Radon is a chemical element ; it has symbol Rn and atomic number 86. It is a radioactive noble gas and is colorless and odorless. Of the three naturally occurring radon isotopes, only Rn has a sufficiently long half-life (3.825 days) for it to be released from the soil and rock where it is generated. Radon isotopes are the immediate decay products of radium isotopes. The instability of Rn, its most stable isotope, makes radon one of the rarest elements. Radon will be present on Earth for several billion more years despite its short half-life, because it is constantly being produced as a step in the decay chains of U and Th , both of which are abundant radioactive nuclides with half-lives of at least several billion years. The decay of radon produces many other short-lived nuclides , known as "radon daughters", ending at stable isotopes of lead . Rn occurs in significant quantities as a step in the normal radioactive decay chain of U, also known as the uranium series , which slowly decays into a variety of radioactive nuclides and eventually decays into stable Pb . Rn occurs in minute quantities as an intermediate step in the decay chain of Th, also known as the thorium series , which eventually decays into stable Pb .
131-460: Radon was discovered in 1899 by Ernest Rutherford and Robert B. Owens at McGill University in Montreal , and was the fifth radioactive element to be discovered. First known as "emanation", the radioactive gas was identified during experiments with radium, thorium oxide, and actinium by Friedrich Ernst Dorn , Rutherford and Owens, and André-Louis Debierne , respectively, and each element's emanation
262-748: A Māori warrior. The title became extinct upon his unexpected death in 1937. Since 1992 his portrait appears on the New Zealand one hundred-dollar note . As a youth, Rutherford made his grandmother a wooden potato masher (presumably during his school holidays); it has been held in the collection of the Royal Society since 1888. In 1900, Rutherford married Mary Georgina Newton (1876–1954), at St Paul's Anglican Church, Papanui in Christchurch . (He had become engaged to her before leaving New Zealand.) They had one daughter, Eileen Mary (1901–1930); she married
393-420: A regular octahedral molecule, unlike the distorted octahedral structure of XeF 6 , because of the inert pair effect . Because radon is quite electropositive for a noble gas, it is possible that radon fluorides actually take on highly fluorine-bridged structures and are not volatile. Extrapolation down the noble gas group would suggest also the possible existence of RnO, RnO 2 , and RnOF 4 , as well as
524-643: A scholarship to study at Canterbury College , University of New Zealand , between 1890 and 1894. He participated in its debating society and the Science Society. At Canterbury, he was awarded a complex BA in Latin, English, and Maths in 1892, a MA in Mathematics and Physical Science in 1893, and a BSc in Chemistry and Geology in 1894. Thereafter, he invented a new form of radio receiver, and in 1895 Rutherford
655-549: A Cambridge degree) allowed to do research at the university, and was additionally honoured to study under J. J. Thomson . With Thomson's encouragement, Rutherford detected radio waves at 0.5 miles (800 m), and briefly held the world record for the distance over which electromagnetic waves could be detected, although when he presented his results at the British Association meeting in 1896, he discovered he had been outdone by Guglielmo Marconi , whose radio waves had sent
786-486: A New Zealand physicist who was a pioneering researcher in both atomic and nuclear physics . He has been described as "the father of nuclear physics", and "the greatest experimentalist since Michael Faraday ". In 1908, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his investigations into the disintegration of the elements, and the chemistry of radioactive substances." He was the first Oceanian Nobel laureate, and
917-423: A building directly from the soil through the lowest level in the building that is in contact with the ground. High levels of radon in the water supply can also increase indoor radon air levels. Typical entry points of radon into buildings are cracks in solid foundations and walls, construction joints, gaps in suspended floors and around service pipes, cavities inside walls, and the water supply. Radon concentrations in
1048-420: A depth of 15 cm), contains about 1 gram of radium, which releases radon in small amounts to the atmosphere. It is estimated that 2.4 billion curies (90 EBq) of radon are released from soil annually worldwide. This is equivalent to some 15.3 kilograms (34 lb). Radon concentration can differ widely from place to place. In the open air, it ranges from 1 to 100 Bq/m, even less (0.1 Bq/m) above
1179-432: A few tens of grams of radon, consistently replaced by decay of larger amounts of radium, thorium, and uranium. Radon is produced by the radioactive decay of radium-226, which is found in uranium ores, phosphate rock, shales, igneous and metamorphic rocks such as granite, gneiss, and schist, and to a lesser degree, in common rocks such as limestone. Every square mile of surface soil, to a depth of 6 inches (2.6 km to
1310-572: A given territory. Thus, the geometric mean is generally used for estimating the "average" radon concentration in an area. The mean concentration ranges from less than 10 Bq/m to over 100 Bq/m in some European countries. Some of the highest radon hazard in the US is found in Iowa and in the Appalachian Mountain areas in southeastern Pennsylvania. Iowa has the highest average radon concentrations in
1441-402: A greenish glow. Phosphors containing copper -doped zinc sulfide (ZnS:Cu) yield blue-green light; copper and manganese -doped zinc sulfide ( ZnS:Cu,Mn ), yielding yellow-orange light are also used. Radium-based luminescent paint is no longer used due to the radiation hazard posed to persons manufacturing the dials. These phosphors are not suitable for use in layers thicker than 25 mg/cm , as
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#17328692031261572-492: A higher concentration of uranium. Not all granitic regions are prone to high emissions of radon. Being a rare gas, it usually migrates freely through faults and fragmented soils, and may accumulate in caves or water. Owing to its very short half-life (four days for Rn), radon concentration decreases very quickly when the distance from the production area increases. Radon concentration varies greatly with season and atmospheric conditions. For instance, it has been shown to accumulate in
1703-493: A low volatility and was thought to be RnF 2 . Because of the short half-life of radon and the radioactivity of its compounds, it has not been possible to study the compound in any detail. Theoretical studies on this molecule predict that it should have a Rn–F bond distance of 2.08 ångströms (Å), and that the compound is thermodynamically more stable and less volatile than its lighter counterpart xenon difluoride ( XeF 2 ). The octahedral molecule RnF 6
1834-503: A measure of radioactivity commonly used in mining). These conditions are not always met; in many homes, the equilibrium factor is typically 40%; that is, there will be 0.004 WL of daughters for each pCi/L of radon in the air. Pb takes much longer to come in equilibrium with radon, dependent on environmental factors, but if the environment permits accumulation of dust over extended periods of time, Pb and its decay products may contribute to overall radiation levels as well. Several studies on
