130-466: The Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act of 2012 , also known as the Reproductive Health Law or RH Law , and officially designated as Republic Act No. 10354 , is a Philippine law that provides universal access to methods of contraception , fertility control, sexual education , and maternal care. While there is agreement about its provisions on maternal and child health, there
260-469: A medical exam —including birth control pills, injectable or implantable birth control, and condoms. For example, a pelvic exam , breast exam , or blood test before starting birth control pills does not appear to affect outcomes. In 2009, the World Health Organization (WHO) published a detailed list of medical eligibility criteria for each type of birth control. Hormonal contraception
390-493: A pacifier , and feeding solids all increase the chances of becoming pregnant while breastfeeding. In those who are exclusively breastfeeding, about 10% begin having periods before three months and 20% before six months. In those who are not breastfeeding, fertility may return as early as four weeks after delivery. Emergency contraceptive methods are medications (sometimes misleadingly referred to as "morning-after pills") or devices used after unprotected sexual intercourse with
520-424: A progestin ) and the progestogen-only pills (sometimes called minipills). If either is taken during pregnancy, they do not increase the risk of miscarriage nor cause birth defects . Both types of birth control pills prevent fertilization mainly by inhibiting ovulation and thickening cervical mucus. They may also change the lining of the uterus and thus decrease implantation. Their effectiveness depends on
650-608: A "multi-dimensional approach" integrates a component of family planning and responsible parenthood into all government anti-poverty programs. Age-appropriate reproductive health and sexuality education is required from grade five to fourth year high school using "life-skills and other approaches." The bill also mandates the Department of Labor and Employment to guarantee the reproductive health rights of its female employees. Companies with fewer than 200 workers are required to enter into partnership with health care providers in their area for
780-585: A 33-year-old program by which free contraceptives were given to the country. Aid recipients such as the Philippines, faced the challenge to fund its own contraception program. In 2004, the Department of Health (DOH) introduced the Philippines Contraceptive Self-Reliance Strategy, arranging for the replacement of these donations with domestically provided contraceptives. In August 2010, the government announced collaborative work with
910-434: A 6% first-year rate with the diaphragm. Condoms have the additional benefit of helping to prevent the spread of some sexually transmitted infections such as HIV/AIDS , however, condoms made from animal intestine do not. Contraceptive sponges combine a barrier with a spermicide. Like diaphragms, they are inserted vaginally before intercourse and must be placed over the cervix to be effective. Typical failure rates during
1040-453: A TFR of 7 in 1960. In addition, the total fertility rate for the richest quintile of the population is 2.0, which is about one third the TFR of the poorest quintile (5.9 children per woman). The TFR for women with college education is 2.3, about half that of women with only an elementary education (4.5 children per woman). Congressman Lagman states that the bill "recognizes the verifiable link between
1170-399: A UK study, when a three-month "bridge" supply of the progestogen-only pill was provided by a pharmacist along with emergency contraception after sexual activity, this intervention was shown to increase the likelihood that the person would begin to use an effective method of long-term contraception. Levonorgestrel pills, when used within 3 days, decrease the chance of pregnancy after
1300-674: A base covered in oils or other gummy substances. Many of Soranus's methods were probably also ineffective. In medieval Europe, any effort to halt pregnancy was deemed immoral by the Catholic Church , although it is believed that women of the time still used a number of birth control measures, such as coitus interruptus and inserting lily root and rue into the vagina. Women in the Middle Ages were also encouraged to tie weasel testicles around their thighs during sex to prevent pregnancy. The oldest condoms discovered to date were recovered in
1430-620: A crime and is punishable", as the Constitution declares that "the State shall equally protect the life of the mother and the life of the unborn from conception ". The position of the Philippine Medical Association (PMA) "is founded strongly on the principle that 'life or conception begins at fertilization' at that moment where there is fusion or union of the sperm and the egg and thus a human person or human being already does exist at
