the crime, the wording of the question implies that one of

3116-487: The faces to view them from different angles. Results: This research highlights the potential of interactive lineups in calibrating child witness testimonies, challenging the traditional view that children’s identifications are inherently unreliable. The police can falsify the results of a lineup by giving hints to the witness. For example, they may let the witness "accidentally" see their preferred suspect in circumstances indicating criminality (e.g., in handcuffs) before

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3192-423: The feedback had not influenced their report. During questioning or viewing pictures in a lineup, it was found that an eyewitness made a tentative judgement that a certain picture might be the guilty suspect, to which an officer administering the lineup answered, "okay." However, upon returning to that picture months later at trial, the witness expressed no doubt that the previously hypothesized picture represented

3268-406: The field that witnesses who view double-blind sequential lineups are just as likely to pick the suspect, and perhaps more importantly, less likely to make a misidentification by picking a filler in the lineup." The study of sequential lineups is far from being finished and there is still much left to prove. The New York Times reported that Wells will continue to "examine the data gathered to gauge

3344-509: The first one. In order to curb and catch such offenders, the FBI created its Behavioral Science Unit in 1974. A serial rapist can use online dating sites to identify potential victims. Threatening harm to the victim and their family is another tactic used. Drugging the victim is sometimes employed. Some serial rapists are specific in identifying their targets and their schedules. A serial rapist may describe their activities on websites, describing

3420-444: The identifier in what is called a "photo-lineup", or a "six pack". If the victim or witness successfully identifies the suspect from among the fillers, the identification is considered valid. There is some research into using other methods of photo-lineup that involve the witness sequentially viewing photographs rather than simultaneously. The sequential method is considered more accurate than simultaneous lineups because it prevents

3496-423: The individuals is guilty, in a manner analogous to leading questions in court testimony. This suggestion increases the likelihood that the witness will pick someone from the lineup without positive recognition. Additionally, the overwhelming majority of witnesses will identify a suspect from a lineup even if the actual perpetrator is not included in the lineup, often depending on how the instructions for choosing

3572-417: The investigation. Evidence can consist of DNA , saliva and fingerprints , hair, vaginal swabs, fingernail scrapings, and bed linens. Those investigating serial rapes often identify the rapist with a "nickname" before an arrest is made by characterizing the tactics or patterns of the rapes. Serial rapists are more likely to be convicted than a rapist who is known by the victim. Unlike those convicted for

3648-454: The level of certainty of witnesses and the effect of factors like cross-racial identification on accuracy." A sequential lineup lap is showing the suspects repeatedly after the first round while in a standard sequential lineup eyewitnesses can only view them once. The thinking is that viewing the suspects again can increase the accuracy of identification since the eyewitnesses will be more certain about their answer. Research found that viewing

3724-407: The lineup with people who look very dissimilar to the suspect. The three main forms of police lineups are photographs of suspects, videos, or the original form of physically present lineups. While photos and videos are often more practical and convenient, lineups where suspects are physically present have been shown to improve identification. Photographs of the suspect and fillers can be shown to

3800-673: The lineup. This is sometimes called an "Oklahoma showup" and was claimed to have been used in the Caryl Chessman case. The use of DNA evidence has allowed for greater accuracy in choosing a suspect. It is evident that misidentification is not uncommon with police lineups. In a study published by the Association for Psychological Science, scientists discovered that in a group of 349 people that had been exonerated with DNA evidence, 258 of these people (roughly 3 out of every 4) were involved in mistaken eyewitness identification. Mere exposure to

3876-495: The next year, mostly late at night in dark, quiet places often near railway stations in and around north London , especially Hampstead , Barnet and other places. Further attacks occurred during 1984, and then three women were raped on the same night in 1985, in Hendon . The Metropolitan Police in west London initiated an urgent investigation, named "Operation Hart", to apprehend the perpetrators. The women described their attackers as

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3952-460: The number of sexual assaults if investigations focus more on the offender than on single incidents." Investigation of the offender instead of the crime has been proposed to prevent serial rapes. The backlog of analyzing rape kits impedes the identification of serial rapists. Hundreds of thousands of rape kits remain untested across the US. Most law enforcement agencies do not track or count them. The process