1965-530: A message across nearly 10 miles (16 km). Again under Thomson's leadership, Rutherford worked on the conductive effects of X-rays on gases, which led to the discovery of the electron , the results first presented by Thomson in 1897. Hearing of Henri Becquerel 's experience with uranium , Rutherford started to explore its radioactivity , discovering two types that differed from X-rays in their penetrating power. Continuing his research in Canada, in 1899 he coined
2096-499: A mixture of a chemical containing a radioisotope with a radioluminescent chemical ( phosphor ). The continuous radioactive decay of the isotope's atoms releases radiation particles which strike the molecules of the phosphor, causing them to emit light. The constant bombardment by radioactive particles causes the chemical breakdown of many types of phosphor, so radioluminescent paints lose some of their luminosity during their working life. Radioluminescent materials may also be used in
2227-728: A much younger Earth, based on the insufficiency of known energy sources, but Rutherford pointed out, at a lecture attended by Kelvin, that radioactivity could solve this problem. Later that year, he was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society , and in 1907 he returned to Britain to take the chair of physics at the Victoria University of Manchester . In Manchester, Rutherford continued his work with alpha radiation. In conjunction with Hans Geiger , he developed zinc sulfide scintillation screens and ionisation chambers to count alpha particles. By dividing
2358-417: A part of nitrogen nuclei (and by inference, probably other nuclei as well). Such a construction had been suspected for many years, on the basis of atomic weights that were integral multiples of that of hydrogen; see Prout's hypothesis . Hydrogen was known to be the lightest element, and its nuclei presumably the lightest nuclei. Now, because of all these considerations, Rutherford decided that a hydrogen nucleus
2489-613: A proton, which he called a "hydrogen atom", when hit with α (alpha) particles. In particular, he showed that particles ejected by alpha particles colliding with hydrogen have unit charge and 1/4 the momentum of alpha particles. Rutherford returned to the Cavendish Laboratory in 1919, succeeding J. J. Thomson as the Cavendish professor and the laboratory's director, posts that he held until his death in 1937. During his tenure, Nobel prizes were awarded to James Chadwick for discovering
2620-689: A radioactive gas he named "radium emanation" ("Ra Em"). In 1901, Rutherford and Harriet Brooks demonstrated that the emanations are radioactive, but credited the Curies for the discovery of the element. In 1903, similar emanations were observed from actinium by André-Louis Debierne , and were called "actinium emanation" ("Ac Em"). Several shortened names were soon suggested for the three emanations: exradio , exthorio , and exactinio in 1904; radon (Ro), thoron (To), and akton or acton (Ao) in 1918; radeon , thoreon , and actineon in 1919, and eventually radon , thoron , and actinon in 1920. (The name radon
2751-399: A rate of about 1 mm/day per gram of radium; equilibrium is quickly achieved and radon is produced in a steady flow, with an activity equal to that of the radium (50 Bq). Gaseous Rn (half-life of about four days) escapes from the capsule through diffusion . Ernest Rutherford Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron Rutherford of Nelson , (30 August 1871 – 19 October 1937), was
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#17328692031262882-472: A research fellow working under Rutherford, using natural alpha particles, demonstrated induced nuclear transmutation . Later, Rutherford's team, using protons from an accelerator, demonstrated artificially-induced nuclear reactions and transmutation. Rutherford died too early to see Leó Szilárd 's idea of controlled nuclear chain reactions come into being. However, a speech of Rutherford's about his artificially-induced transmutation in lithium, printed in
3013-452: A sample of radioactive material of any size invariably took the same amount of time for half the sample to decay (in this case, 11 1 ⁄ 2 minutes), a phenomenon for which he coined the term " half-life ". Rutherford and Soddy published their paper "Law of Radioactive Change" to account for all their experiments. Until then, atoms were assumed to be the indestructible basis of all matter; and although Curie had suggested that radioactivity
3144-559: A very small nucleus . He arrived at this theory through his discovery and interpretation of Rutherford scattering during the gold foil experiment performed by Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden . In 1912 he invited Niels Bohr to join his lab, leading to the Bohr-Rutherford model of the atom . In 1917, he performed the first artificially induced nuclear reaction by conducting experiments in which nitrogen nuclei were bombarded with alpha particles. These experiments led him to discover
3275-474: A wasting disease of miners, the mala metallorum , and Georg Agricola recommended ventilation in mines to avoid this mountain sickness ( Bergsucht ). In 1879, this condition was identified as lung cancer by Harting and Hesse in their investigation of miners from Schneeberg, Germany. The first major studies with radon and health occurred in the context of uranium mining in the Joachimsthal region of Bohemia . In
3406-422: Is inert to most common chemical reactions, such as combustion , because the outer valence shell contains eight electrons . This produces a stable, minimum energy configuration in which the outer electrons are tightly bound. Its first ionization energy —the minimum energy required to extract one electron from it—is 1037 kJ/mol. In accordance with periodic trends , radon has a lower electronegativity than
3537-493: Is a colorless, odorless gas, the only way to know how much is present in the air or water is to perform tests. In the US, radon test kits are available to the public at retail stores, such as hardware stores, for home use, and testing is available through licensed professionals, who are often home inspectors . Efforts to reduce indoor radon levels are called radon mitigation . In the US, the EPA recommends all houses be tested for radon. In
3668-557: Is a contaminant that affects indoor air quality worldwide. According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), radon is the second most frequent cause of lung cancer, after cigarette smoking, causing 21,000 lung cancer deaths per year in the United States. About 2,900 of these deaths occur among people who have never smoked. While radon is the second most frequent cause of lung cancer, it
3799-559: Is a decay product of Ra , the latter being itself a decay product of U . A trace amount of the (highly unstable) isotope Rn (half-life about 35 milliseconds ) is also among the daughters of Rn. The isotope Rn would be produced by the double beta decay of natural Po; while energetically possible, this process has however never been seen. Three other radon isotopes have a half-life of over an hour: Rn (about 15 hours), Rn (2.4 hours) and Rn (about 1.8 hours). However, none of these three occur naturally. Rn, also called thoron,
3930-507: Is a low-energy beta-emitter , which, unlike alpha emitters like radium, does not degrade the phosphor lattice, so the luminosity of the material will not degrade so quickly. It also does not emit the penetrating gamma rays which radium does. The half-life of Pm is only 2.62 years, so in a decade the radioactivity of a promethium dial will decline to only 1/16 of its original value, making it safer to dispose of, compared to radium with its half life of 1600 years. This short half-life meant that