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#17330858101701560-463: A crime and is punishable. The anti-RH advocates accuse the RH supporters of hiding from the public the international population control agenda which includes abortion and they refer to U.S. Secretary Hillary Clinton who said that RH includes abortion. Fourteen professors from Ateneo de Manila University , a prominent Catholic University, considering the empirical evidence of the dire socioeconomic conditions of
1690-411: A critical complement to sound economic policy and poverty reduction". In Population and Poverty , Aniceto Orbeta, Jr., showed that poverty incidence is higher among big families: 57.3% of Filipino families with seven children are in poverty while only 23.8% of families who have two children live below the poverty threshold. Proponents argue that smaller families and wider birth intervals resulting from
1820-741: A desire to avoid pregnancies but are still not using any family planning method". They say that lack of access leads to a number of serious problems which demand attention: (1) "too many and too closely-spaced children raises the risk of illness and premature deaths (for mother and child alike)," (2) "the health risks associated with mistimed and unwanted pregnancies are higher for adolescent mothers, as they are more likely to have complications during labor," (3) women who have mistimed pregnancies are "constrained to rely more on public education and health services and other publicly provided goods and services", further complicating limited public resources, (4) families are not able to achieve their desired family size. Thus
1950-893: A given method during the first year, and sometimes as a lifetime failure rate among methods with high effectiveness, such as tubal ligation . Birth control methods fall into two main categories: male contraception and female contraception . Common male contraceptives are withdrawal , condoms , and vasectomy . Female contraception is more developed compared to male contraception, these include contraceptive pills (combination and progestin-only pill), hormonal or non-hormonal IUD , patch , vaginal ring , diaphragm , shot , implant , fertility awareness , and tubal ligation . The most effective methods are those that are long acting and do not require ongoing health care visits. Surgical sterilization, implantable hormones, and intrauterine devices all have first-year failure rates of less than 1%. Hormonal contraceptive pills, patches or vaginal rings, and
2080-742: A huge population and poverty. Unbridled population growth stunts socioeconomic development and aggravates poverty". The University of the Philippines School of Economics presented two papers in support of the bill: Population and Poverty: the Real Score (2004), and Population, Poverty, Politics and the Reproductive Health Bill (2008). According to these economists, which include Solita Monsod , Gerardo Sicat , Cayetano Paderanga, Ernesto M. Pernia, and Stella Alabastro-Quimbo, "rapid population growth and high fertility rates, especially among
2210-471: A large population as one of the major causes of poverty in the country, together with weak macroeconomic management, employment issues, an underperforming agricultural sector and an unfinished land reform agenda, governance issues including corruption. Opponents refer to a 2003 study of Rand Corporation , which concluded that "there is little cross-country evidence that population growth impedes or promotes economic growth...population neutralism has in fact been
2340-491: A man's erect penis and physically block ejaculated sperm from entering the body of a sexual partner. Modern condoms are most often made from latex , but some are made from other materials such as polyurethane , or lamb's intestine. Female condoms are also available, most often made of nitrile , latex or polyurethane. Male condoms have the advantage of being inexpensive, easy to use, and have few adverse effects. Making condoms available to teenagers does not appear to affect
2470-583: A pregnancy, delivery and care of a newborn in the United States is on average $ 21,000 for a vaginal delivery and $ 31,000 for a caesarean delivery as of 2012. In most other countries, the cost is less than half. For a child born in 2011, an average US family will spend $ 235,000 over 17 years to raise them. Globally, as of 2009, approximately 60% of those who are married and able to have children use birth control. How frequently different methods are used varies widely between countries. The most common method in
2600-433: A previous delivery. Delaying another pregnancy after a miscarriage , however, does not appear to alter risk and women are advised to attempt pregnancy in this situation whenever they are ready. Teenage pregnancies , especially among younger teens, are at greater risk of adverse outcomes including early birth , low birth weight , and death of the infant . In 2012 in the United States 82% of pregnancies in those between