4028-440: The popularity of sequential lineups can be traced to the Innocence Project and Gary Wells . Wells has many studies that show that sequential lineups lead to fewer wrongful convictions. The early studies of sequential lineups found that there was a significant difference in the wrongful conviction of innocent persons. Since these early studies there has been a push to increase the accuracy of eyewitness memory even more. One way this

4104-461: The previous railway rapes. He then drew a link with the murder of Tamboezer when he spotted that a belt and twig in a scene photo were the parts of a tourniquet ligature . A month later on 18 May 1986, Anne Lock, a 29-year-old secretary at London Weekend Television was abducted and murdered after she got off a train at Brookmans Park railway station , Hertfordshire . This heralded the first multi-police force murder inquiry (Operation Trinity) since

4180-404: The rape occurs was found to be further with the single-victim rapists. Single-victim rapists use a "capture" method, sometimes using the tactic of being a hitch hiker , or a "con" method by meeting at a bar or party and engaging in social interaction. Conversely, serial rapists have a tendency to ambush or use a "blitz" approach of a victim. A serial rapist is more likely to target a stranger than

4256-663: The results found in previous studies done on sequential lineups, Steblay, Dysart, and Wells took and combined results from 72 tests from 23 different labs from across the world including Canada, the United Kingdom, the United States, Germany, and South Africa. These results included data from 13,143 people who participated as witness in the studies. In this study they found very similar results to previous studies that have been conducted. They found that sequential lineups are less likely to identify any type (whether guilty or not guilty) of

4332-530: The study-test pose during a lineup. The study involved 475 participants who were randomly assigned to one of six conditions, which varied by lineup procedure (interactive, photo, or video) and encoding angle (front or profile). Participants were presented with twelve lineups, each containing a target-present and a target-absent condition. Results: These findings suggest that interactive lineups offer significant improvements over traditional methods in terms of identification accuracy. Colloff and colleagues conducted

4408-487: The suspects once more has a large influence on witnesses' performance. Many witnesses moved from no-choice to choice, some changed answers and their confidence went up. Both correct identification rate and mistaken rate increased in a sequential lineup lap when the suspect was present; the error rate increased only when the suspect was absent. While many states agree that sequential lineups can reduce wrongful convictions, they also notice that sequential lineups lead to more of

4484-450: The tactics they use to commit the sexual assault. In 2014, an 18-year-old individual accused of serial rapes had used cell phone messaging apps Facebook , Kik , and Snapchat to establish a relationship with girls. Some serial rapists drive victims to remote locations. Perpetrators can be described as "highly manipulative , very charismatic and charming ." Serial rapists differ from single-victim rapists. The distance traveled before

4560-512: The trial presented Mulcahy as the chief perpetrator and the first to decide that sexual stimulation was no longer enough of a thrill; therefore, he decided to murder the victims. Mulcahy, described as "smug and arrogant" in the witness box, denied all allegations and said that Duffy was lying, that the DNA had been planted by the police, and a fingerprint on the tape used during a rape was not his. The defence also applied to have Mulcahy's interview tapes from

4636-504: The user to dynamically view faces from multiple angles. Developed at the University of Birmingham, this new technology aims to overcome the limitations of traditional photo or live lineups by allowing witnesses to manipulate the view to better match their memory of a suspect's appearance. Meyer and colleagues conducted a study in 2023 to evaluate the effectiveness of Interactive Lineups by allowing witnesses to actively explore and reinstate

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4712-408: The victims, and using or threatening the use of weapons ." Many times, the evidence that is collected from the physical examinations and testimony of those who were raped is in the possession of numerous law enforcement agencies and may impede the recognition that the rapist has committed the crime over a period of time. Conviction of the rapist can be delayed when victims do not cooperate in

4788-440: The witness from looking at all the suspects and merely selecting the person that most resembles the guilty person. A "show-up" is another alternative, in which a suspect is individually shown to a witness. However, recent research suggests that the most reliable method is the interactive lineup. This allows a witness to dynamically view faces from multiple angles. By doing so, witnesses are more likely to spontaneously reinstate

4864-424: Was a 15% difference in favor of simultaneous lineups. They also replicated the findings that there is about a 22% difference between sequential and simultaneous lineups regarding errors in suspect identification; meaning that sequential lineups are less likely to identify the wrong suspect. Interactive lineups represent a modern approach to eyewitness identification, leveraging naturalistic models of faces and allows