4061-472: Is a natural decay product of the most stable thorium isotope (Th). It has a half-life of 55.6 seconds and also emits alpha radiation . Similarly, Rn is derived from the most stable isotope of actinium (Ac)—named "actinon"—and is an alpha emitter with a half-life of 3.96 seconds. Rn belongs to the radium and uranium-238 decay chain, and has a half-life of 3.8235 days. Its first four products (excluding marginal decay schemes ) are very short-lived, meaning that
Radon - Misplaced Pages Continue
4192-432: Is a noble gas and does not adhere to lung tissue (meaning it is often exhaled before decaying), the radon daughters attached to dust are more likely to stick to the lungs. This increases the risk of harm, as the radon daughters can cause damage to lung tissue. Radon and its daughters are, taken together, often the single largest contributor to an individual's background radiation dose, but due to local differences in geology,
4323-462: Is also lowered by air circulation or air filtration devices, and is increased by airborne dust particles, including cigarette smoke. The equilibrium factor found in epidemiological studies is 0.4. Radon was discovered in 1899 by Ernest Rutherford and Robert B. Owens at McGill University in Montreal . It was the fifth radioactive element to be discovered, after uranium, thorium, radium, and polonium. In 1899, Pierre and Marie Curie observed that
4454-479: Is also sometimes seen around high-power radiation sources, such as nuclear reactors and radioisotopes . Radioluminescence occurs when an incoming particle of ionizing radiation collides with an atom or molecule, exciting an orbital electron to a higher energy level. The particle usually comes from the radioactive decay of an atom of a radioisotope , an isotope of an element which is radioactive. The electron then returns to its ground energy level by emitting
4585-417: Is expected to be more stable than RnF 6 due to spin–orbit splitting of the 6p shell of radon (Rn would have a closed-shell 6s 6p 1/2 configuration). Therefore, while RnF 4 should have a similar stability to xenon tetrafluoride ( XeF 4 ), RnF 6 would likely be much less stable than xenon hexafluoride ( XeF 6 ): radon hexafluoride would also probably be
4716-521: Is expressed in joule-hours per cubic meter (J·h/m). One WLM is equivalent to 3.6 × 10 J·h/m. An exposure to 1 WL for 1 working-month (170 hours) equals 1 WLM cumulative exposure. The International Commission on Radiological Protection recommends an annual limit of 4.8WLM for miners. Assuming 2000 hours of work per year, this corresponds to a concentration of 1500 Bq/m. Rn decays to Pb and other radioisotopes. The levels of Pb can be measured. The rate of deposition of this radioisotope
4847-433: Is its decay product, the radioactive gas radon , which constitutes a significant risk even at extremely low concentrations when inhaled. Radium's long half-life of 1600 years means that surfaces coated with radium paint, such as watch faces and hands, remain a health hazard long after their useful life is over. There are still millions of luminous radium clock, watch, and compass faces and aircraft instrument dials owned by
4978-527: Is not related to that of the Austrian mathematician Johann Radon .) The likeness of the spectra of these three gases with those of argon, krypton, and xenon, and their observed chemical inertia led Sir William Ramsay to suggest in 1904 that the "emanations" might contain a new element of the noble-gas family. In 1909, Ramsay and Robert Whytlaw-Gray isolated radon and determined its melting temperature and approximate density . In 1910, they determined that it
5109-483: Is regulated, but it is available in small quantities for the calibration of Rn measurement systems. In 2008 it was priced at almost US$ 6,000 (equivalent to $ 8,491 in 2023) per milliliter of radium solution (which only contains about 15 picograms of actual radon at any given moment). Radon is produced commercially by a solution of radium-226 (half-life of 1,600 years). Radium-226 decays by alpha-particle emission, producing radon that collects over samples of radium-226 at
5240-484: Is seldom performed with radon, and as a result there are very few reported compounds of radon, all either fluorides or oxides . Radon can be oxidized by powerful oxidizing agents such as fluorine , thus forming radon difluoride ( RnF 2 ). It decomposes back to its elements at a temperature of above 523 K (250 °C; 482 °F), and is reduced by water to radon gas and hydrogen fluoride: it may also be reduced back to its elements by hydrogen gas. It has
5371-494: Is the absolute temperature, and A {\displaystyle A} and B {\displaystyle B} are solvent constants. Radon is a member of the zero- valence elements that are called noble gases, and is chemically not very reactive . The 3.8-day half-life of Rn makes it useful in physical sciences as a natural tracer . Because radon is a gas at standard conditions, unlike its decay-chain parents, it can readily be extracted from them for research. It
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5502-401: Is the number one cause among non-smokers, according to EPA policy-oriented estimates. Significant uncertainties exist for the health effects of low-dose exposures. Radon is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas and therefore is not detectable by human senses alone. At standard temperature and pressure , it forms a monatomic gas with a density of 9.73 kg/m, about 8 times the density of
5633-408: Is the phenomenon by which light is produced in a material by bombardment with ionizing radiation such as alpha particles , beta particles , or gamma rays . Radioluminescence is used as a low level light source for night illumination of instruments or signage. Radioluminescent paint is occasionally used for clock hands and instrument dials, enabling them to be read in the dark. Radioluminescence
5764-402: Is used on wristwatch faces, gun sights , and emergency exit signs . The tritium gas is contained in a small glass tube, coated with a phosphor on the inside. Beta particles emitted by the tritium strike the phosphor coating and cause it to fluoresce , emitting light, usually yellow-green. Tritium is used because it is believed to pose a negligible threat to human health, in contrast to
5895-440: Is weather-dependent. Radon concentrations found in natural environments are much too low to be detected by chemical means. A 1,000 Bq/m (relatively high) concentration corresponds to 0.17 picogram per cubic meter (pg/m). The average concentration of radon in the atmosphere is about 6 × 10 molar percent , or about 150 atoms in each milliliter of air. The radon activity of the entire Earth's atmosphere originates from only
6026-487: The Earth's atmosphere are so low that radon-rich water in contact with the atmosphere will continually lose radon by volatilization . Hence, ground water has a higher concentration of Rn than surface water , because radon is continuously produced by radioactive decay of Ra present in rocks. Likewise, the saturated zone of a soil frequently has a higher radon content than the unsaturated zone because of diffusional losses to
6157-434: The Earth's atmosphere at sea level, 1.217 kg/m. It is one of the densest gases at room temperature (a few are denser, e.g. CF 3 (CF 2 ) 2 CF 3 and WF 6 ) and is the densest of the noble gases. Although colorless at standard temperature and pressure, when cooled below its freezing point of 202 K (−71 °C; −96 °F), it emits a brilliant radioluminescence that turns from yellow to orange-red as