2730-435: A primary method have backup methods available (such as condoms or emergency contraceptive pills). The lactational amenorrhea method involves the use of a woman's natural postpartum infertility which occurs after delivery and may be extended by breastfeeding . For a postpartum woman to be infertile (protected from pregnancy), their periods have usually not yet returned (not menstruating), they are exclusively breastfeeding
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#17330858101702860-807: A responsible, open and reasonable parenthood in today's circumstances". The editorial of the Philippine Daily Inquirer , moreover, stated that Catholic teaching is "only" a religious teaching and should not be imposed with intolerance on a secular state. Opponents argue that misery is not the result of the church which they say is the largest charitable organization in the world, but of a breakdown in moral sense that gives order to society, nor does misery come from parents who bring up children in faithfulness, discipline, love and respect for life, but from those who strip human beings of moral dignity and responsibility, by treating them as mere machines, which they believe contraception does. Stating that contraception
2990-497: A result of rape, and public health efforts emphasizing abstinence to reduce unwanted pregnancy may have limited effectiveness, especially in developing countries and among disadvantaged groups . Deliberate non-penetrative sex without vaginal sex or deliberate oral sex without vaginal sex are also sometimes considered birth control. While this generally avoids pregnancy, pregnancy can still occur with intercrural sex and other forms of penis-near-vagina sex (genital rubbing, and
3120-554: A single episode of unprotected sex or condom failure by 70% (resulting in a pregnancy rate of 2.2%). Ulipristal , when used within 5 days, decreases the chance of pregnancy by about 85% (pregnancy rate 1.4%) and is more effective than levonorgestrel. Mifepristone is also more effective than levonorgestrel, while copper IUDs are the most effective method. IUDs can be inserted up to five days after intercourse and prevent about 99% of pregnancies after an episode of unprotected sex (pregnancy rate of 0.1 to 0.2%). This makes them
3250-590: A survey of biological parents, 9% stated they would not have had children if they were able to do it over again. Although sterilization is considered a permanent procedure, it is possible to attempt a tubal reversal to reconnect the fallopian tubes or a vasectomy reversal to reconnect the vasa deferentia . In women, the desire for a reversal is often associated with a change in spouse. Pregnancy success rates after tubal reversal are between 31 and 88 percent, with complications including an increased risk of ectopic pregnancy . The number of males who request reversal
3380-474: A woman drink a copper salt dissolved in water, which it claimed would prevent pregnancy for a year. This method was not only ineffective, but also dangerous, as the later medical writer Soranus of Ephesus ( c. 98–138 AD) pointed out. Soranus attempted to list reliable methods of birth control based on rational principles. He rejected the use of superstition and amulets and instead prescribed mechanical methods such as vaginal plugs and pessaries using wool as
3510-496: A year. Part of the reason that many women are without birth control is that many countries limit access due to religious or political reasons, while another contributor is poverty. Due to restrictive abortion laws in Sub-Saharan Africa, many women turn to unlicensed abortion providers for unintended pregnancy , resulting in about 2–4% obtaining unsafe abortions each year. The Egyptian Ebers Papyrus from 1550 BC and
3640-404: Is 0.2%; the typical use first failure rate is 6%. Barrier contraceptives are devices that attempt to prevent pregnancy by physically preventing sperm from entering the uterus . They include male condoms , female condoms , cervical caps , diaphragms , and contraceptive sponges with spermicide . Globally, condoms are the most common method of birth control. Male condoms are put on
3770-486: Is a high concern, using two methods at the same time is reasonable. For example, two forms of birth control are recommended in those taking the anti- acne drug isotretinoin or anti-epileptic drugs like carbamazepine , due to the high risk of birth defects if taken during pregnancy. Contraceptive use in developing countries is estimated to have decreased the number of maternal deaths by 40% (about 270,000 deaths prevented in 2008) and could prevent 70% of deaths if