4940-470: Was also questioned, owing to his close friendship with Duffy, but victims were still traumatized and unable to pick him out of an identity parade (at that time, identity parades required the victim to physically touch the offender and get close to him). Mulcahy was released for lack of evidence. To help their inquiries, the police brought in a psychologist from the University of Surrey , David Canter , who

5016-534: Was arranged, and in June 1998 he agreed to start making full, proper, detailed admissions to the police. Interviews in the prison were difficult, so Duffy was secretly taken to a remote Hertfordshire police station for a week. There were complications, such as the football World Cup being on; Duffy asked for the interviews to be scheduled around the games, which Bolland, also a football fan, was happy with. The interviews were carried out under police caution , although Duffy

5092-449: Was broadcast. While not in the public media, Bolland, who had been involved in the case from beginning to end, starting at a junior rank, and played a significant part, wrote a detailed article of his experience in the journal Medicine, Science and the Law in 2002. In 2015 the television program Born to Kill? made an episode about the case in series 6. In 2016, a book was written about

5168-534: Was charged with raping her. In March 1999 Duffy appeared at the Old Bailey and pleaded guilty to seventeen offences. Following Duffy's claims, Mulcahy—a married father of five-was tracked for several months by police, then arrested in February 1999; DNA tests (which were not yet available during the original investigation) conclusively proved his involvement, supported by evidence from a search of his home. He did not answer any questions at interviews. Mulcahy already had

5244-464: Was given a minimum tariff of 30 years by the judge, later extended to a whole life tariff by the Home Secretary . Duffy chose not to appeal against his sentence, later claiming that he regretted his crimes and considered the sentence justified. Following the trial, much was made of the psychological profile constructed by Canter, as Duffy fitted 13 of the 17 observations he had predicted regarding

5320-487: Was not in legal jeopardy, and taped. He confessed to a number of rapes, but said he could remember no more. Further possible cases were put to him from police archives to jog his memory, and he remembered further cases. He was very clear that they were committed with his friend David Mulcahy. Duffy ultimately admitted all his offences, including the three murders with Mulcahy. He also explained in detail what had happened to Anne Lock. Bolland wrote that Duffy's confessions "gave

5396-428: Was on her way to meet her boyfriend at his place of employment at a desolate trading estate close to Hackney Wick station . Duffy and Mulcahy had been driving around several railway stations and ended up at Hackney Wick where they saw Day exit the train. After she stopped at a telephone box, it is believed she took a wrong turn heading down to the canal and into the path of Duffy and Mulcahy. Duffy then threatened her with

5472-554: Was questioned about the crimes, and the next day he was charged on all counts. Police knew that he had not committed the offences alone, but Duffy was not forthcoming about his accomplice. Mulcahy was arrested as a likely suspect, but there was not sufficient evidence to charge him. Duffy went on trial in February 1988 and was convicted of two murders and four rapes, although he was acquitted of raping and killing Anne Lock (Lock's body had not been found until weeks after her murder, meaning forensic evidence could not be found on her body). He

5548-450: Was referred to in the press as the "railway murderer" or "laser eyes". Mulcahy was a lifelong friend from whom Duffy had been inseparable since their days together at Haverstock School in north London . Whilst in school they were once excluded after being found laughing and covered in blood, after bludgeoning a hedgehog. In 1982, a woman was raped by two men near Hampstead Heath railway station . Eighteen more women were attacked over

5624-461: Was sentenced to 12 years' imprisonment for each of seven full rape offences he had confessed to (although he was already serving a full life sentence). Neither man is expected ever to be released from prison. There is a website in the name of David Mulcahy, copyrighted under his name in 2011, arguing his innocence and hoping for a retrial. After Mulcahy was found guilty, police re-opened investigations into hundreds of unsolved rapes and murders across

5700-463: Was the main prosecution witness against Mulcahy, and that if he gave evidence a miscarriage of justice would take place. This put Duffy in obvious danger, and the prison authorities took action to protect him. A complaint to the solicitors, who had written to prisoners who were not their clients, led to claims that the letters were an error made by a clerical worker. Mulcahy's trial began in Court number 1 of

5776-518: Was working in the field of geographical psychology at the time. There had been no previous use in Britain of " psychological offender profiling " as it was known, but something fresh was required as two women and a child had been murdered and numerous others raped, with little progress being made. Canter examined the details of each crime and built up a profile of the attacker's personality, habits and traits. While this continued, another attack took place, when

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