6288-541: The Geiger–Marsden experiment , which demonstrated the nuclear nature of atoms by measuring the deflection of alpha particles passing through a thin gold foil. Rutherford was inspired to ask Geiger and Marsden in this experiment to look for alpha particles with very high deflection angles, which was not expected according to any theory of matter at that time. Such deflection angles, although rare, were found. Reflecting on these results in one of his last lectures Rutherford
6419-464: The atomic numbering system in 1913. Rutherford and Moseley's experiments used cathode rays to bombard various elements with streams of electrons and observed that each element responded in a consistent and distinct manner. Their research was the first to assert that each element could be defined by the properties of its inner structures – an observation that later led to the discovery of the atomic nucleus . This research led Rutherford to theorize that
6550-531: The inert pair effect . Radon reacts with the liquid halogen fluorides ClF, ClF 3 , ClF 5 , BrF 3 , BrF 5 , and IF 7 to form RnF 2 . In halogen fluoride solution, radon is nonvolatile and exists as the RnF and Rn cations; addition of fluoride anions results in the formation of the complexes RnF 3 and RnF 4 , paralleling the chemistry of beryllium (II) and aluminium (III). The standard electrode potential of
6681-585: The neutron was discovered by James Chadwick in 1932. In the same year, the first controlled experiment to split the nucleus was performed by John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton , working under his direction. In honour of his scientific advancements, Rutherford was recognised as a baron of the United Kingdom. After his death in 1937, he was buried in Westminster Abbey near Charles Darwin and Isaac Newton . The chemical element rutherfordium ( 104 Rf)
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#17328692031266812-675: The noble gas emitted by the radioactive element thorium , a substance which was itself radioactive and would coat other substances. Once he had eliminated all the normal chemical reactions, Soddy suggested that it must be one of the inert gases, which they named thoron . This substance was later found to be Rn , an isotope of radon. They also found another substance they called Thorium X, later identified as Rn , and continued to find traces of helium. They also worked with samples of "Uranium X" ( protactinium ), from William Crookes , and radium , from Marie Curie . Rutherford further investigated thoron in conjunction with R.B. Owens and found that
6943-437: The 12 September 1933 issue of The Times , was reported by Szilárd to have been his inspiration for thinking of the possibility of a controlled energy-producing nuclear chain reaction . Rutherford's speech touched on the 1932 work of his students John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton in "splitting" lithium into alpha particles by bombardment with protons from a particle accelerator they had constructed. Rutherford realised that
7074-584: The International Committee for Chemical Elements and International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry chose radon as the accepted name for the element's most stable isotope, Rn. Under standard conditions, radon is gaseous and can be easily inhaled, posing a health hazard. However, the primary danger comes not from radon itself, but from its decay products, known as radon daughters. These decay products, often existing as single atoms or ions, can attach themselves to airborne dust particles. Although radon
7205-460: The Rn/Rn couple has been estimated as +2.0 V, although there is no evidence for the formation of stable radon ions or compounds in aqueous solution. Radon has no stable isotopes . Thirty-nine radioactive isotopes have been characterized, with mass numbers ranging from 193 to 231. Six of them, from 217 to 222 inclusive, occur naturally. The most stable isotope is Rn (half-life 3.82 days), which
7336-603: The UK, under the Housing Health & Safety Rating System, property owners have an obligation to evaluate potential risks and hazards to health and safety in a residential property. Alpha-radiation monitoring over the long term is a method of testing for radon that is more common in countries outside the United States. Radon is obtained as a by-product of uraniferous ores processing after transferring into 1% solutions of hydrochloric or hydrobromic acids . The gas mixture extracted from
7467-607: The US due to significant glaciation that ground the granitic rocks from the Canadian Shield and deposited it as soils making up the rich Iowa farmland. Many cities within the state, such as Iowa City , have passed requirements for radon-resistant construction in new homes. The second highest readings in Ireland were found in office buildings in the Irish town of Mallow, County Cork , prompting local fears regarding lung cancer. Since radon
7598-514: The US, studies and mitigation only followed decades of health effects on uranium miners of the Southwestern US employed during the early Cold War ; standards were not implemented until 1971. In the early 20th century in the US, gold contaminated with the radon daughter Pb entered the jewelry industry. This was from gold brachytherapy seeds that had held Rn, which were melted down after the radon had decayed. The presence of radon in indoor air
7729-504: The United States and Norway aimed to measure radon indoors and in metropolitan areas. High concentrations of radon in homes were discovered by chance in 1984 after the stringent radiation testing conducted at the new Limerick Generating Station nuclear power plant in Montgomery County, Pennsylvania, United States revealed that Stanley Watras , a construction engineer at the plant, was contaminated by radioactive substances even though
7860-404: The air and is diluted to safe concentrations. Tritium has a half-life of 12.32 years, so the brightness of a tritium light source will decline to half its initial value in that time. Infrared radiofluorescence (sometimes spelt radio-fluorescence) is a dating technique involving the infrared (~ 880 nm) luminescence signal of orthoclase from exposure to ionizing radiation . It can reveal
7991-557: The air at the (unventilated) Gastein Healing Gallery averages 43 kBq/m (1.2 nCi/L) with maximal value of 160 kBq/m (4.3 nCi/L). Radon mostly appears with the radium/ uranium series (decay chain) (Rn), and marginally with the thorium series (Rn). The element emanates naturally from the ground, and some building materials, all over the world, wherever traces of uranium or thorium are found, and particularly in regions with soils containing granite or shale , which have
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#17328692031268122-628: The air if there is a meteorological inversion and little wind. High concentrations of radon can be found in some spring waters and hot springs. The towns of Boulder, Montana ; Misasa ; Bad Kreuznach , Germany; and the country of Japan have radium-rich springs that emit radon. To be classified as a radon mineral water, radon concentration must be above 2 nCi/L (74 kBq/m). The activity of radon mineral water reaches 2 MBq/m in Merano and 4 MBq/m in Lurisia (Italy). Natural radon concentrations in
8253-406: The atmosphere following seismic events leading to earthquakes , which has led to its investigation in the field of earthquake prediction . It is possible to test for radon in buildings, and to use techniques such as sub-slab depressurization for mitigation . Epidemiological studies have shown a clear association between breathing high concentrations of radon and incidence of lung cancer . Radon