3900-407: Is a lie and "against the beginning of new life", the Philippine Medical Association also stressed that the "health risks of contraception to women are considerable; the list of side effects is long, and includes high blood pressure, strokes, increased incidence of some forms of cancer". Contraception Birth control , also known as contraception , anticonception , and fertility control ,
4030-585: Is also a form of birth control, but abstinence-only sex education may increase teenage pregnancies if offered without birth control education, due to non-compliance. In teenagers , pregnancies are at greater risk of poor outcomes. Comprehensive sex education and access to birth control decreases the rate of unintended pregnancies in this age group. While all forms of birth control can generally be used by young people, long-acting reversible birth control such as implants, IUDs, or vaginal rings are more successful in reducing rates of teenage pregnancy. After
Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act of 2012 - Misplaced Pages Continue
4160-403: Is available in a number of different forms, including oral pills , implants under the skin, injections , patches , IUDs and a vaginal ring . They are currently available only for women, although hormonal contraceptives for men have been and are being clinically tested. There are two types of oral birth control pills, the combined oral contraceptive pills (which contain both estrogen and
4290-575: Is available in the form of tubal ligation for women and vasectomy for men. Tubal ligation decreases the risk of ovarian cancer . Short term complications are twenty times less likely from a vasectomy than a tubal ligation. After a vasectomy, there may be swelling and pain of the scrotum which usually resolves in one or two weeks. Chronic scrotal pain associated with negative impact on quality of life occurs after vasectomy in about 1–2% of men. With tubal ligation, complications occur in 1 to 2 percent of procedures with serious complications usually due to
4420-414: Is between 2 and 6 percent. Rates of success in fathering another child after reversal are between 38 and 84 percent; with success being lower the longer the time period between the vasectomy and the reversal. Sperm extraction followed by in vitro fertilization may also be an option in men. Behavioral methods involve regulating the timing or method of intercourse to prevent introduction of sperm into
4550-459: Is debate on its mandate that the government and private sector will fund, and undertake widespread distribution of family planning devices such as condoms , birth control pills , and IUDs , as the government continues to disseminate information on their use, through health care centers. The passage of the legislation was controversial and divisive, with academics, religious institutions, and politicians declaring their support or opposition while it
4680-439: Is imperative. In the developing world, birth control increases economic growth due to there being fewer dependent children and thus more women participating in or increased contribution to the workforce – as they are usually the primary caregiver for children. Women's earnings, assets, body mass index , and their children's schooling and body mass index all improve with greater access to birth control. Family planning , via
4810-487: Is our duty, in serving the public, to extend basic healthcare protection to all our people. That is why we pushed for the augmentation of the PhilHealth’s budget so that in 2017, we achieve universal healthcare coverage,” she said. Legarda said universal healthcare coverage means that any non-member of PhilHealth will automatically be made a member upon availing healthcare service in a public hospital. In early January 2020,
4940-418: Is recommended that birth control be continued for one year after the last menstrual period . About 222 million women who want to avoid pregnancy in developing countries are not using a modern birth control method. Birth control use in developing countries has decreased the number of deaths during or around the time of pregnancy by 40% (about 270,000 deaths prevented in 2008) and could prevent 70% if
5070-533: Is the executive department of the government of the Philippines responsible for ensuring access to basic public health services by all Filipinos through the provision of quality health care , the regulation of all health services and products. It is the government's over-all technical authority on health. It has its headquarters at the San Lazaro Compound, along Rizal Avenue in Manila . The current head of
5200-470: Is the 39th most densely populated country, with a density over 335 per square kilometer, and the population growth rate is 1.9% (2010 Census), 1.957% (2010 est. by CIA World Factbook ), or 1.85% (2005–2010 high variant estimate by the UN Population Division, World Population Prospects: The 2008 Revision ) coming from 3.1 in 1960. The 2013 total fertility rate (TFR) is 3.20 births per woman, from
5330-556: Is the practice of ending intercourse ("pulling out") before ejaculation. The main risk of the withdrawal method is that the man may not perform the maneuver correctly or in a timely manner. First-year failure rates vary from 4% with perfect usage to 22% with typical usage. It is not considered birth control by some medical professionals. There is little data regarding the sperm content of pre-ejaculatory fluid . While some tentative research did not find sperm, one trial found sperm present in 10 out of 27 volunteers. The withdrawal method
Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act of 2012 - Misplaced Pages Continue
5460-544: Is the use of methods or devices to prevent pregnancy . Birth control has been used since ancient times, but effective and safe methods of birth control only became available in the 20th century. Planning, making available, and using human birth control is called family planning . Some cultures limit or discourage access to birth control because they consider it to be morally, religiously, or politically undesirable. The World Health Organization and United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention provide guidance on
5590-550: Is used as birth control by about 3% of couples. Sexual abstinence may be used as a form of birth control, meaning either not engaging in any type of sexual activity, or specifically not engaging in vaginal intercourse, while engaging in other forms of non-vaginal sex. Complete sexual abstinence is 100% effective in preventing pregnancy. However, among those who take a pledge to abstain from premarital sex , as many as 88% who engage in sex, do so prior to marriage. The choice to abstain from sex cannot protect against pregnancy as
5720-699: The Commission on Population and Development Archived February 3, 2021, at the Wayback Machine or POPCOM as a coordinating body. The two party-list representatives strongly state that poverty is not due to over-population but because of inequality and corruption. The Wall Street Journal in July 2012 said that Aquino's "promotion of a 'reproductive health' bill is jarring" since it could lead to "a demographic trap of too few workers. The Philippines doesn't have too many people, it has too few pro-growth policies". Opposing
5850-721: The HSBC 2012 projection for 2050 that the Philippines will be 16th largest economy due to its large growing population, and those whose populations are decreasing will suffer decline. In a recent development, two authors of the Reproductive Health Bill changed their stand on the provisions of the bill regarding population and development. Reps. Emerciana de Jesus and Luzviminda Ilagan wanted to delete three provisions which state that "gender equality and women empowerment are central elements of reproductive health and population and development", which integrate responsible parenthood and family planning programs into anti-poverty initiatives, and which name
5980-645: The International Planned Parenthood Federation (IPPF) which supports the Family Planning Organizations of the Philippines and the 97 organizations of the Philippine NGO Council. The UP School of Economics argues, in contrast, that there is lack of access especially for poor people, because contraceptive use is extremely low among them and "among the poorest families, 22% of married women of reproductive age express
6110-491: The Kahun Papyrus from 1850 BC have within them some of the earliest documented descriptions of birth control: the use of honey, acacia leaves and lint to be placed in the vagina to block sperm. Silphium , a species of giant fennel native to north Africa, may have been used as birth control in ancient Greece and the ancient Near East . Due to its desirability, by the first century AD, it had become so rare that it
6240-489: The National Security Study Memorandum 200 : Implications of Worldwide Population Growth for U.S. Security and Overseas Interests (NSSM200). The policy gives "paramount importance" to population control measures and the promotion of contraception among 13 populous countries, including the Philippines, to control rapid population growth which they deem to be inimical to the sociopolitical national interests of
6370-653: The Philippine Legislators' Committee on Population and Development (PLCPD) was established, "dedicated to the formulation of viable public policies requiring legislation on population management and socio-economic development". In 2000, the Philippines signed the Millennium Declaration and committed to attaining the Millennium Declaration Goals by 2015, which include promoting gender equality and health. In 2003, USAID started its phase out of