8384-674: The atmosphere. In 1971, Apollo 15 passed 110 km (68 mi) above the Aristarchus plateau on the Moon , and detected a significant rise in alpha particles thought to be caused by the decay of Rn. The presence of Rn has been inferred later from data obtained from the Lunar Prospector alpha particle spectrometer. Radon is found in some petroleum . Because radon has a similar pressure and temperature curve to propane , and oil refineries separate petrochemicals based on their boiling points,
8515-422: The compact nucleus). Bohr adapted Rutherford's nuclear structure to be consistent with Max Planck 's quantum hypothesis. The resulting Rutherford–Bohr model was the basis for quantum mechanical atomic physics of Heisenberg which remains valid today. During World War I, Rutherford worked on a top-secret project to solve the practical problems of submarine detection. Both Rutherford and Paul Langevin suggested
8646-488: The concentration of short-lived isotopes will increase until an equilibrium is reached where the overall decay rate of the decay products equals that of the radon itself. The equilibrium factor is 1 when both activities are equal, meaning that the decay products have stayed close to the radon parent long enough for the equilibrium to be reached, within a couple of hours. Under these conditions, each additional pCi/L of radon will increase exposure by 0.01 working level (WL,
8777-407: The construction of an optoelectric nuclear battery , a type of radioisotope generator in which nuclear energy is converted into light. The first use of radioluminescence was in luminous paint containing radium , a natural radioisotope . Beginning in 1908, luminous paint containing a mixture of radium and copper - doped zinc sulfide was used to paint watch faces and instrument dials, giving
8908-420: The corresponding disintegrations are indicative of the initial radon distribution. Its decay goes through the following sequence: The radon equilibrium factor is the ratio between the activity of all short-period radon progenies (which are responsible for most of radon's biological effects), and the activity that would be at equilibrium with the radon parent. If a closed volume is constantly supplied with radon,
9039-399: The decay of radium in radium halides, a reaction that has been used to reduce the amount of radon that escapes from targets during irradiation . Additionally, salts of the [RnF] cation with the anions SbF 6 , TaF 6 , and BiF 6 are known. Radon is also oxidised by dioxygen difluoride to RnF 2 at 173 K (−100 °C; −148 °F). Radon oxides are among
9170-425: The element one period before it, xenon , and is therefore more reactive. Early studies concluded that the stability of radon hydrate should be of the same order as that of the hydrates of chlorine ( Cl 2 ) or sulfur dioxide ( SO 2 ), and significantly higher than the stability of the hydrate of hydrogen sulfide ( H 2 S ). Because of its cost and radioactivity, experimental chemical research
9301-570: The emission of a subatomic particle that he initially called the "hydrogen atom", but later (more precisely) renamed the proton . He is also credited with developing the atomic numbering system alongside Henry Moseley . His other achievements include advancing the fields of radio communications and ultrasound technology. Rutherford became Director of the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge in 1919. Under his leadership,
9432-467: The energy released from the split lithium atoms was enormous, but he also realised that the energy needed for the accelerator, and its essential inefficiency in splitting atoms in this fashion, made the project an impossibility as a practical source of energy (accelerator-induced fission of light elements remains too inefficient to be used in this way, even today). Rutherford's speech in part, read: We might in these processes obtain very much more energy than
9563-408: The existence of neutrons , (which he had christened in his 1920 Bakerian Lecture ), which could somehow compensate for the repelling effect of the positive charges of protons by causing an attractive nuclear force and thus keep the nuclei from flying apart, due to the repulsion between protons. The only alternative to neutrons was the existence of "nuclear electrons", which would counteract some of
9694-407: The existence of Xe(VIII), no Rn(VIII) compounds have been claimed to exist; RnF 8 should be highly unstable chemically (XeF 8 is thermodynamically unstable). It is predicted that the most stable Rn(VIII) compound would be barium perradonate (Ba 2 RnO 6 ), analogous to barium perxenate . The instability of Rn(VIII) is due to the relativistic stabilization of the 6s shell, also known as
9825-613: The extra energy as a photon of light. A chemical that releases light of a particular color when struck by ionizing radiation is called a phosphor . Radioluminescent light sources usually consist of a radioactive substance mixed with, or in proximity to, a phosphor. Since radioactivity was discovered around the beginning of the 20th century, the main application of radioluminescence has been in radioluminescent paint , used on watch and compass dials, gunsights , aircraft flight instrument faces, and other instruments, allowing them to be seen in darkness. Radioluminescent paint consists of
9956-567: The fact that radon levels in particular dwellings can occasionally be orders of magnitude higher than typical. Since the incident in Pennsylvania, millions of short-term radon measurements have been taken in homes in the United States. Outside the United States, radon measurements are typically performed over the long term. In the United States, typical domestic exposures are of approximately 100 Bq/m (2.7 pCi/L) indoors. Some level of radon will be found in all buildings. Radon mostly enters
10087-557: The few other reported compounds of radon ; only the trioxide ( RnO 3 ) has been confirmed. The higher fluorides RnF 4 and RnF 6 have been claimed and are calculated to be stable, but their identification is unclear. They may have been observed in experiments where unknown radon-containing products distilled together with xenon hexafluoride : these may have been RnF 4 , RnF 6 , or both. Trace-scale heating of radon with xenon, fluorine, bromine pentafluoride , and either sodium fluoride or nickel fluoride
10218-584: The first analysis of the distribution in time of radioactive emission, a distribution now called the Poisson distribution . Ernest Rutherford was awarded the 1908 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his investigations into the disintegration of the elements, and the chemistry of radioactive substances". Rutherford continued to make ground-breaking discoveries long after receiving the Nobel prize in 1908. Under his direction in 1909, Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden performed
10349-400: The first chemically stable noble gas chlorides RnCl 2 and RnCl 4 , but none of these have yet been found. Radon carbonyl (RnCO) has been predicted to be stable and to have a linear molecular geometry . The molecules Rn 2 and RnXe were found to be significantly stabilized by spin-orbit coupling . Radon caged inside a fullerene has been proposed as a drug for tumors . Despite
10480-462: The first to perform the awarded work in Canada . Rutherford's discoveries include the concept of radioactive half-life , the radioactive element radon , and the differentiation and naming of alpha and beta radiation . Together with Thomas Royds , Rutherford is credited with proving that alpha radiation is composed of helium nuclei. In 1911, he theorized that atoms have their charge concentrated in
10611-472: The formation of RnO 3 , but this could not be confirmed. It is likely that the difficulty in identifying higher fluorides of radon stems from radon being kinetically hindered from being oxidised beyond the divalent state because of the strong ionicity of radon difluoride ( RnF 2 ) and the high positive charge on radon in RnF; spatial separation of RnF 2 molecules may be necessary to clearly identify higher fluorides of radon, of which RnF 4