6500-1431: The Philippine government did respond to the pandemic . It was heavily criticized by DOH Secretary Francisco Duque III . At present, the Department is headed by the Secretary of Health , with ten undersecretaries ( 9 official appointment and 1 OIC status ) and six assistant secretaries ( 5 official appointment and 1 OIC status ) heading the following teams: Executive Committee Secretary of Health DR. TEODORO J. HERBOSA Undersecretaries of Health DR. ABDULLAH B. DUMAMA, JR., MPA, CESO I DR. MARIA ROSARIO S. VERGEIRE, MPH, CESO II MR. ACHILLES GERARD C. BRAVO, CESO II DR. GLENN MATHEW G. BAGGAO, MHA, MSN, FPSMS, FPCHA DR. EMMIE LIZA PEREZ-CHIONG DR. ELMER G. PUNZALAN MS. MA. CAROLINA VIDAL-TAIÑO, CPA, MGM, CESO I DR. KENNETH G. RONQUILLO, MPHM, CESO III DR. MARY ANN PALERMO-MAESTRAL, MBA-HA, FPPS, CHA, FPCHA OIC-Undersecretary of Health DR. GLORIA J. BALBOA, MD, MPH, MHA, CEO VI, CESO III Assistant Secretary of Health DR. ARIEL I. VALENCIA, MPH, CESO III MS. MAYLENE M. BELTRAN, MPA, CESO III ATTY. FRANCES MAE CHERRYL K. ONTALAN ATTY. CHARADE B. MERCADO-GRANDE, MPSA ATTY. PAOLO S. TESTON OIC-Assistant Secretary of Health DR. ALBERT FRANCIS E. DOMINGO, MSC Bureaus and offices The DOH
6630-635: The anesthesia . Neither method offers protection from sexually transmitted infections. Sometimes, salpingectomy is also used for sterilization in women. Non-surgical sterilization methods have also been explored. Fahim et al. found that heat exposure, especially high-intensity ultrasound, was effective either for temporary or permanent contraception depending on the dose, e.g. selective destruction of germ cells and Sertoli cells without affecting Leydig cells or testosterone levels. Chemical, e.g. drug-based methods are also available, e.g. orally-administered Lonidamine for temporary, or permanent (depending on
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#17330858101706760-573: The lactational amenorrhea method (LAM), if adhered to strictly, can also have first-year (or for LAM, first-6-month) failure rates of less than 1%. With typical use, first-year failure rates are considerably higher, at 9%, due to inconsistent use. Other methods such as condoms, diaphragms, and spermicides have higher first-year failure rates even with perfect usage. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends long acting reversible birth control as first line for young individuals. While all methods of birth control have some potential adverse effects,
6890-407: The workforce , and/or less use of scarce resources. Birth control methods include barrier methods , hormonal birth control , intrauterine devices (IUDs), sterilization , and behavioral methods. They are used before or during sex while emergency contraceptives are effective for up to five days after sex. Effectiveness is generally expressed as the percentage of women who become pregnant using
7020-562: The 1940s, the Bureau of Health was reorganized into the Department of Health and Public Welfare, still under Fabella. During this time, the major priorities of the agency were tuberculosis , malnutrition , malaria , leprosy , gastrointestinal disease, and the high infant mortality rate . When the Japanese occupied the Philippines, they dissolved the National Government and replaced it with
7150-580: The Americans improved on the sewer system and provided a safer water supply. In 1915, the Bureau of Health was reorganized and renamed into the Philippine Health Service. During the succeeding years leadership and a number of health institutions were already being given to Filipinos, in accordance with the Organic Act of 1916. On January 1, 1919, Dr. Vicente De Jesus became the first Filipino to head
7280-545: The Bureau of Governmental Laboratories, which was built in 1901 for medical research and vaccine production. The Americans, led by Dean Worcester built the UP College of Medicine and Surgery in 1905, with Johns Hopkins University serving as a blueprint, at the time, one of the best medical schools in the world. By 1909, nursing instruction was also begun at the Philippine Normal School . In terms of public health,
7410-553: The Central Administrative Organization of the Japanese Army . Health was relegated to the Department of Education, Health and Public Welfare under Commissioner Claro M. Recto . In 1944, President Manuel Roxas signed Executive Order (E.O.) No. 94 into law, calling for the creation of the Department of Health. Dr. Antonio C. Villarama as appointed Secretary. A new Bureau of Hospitals and a Bureau of Quarantine
7540-571: The Filipino poor, urged that the bill be passed to help them. They argued: "As Catholics and Filipinos, we share the hope and mission of building a Church of the Poor. We are thus deeply disturbed and saddened by calls made by some members of the Catholic Church to reject a proposed legislation that promises to improve the wellbeing of Filipino families, especially the lives of women, children, adolescents, and
7670-688: The Food and Drug Administration SEC. 11. Procurement and Distribution of Family Planning Supplies SEC. 12. Integration of Family Planning and Responsible Parenthood Component in Anti-Poverty Programs SEC. 13. Roles of Local Government in Family Planning Programs SEC. 14. Benefits for Serious and Life-Threatening Reproductive Health Conditions SEC. 15. Mobile Health Care Service SEC. 16. Mandatory Age-Appropriate Reproductive Health and Sexuality Education SEC. 17. Additional duty of
7800-496: The Health portfolio. In 1933, after a reorganization, the Philippine Health Service reverted to being known as the Bureau of Health. It was during this time that it pursued its official journal, The Health Messenger and established Community Health and Social Centers, precursors to today's Barangay Health Centers. By 1936, as Governor-General Frank Murphy was assuming the post of United States High Commissioner , he would remark that
7930-417: The Philippines confirmed its first case of Novel coronavirus disease . Two months later, the Philippines implemented national lockdowns, mask mandate , and social distancing . In February 2021, COVID-19 vaccines reached the Philippines and began to the administered. The Department of Health was criticized in a 2021 study saying that the Philippines was 2nd to the last in the world in terms by how effective
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#17330858101708060-533: The Philippines led all oriental countries in terms of health status. When the Commonwealth of the Philippines was inaugurated, Dr. Jose F. Fabella was named chief of the Bureau of Health. In 1936, Dr. Fabella reviewed the Bureau of Health's organization and made an inventory of its existing facilities, which consisted of 11 community and social health centers, 38 hospitals, 215 puericulture centers, 374 sanitary divisions, 1,535 dispensaries and 72 laboratories. In
8190-597: The Philippines, according to the World Health Organization , is at 5.7 per day, not 10–11 deaths a day, as per the proponents who repeated these numbers "to drive home the point". The proponents state that the passage of the RH Bill would mean: The Department of Health states that family planning can reduce maternal mortality by about 32%. The bill is "meant to prevent maternal deaths related to pregnancy and childbirth", said Clara Padilla of Engender Rights. She reported that every day, "there are 11 women dying while giving birth in
8320-460: The Philippines. These preventable deaths could have been avoided if more Filipino women have access to reproductive health information and healthcare." The key to solving maternal deaths, according to the Senate Policy Brief on reproductive health, is the establishment of birthing centers . The Philippine Medical Association (PMA) stated in their Position Paper that the goal of reducing
8450-528: The Population Commission was created to push for a lower family size norm and provide information and services to lower fertility rates. Starting in 1967, the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) began shouldering 80% of the total family planning commodities (contraceptives) of the country, which amounted to $ 3 million annually. In 1975, the U.S. adopted as its policy
8580-586: The RH Bill is redundant to a 2009 law referred to as the Magna Carta for Women, which contains reproductive health provisions, asking the Senate to drop the bill. One of the main concerns of the proponents is the perceived lack of access to family planning devices such as contraceptives and sterilization. The bill intends to provide universal access through government funding, complementing thus private sector initiatives for family planning services, such as those offered by
8710-483: The Senate committee on finance said that the proposed ₱3.35-trillion national budget for 2017 will provide healthcare assistance to all Filipinos, and an additional ₱3 billion was allocated to the Philippine Health Insurance Corporation (PhilHealth) to ensure coverage for all Filipinos. “The Department of Health (DOH) said there are some eight million Filipinos still not covered by PhilHealth. It
8840-434: The U.S., since the "U.S. economy will require large and increasing amounts of minerals from abroad", and these countries can produce destabilizing opposition forces against the U.S. It recommended the U.S. leadership to "influence national leaders" and that "improved world-wide support for population-related efforts should be sought through increased emphasis on mass media and other population education and motivation programs by
8970-605: The UN, USIA , and USAID." Different presidents had different points of emphasis. President Marcos pushed for a systematic distribution of contraceptives all over the country, a policy that was called "coercive", by its leading administrator. The Corazon Aquino administration focused on giving couples the right to have the number of children they prefer, while Fidel V. Ramos shifted from population control to management. Joseph Estrada used mixed methods of reducing fertility rates, focusing on mainstreaming natural family planning . In 1989,