10742-519: The formation of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR) in the following year. In 1933, Rutherford was one of the two inaugural recipients of the T. K. Sidey Medal , which was established by the Royal Society of New Zealand as an award for outstanding scientific research. Additionally, Rutherford received a number of awards from the British Crown. He was knighted in 1914. He
10873-554: The gas emitted by radium remained radioactive for a month. Later that year, Rutherford and Owens noticed variations when trying to measure radiation from thorium oxide. Rutherford noticed that the compounds of thorium continuously emit a radioactive gas that remains radioactive for several minutes, and called this gas "emanation" (from Latin : emanare , to flow out, and emanatio , expiration), and later "thorium emanation" ("Th Em"). In 1900, Friedrich Ernst Dorn reported some experiments in which he noticed that radium compounds emanate
11004-573: The greatest scientists of all time", saying: In his flair for the right line of approach to a problem, as well as in the simple directness of his methods of attack, [Rutherford] often reminds us of Faraday, but he had two great advantages which Faraday did not possess, first, exuberant bodily health and energy, and second, the opportunity and capacity to direct a band of enthusiastic co-workers. Great though Faraday's output of work was, it seems to me that to match Rutherford's work in quantity as well as in quality, we must go back to Newton. In some respects he
11135-584: The highest of anyone from Nelson. When he was awarded the scholarship, he had received 580 out of 600 possible marks. After being awarded the scholarship, Havelock School presented him with a five-volume set of books titled The Peoples of the World . He studied at Nelson College between 1887 and 1889, and was head boy in 1889. He also played in the school's rugby team. He was offered a cadetship in government service, but he declined as he still had 15 months of college remaining. In 1889, after his second attempt, he won
11266-402: The hydrogen atom (at the time the least massive entity known to bear a positive charge) was a sort of "positive electron" – a component of every atomic element. It was not until 1919 that Rutherford expanded upon his theory of the "positive electron" with a series of experiments beginning shortly before the end of his time at Manchester. He found that nitrogen, and other light elements, ejected
11397-635: The hydrolysed solution. That [RnO 3 F] did not form in other experiments may have been due to the high concentration of fluoride used. Electromigration studies also suggest the presence of cationic [HRnO 3 ] and anionic [HRnO 4 ] forms of radon in weakly acidic aqueous solution (pH > 5), the procedure having previously been validated by examination of the homologous xenon trioxide. The decay technique has also been used. Avrorin et al. reported in 1982 that Fr compounds cocrystallised with their caesium analogues appeared to retain chemically bound radon after electron capture; analogies with xenon suggested
11528-463: The inside of pipework. Measurement of radon levels in the first decades of its discovery was mainly done to determine the presence of radium and uranium in geological surveys. In 1956, most likely the first indoor survey of radon decay products was performed in Sweden, with the intent of estimating the public exposure to radon and its decay products. From 1975 up until 1984, small studies in Sweden, Austria,
11659-503: The interactions that hold a nucleus together. Second, he showed that α-particles colliding with nitrogen nuclei would react rather than simply bounce off. One product of the reaction was the proton; the other product was shown by Patrick Blackett , Rutherford's colleague and former student to be oxygen: Blackett was awarded the Nobel prize in 1948 for his work in perfecting the high-speed cloud chamber apparatus used to make that discovery and many others. Rutherford therefore recognised "that
11790-438: The level of exposure to radon gas differs by location. A common source of environmental radon is uranium-containing minerals in the ground; it therefore accumulates in subterranean areas such as basements. Radon can also occur in ground water, such as spring waters and hot springs. Radon trapped in permafrost may be released by climate-change -induced thawing of permafrosts , and radon may also be released into groundwater and
11921-563: The luminosity of promethium dials also dropped by half every 2.62 years, giving them a short useful life, which led to promethium's replacement by tritium. Promethium-based paint was used to illuminate Apollo Lunar Module electrical switch tips and painted on control panels of the Lunar Roving Vehicle . The latest generation of radioluminescent materials is based on tritium , a radioactive isotope of hydrogen with half-life of 12.32 years that emits very low-energy beta radiation. It
12052-429: The mining industry, the exposure is traditionally measured in working level (WL), and the cumulative exposure in working level month (WLM); 1 WL equals any combination of short-lived Rn daughters (Po, Pb, Bi, and Po) in 1 liter of air that releases 1.3 × 10 MeV of potential alpha energy; 1 WL is equivalent to 2.08 × 10 joules per cubic meter of air (J/m). The SI unit of cumulative exposure
12183-557: The name of gamma ray . All three of Rutherford's terms are in standard use today – other types of radioactive decay have since been discovered, but Rutherford's three types are among the most common. In 1904, Rutherford suggested that radioactivity provides a source of energy sufficient to explain the existence of the Sun for the many millions of years required for the slow biological evolution on Earth proposed by biologists such as Charles Darwin . The physicist Lord Kelvin had argued earlier for
12314-455: The name of the most stable isotope, radon, as the name of the element. The isotopes thoron and actinon were later renamed Rn and Rn. This has caused some confusion in the literature regarding the element's discovery as while Dorn had discovered radon the isotope, he was not the first to discover radon the element. As late as the 1960s, the element was also referred to simply as emanation . The first synthesized compound of radon, radon fluoride,
12445-459: The neutron (in 1932), John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton for an experiment that was to be known as splitting the atom using a particle accelerator , and Edward Appleton for demonstrating the existence of the ionosphere . In 1919–1920, Rutherford continued his research on the "hydrogen atom" to confirm that alpha particles break down nitrogen nuclei and to affirm the nature of the products. This result showed Rutherford that hydrogen nuclei were
12576-604: The nucleus may increase rather than diminish in mass as the result of collisions in which the proton is expelled". Rutherford received significant recognition in his home country of New Zealand. In 1901, he earned a DSc from the University of New Zealand. In 1916, he was awarded the Hector Memorial Medal . In 1925, Rutherford called for the New Zealand Government to support education and research, which led to
12707-448: The ocean. In caves or ventilated mines, or poorly ventilated houses, its concentration climbs to 20–2,000 Bq/m. Radon concentration can be much higher in mining contexts. Ventilation regulations instruct to maintain radon concentration in uranium mines under the "working level", with 95th percentile levels ranging up to nearly 3 WL (546 pCi Rn per liter of air; 20.2 kBq/m, measured from 1976 to 1985). The concentration in
12838-617: The physicist Ralph Fowler , and died during the birth of her fourth child. Rutherford's hobbies included golf and motoring . For some time before his death, Rutherford had a small hernia , which he neglected to have repaired, and it eventually became strangulated, rendering him violently ill. He had an emergency operation in London, but died in Cambridge four days later, on 19 October 1937, at age 66, of what physicians termed "intestinal paralysis". After cremation at Golders Green Crematorium , he
12969-414: The piping carrying freshly separated propane in oil refineries can become contaminated because of decaying radon and its products. Residues from the petroleum and natural gas industry often contain radium and its daughters. The sulfate scale from an oil well can be radium rich, while the water, oil, and gas from a well often contains radon. Radon decays to form solid radioisotopes that form coatings on
13100-399: The previous radioluminescent source, radium, which proved to be a significant radiological hazard. The low-energy 5.7 keV beta particles emitted by tritium cannot pass through the enclosing glass tube. Even if they could, they are not able to penetrate human skin. Tritium is only a health threat if ingested or inhaled. Since tritium is a gas, if a tritium tube breaks, the gas dissipates in
13231-522: The proton charges in the nucleus, since by then it was known that nuclei had about twice the mass that could be accounted for if they were simply assembled from hydrogen nuclei (protons). But how these nuclear electrons could be trapped in the nucleus, was a mystery. In 1932, Rutherford's theory of neutrons was proved by his associate James Chadwick , who recognised neutrons immediately when they were produced by other scientists and later himself, in bombarding beryllium with alpha particles. In 1935, Chadwick
13362-473: The proton supplied, but on the average we could not expect to obtain energy in this way. It was a very poor and inefficient way of producing energy, and anyone who looked for a source of power in the transformation of the atoms was talking moonshine. But the subject was scientifically interesting because it gave insight into the atoms. The element rutherfordium , Rf, Z=104, was named in honour of Rutherford in 1997. Radioluminescence Radioluminescence
13493-474: The public. The case of the " Radium Girls ", workers in watch factories in the early 1920s who painted watch faces with radium paint and later contracted fatal cancer through ingesting radium when they pointed their brushes with their lips, increased public awareness of the hazards of radioluminescent materials, and radioactivity in general. In the second half of the 20th century, radium was progressively replaced with paint containing promethium -147. Promethium
13624-448: The radioactive equilibrium of elements in the environment find it more useful to use the ratio of other Rn decay products with Pb, such as Po, in measuring overall radiation levels. Because of their electrostatic charge , radon progenies adhere to surfaces or dust particles, whereas gaseous radon does not. Attachment removes them from the air, usually causing the equilibrium factor in the atmosphere to be less than 1. The equilibrium factor
13755-410: The reactor had never been fueled and Watras had been decontaminated each evening. It was determined that radon levels in his home's basement were in excess of 100,000 Bq/m (2.7 nCi/L); he was told that living in the home was the equivalent of smoking 135 packs of cigarettes a day, and he and his family had increased their risk of developing lung cancer by 13 or 14 percent. The incident dramatized
13886-415: The same place may differ by double/half over one hour, and the concentration in one room of a building may be significantly different from the concentration in an adjoining room. The distribution of radon concentrations will generally differ from room to room, and the readings are averaged according to regulatory protocols. Indoor radon concentration is usually assumed to follow a log-normal distribution on
14017-402: The self-absorption of the light then becomes a problem. Zinc sulfide undergoes degradation of its crystal lattice structure, leading to gradual loss of brightness significantly faster than the depletion of radium. ZnS:Ag coated spinthariscope screens were used by Ernest Rutherford in his experiments discovering the atomic nucleus . Radium was used in luminous paint until the 1960s, when it
14148-466: The short half-life of Rn (55 seconds, versus 3.8 days respectively). Radon concentration in the atmosphere is usually measured in becquerel per cubic meter (Bq/m), the SI derived unit . Another unit of measurement common in the US is picocuries per liter (pCi/L); 1 pCi/L = 37 Bq/m. Typical domestic exposures average about 48 Bq/m indoors, though this varies widely, and 15 Bq/m outdoors. In
14279-464: The solutions contains H 2 , O 2 , He, Rn, CO 2 , H 2 O and hydrocarbons . The mixture is purified by passing it over copper at 993 K (720 °C; 1,328 °F) to remove the H 2 and the O 2 , and then KOH and P 2 O 5 are used to remove the acids and moisture by sorption . Radon is condensed by liquid nitrogen and purified from residue gases by sublimation . Radon commercialization
14410-420: The temperature lowers. Upon condensation , it glows because of the intense radiation it produces. It is sparingly soluble in water, but more soluble than lighter noble gases. It is appreciably more soluble in organic liquids than in water. Its solubility equation is as follows: where χ {\displaystyle \chi } is the molar fraction of radon, T {\displaystyle T}
14541-472: The terms " alpha ray " and " beta ray " to describe these two distinct types of radiation . In 1898, Rutherford was accepted to the chair of Macdonald Professor of physics position at McGill University in Montreal, Canada, on Thomson's recommendation. From 1900 to 1903, he was joined at McGill by the young chemist Frederick Soddy ( Nobel Prize in Chemistry , 1921) for whom he set the problem of identifying
14672-631: The total charge accumulated on the screen by the number counted, Rutherford determined that the charge on the alpha particle was two. In late 1907, Ernest Rutherford and Thomas Royds allowed alphas to penetrate a very thin window into an evacuated tube. As they sparked the tube into discharge , the spectrum obtained from it changed, as the alphas accumulated in the tube. Eventually, the clear spectrum of helium gas appeared, proving that alphas were at least ionised helium atoms, and probably helium nuclei. In 1910 Rutherford, with Geiger and mathematician Harry Bateman published their classic paper describing
14803-410: The use of piezoelectricity , and Rutherford successfully developed a device which measured its output. The use of piezoelectricity then became essential to the development of ultrasound as it is known today. The claim that Rutherford developed sonar , however, is a misconception, as subaquatic detection technologies utilise Langevin's transducer . Together with H.G. Moseley , Rutherford developed
14934-615: Was an atomic phenomenon, the idea of the atoms of radioactive substances breaking up was a radically new idea. Rutherford and Soddy demonstrated that radioactivity involved the spontaneous disintegration of atoms into other, as yet, unidentified matter. In 1903, Rutherford considered a type of radiation, discovered (but not named) by French chemist Paul Villard in 1900, as an emission from radium , and realised that this observation must represent something different from his own alpha and beta rays, due to its very much greater penetrating power. Rutherford therefore gave this third type of radiation
15065-576: Was appointed to the Order of Merit in the 1925 New Year Honours . Between 1925 and 1930, he served as President of the Royal Society , and later as president of the Academic Assistance Council which helped almost 1,000 university refugees from Germany. In 1931 was raised to Baron of the United Kingdom under the title Baron Rutherford of Nelson , decorating his coat of arms with a kiwi and
15196-595: Was awarded an 1851 Research Fellowship from the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851 , to travel to England for postgraduate study at the Cavendish Laboratory , University of Cambridge . In 1897, he was awarded a BA Research Degree and the Coutts-Trotter Studentship from Trinity College, Cambridge . When Rutherford began his studies at Cambridge, he was among the first 'aliens' (those without
15327-509: Was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for this discovery. Rutherford's four part article on the "Collision of α-particles with light atoms" he reported two additional fundamental and far reaching discoveries. First, he showed that at high angles the scattering of alpha particles from hydrogen differed from the theoretical results he himself published in 1911. These were the first results to probe
15458-421: Was claimed to produce a higher fluoride as well which hydrolysed to form RnO 3 . While it has been suggested that these claims were really due to radon precipitating out as the solid complex [RnF] 2 [NiF 6 ], the fact that radon coprecipitates from aqueous solution with CsXeO 3 F has been taken as confirmation that RnO 3 was formed, which has been supported by further studies of
15589-477: Was considered to a separate substance: radon, thoron, and actinon. Sir William Ramsay and Robert Whytlaw-Gray considered that the radioactive emanations may contain a new element of the noble gas family, and isolated "radium emanation" in 1909 to determine its properties. In 1911, the element Ramsay and Whytlaw-Gray isolated was accepted by the International Commission for Atomic Weights , and in 1923,
15720-406: Was documented as early as 1950. Beginning in the 1970s, research was initiated to address sources of indoor radon, determinants of concentration, health effects, and mitigation approaches. In the US, the problem of indoor radon received widespread publicity and intensified investigation after a widely publicized incident in 1984. During routine monitoring at a Pennsylvania nuclear power plant, a worker
15851-715: Was five he moved to Foxhill, New Zealand, and attended Foxhill School. At age 11 in 1883, the Rutherford family moved to Havelock , a town in the Marlborough Sounds . The move was made to be closer to the flax mill Rutherford's father developed. Ernest studied at Havelock School . In 1887, on his second attempt, he won a scholarship to study at Nelson College . On his first examination attempt, he received 75 out of 130 marks for geography, 76 out of 130 for history, 101 out of 140 for English, and 200 out of 200 for arithmetic, totalling 452 out of 600 marks. With these marks, he had
15982-429: Was found to be contaminated with radioactivity. A high concentration of radon in his home was subsequently identified as responsible. Discussions of radon concentrations in the environment refer to Rn, the decay product of uranium and radium. While the average rate of production of Rn (from the thorium decay series) is about the same as that of Rn, the amount of Rn in the environment is much less than that of Rn because of
16113-419: Was given the high honour of burial in Westminster Abbey , near Isaac Newton , Charles Darwin , and other illustrious British scientists. Rutherford is considered to be among the greatest scientists in history. At the opening session of the 1938 Indian Science Congress , which Rutherford had been expected to preside over before his death, astrophysicist James Jeans spoke in his place and deemed him "one of
16244-409: Was more fortunate than Newton. Rutherford was ever the happy warrior – happy in his work, happy in its outcome, and happy in its human contacts. Rutherford is known as "the father of nuclear physics" because his research, and work done under him as laboratory director, established the nuclear structure of the atom and the essential nature of radioactive decay as a nuclear process. Patrick Blackett ,
16375-498: Was named after him in 1997. Ernest Rutherford was born on 30 August 1871 in Brightwater , a town near Nelson , New Zealand. He was the fourth of twelve children of James Rutherford, an immigrant farmer and mechanic from Perth , Scotland, and his wife Martha Thompson, a schoolteacher from Hornchurch , England. Rutherford's birth certificate was mistakenly written as 'Earnest'. He was known by his family as Ern. When Rutherford
16506-438: Was obtained in 1962. Even today, the word radon may refer to either the element or its isotope Rn, with thoron remaining in use as a short name for Rn to stem this ambiguity. The name actinon for Rn is rarely encountered today, probably due to the short half-life of that isotope. The danger of high exposure to radon in mines, where exposures can reach 1,000,000 Bq /m, has long been known. In 1530, Paracelsus described
16637-465: Was possibly a fundamental building block of all nuclei, and also possibly a new fundamental particle as well, since nothing was known to be lighter than that nucleus. Thus, confirming and extending the work of Wilhelm Wien , who in 1898 discovered the proton in streams of ionized gas , in 1920 Rutherford postulated the hydrogen nucleus to be a new particle, which he dubbed the proton . In 1921, while working with Niels Bohr, Rutherford theorized about
16768-418: Was predicted to have an even lower enthalpy of formation than the difluoride. The [RnF] ion is believed to form by the following reaction: For this reason, antimony pentafluoride together with chlorine trifluoride and N 2 F 2 Sb 2 F 11 have been considered for radon gas removal in uranium mines due to the formation of radon–fluorine compounds. Radon compounds can be formed by
16899-487: Was quoted as saying: "It was quite the most incredible event that has ever happened to me in my life. It was almost as incredible as if you fired a 15-inch shell at a piece of tissue paper and it came back and hit you." It was Rutherford's interpretation of this data that led him to propose the nucleus , a very small, charged region containing much of the atom's mass. In 1912, Rutherford was joined by Niels Bohr (who postulated that electrons moved in specific orbits about
17030-425: Was replaced with the other radioisotopes mentioned above due to health concerns. In addition to alpha and beta particles , radium emits penetrating gamma rays , which can pass through the metal and glass of a watch dial, and skin. A typical older radium wristwatch dial has a radioactivity of 3–10 kBq and could expose its wearer to an annual dose of 24 millisieverts if worn continuously. Another health hazard
17161-488: Was the heaviest known gas. They wrote that " L'expression l'émanation du radium est fort incommode " ("the expression 'radium emanation' is very awkward") and suggested the new name niton (Nt) (from Latin : nitens , shining) to emphasize the radioluminescence property, and in 1912 it was accepted by the International Commission for Atomic Weights . In 1923, the International Committee for Chemical Elements and International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) chose
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