9100-450: The UP economists "strongly and unequivocally support" the thrust of the bill to enable "couples and individuals to decide freely and responsibly the number and spacing of their children and to have the information and means to carry out their decisions". Proponents argue that government-funded access is the key to breaking the inter-generational poverty that many people are trapped in. Proponents of
9230-823: The USAID in implementing a comprehensive marketing and communications strategy in favor of family planning called They Have a Plan . The basic content of the Consolidated Reproductive Health Bill is divided into the following sections. SEC. 1. The Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act of 2012 SEC. 2. Declaration of Policy SEC. 3. Guiding Principles SEC. 4. Definition of Terms SEC. 5. Midwives for Skilled Attendance SEC. 6. Emergency Obstetric Care SEC. 7. Access to Family Planning SEC. 8. Maternal and Newborn Health Care in Crisis Situations SEC. 9. Maternal Death Review SEC. 10. Role of
9360-412: The age of 30, about 6% regret their decision, as compared with 20–24% of women who received sterilization within one year of delivery and before turning 30, and 6% in nulliparous women sterilized before the age of 30. By contrast, less than 5% of men are likely to regret sterilization. Men who are more likely to regret sterilization are younger, have young or no children, or have an unstable marriage. In
9490-464: The age of onset of sexual activity or its frequency. In Japan, about 80% of couples who are using birth control use condoms, while in Germany this number is about 25%, and in the United States it is 18%. Male condoms and the diaphragm with spermicide have typical use first-year failure rates of 18% and 12%, respectively. With perfect use condoms are more effective with a 2% first-year failure rate versus
9620-867: The ages of 15 and 19 years old are unplanned. Comprehensive sex education and access to birth control are effective in decreasing pregnancy rates in this age group. Birth control methods, especially hormonal methods , can also have undesirable side effects. Intensity of side effects can range from minor to debilitating, and varies with individual experiences. These most commonly include change in menstruation regularity and flow, nausea, breast tenderness, headaches, weight gain, and mood changes (specifically an increase in depression and anxiety). Additionally, hormonal contraception can contribute to bone mineral density loss, impaired glucose metabolism, increased risk of venous thromboembolism. Comprehensive sex education and transparent discussion of birth control side effects and contraindications between healthcare provider and patient
9750-546: The bill "promotes quality of life, by enabling couples, especially the poor, to bring into the world only the number of children they believe they can care for and nurture to become healthy and productive members of our society". Thus, they called their paper "Catholics Can Support the RH Bill in Good Conscience". In response, the Ateneo administration announced its unity with Catholic teaching and that it had "serious objections to
9880-482: The bill contend that "natural family planning methods have not proven to be as reliable as artificial means of birth control". According to the RH bill, one of its components is "prevention of abortion and management of post-abortion complications". It provides that "the government shall ensure that all women needing care for post-abortion complications shall be treated and counseled in a humane, non-judgmental and compassionate manner". It also states that "abortion remains
10010-489: The bill, Former Finance Secretary Roberto de Ocampo wrote that it is "truly disingenuous for anyone to proceed on the premise that the poor are to blame for the nation's poverty:. He emphasized that the government should apply the principle of first things first and focus on the root causes of the poverty (e.g., poor governance, corruption) and apply many other alternatives to solve the problem (e.g., giving up pork barrel , raising tax collection efficiency). Maternal deaths in
10140-407: The connection between rapid population growth and poverty by comparing the economic growth and population growth rates of Thailand, Indonesia, and the Philippines, wherein the first two grew more rapidly than the Philippines due to lower population growth rates. They stressed that "the experience from across Asia indicates that a population policy cum government-funded [family planning] program has been
10270-411: The day of the cycle. They have typical first-year failure rates of 24%; perfect use first-year failure rates depend on which method is used and range from 0.4% to 5%. The evidence on which these estimates are based, however, is poor as the majority of people in trials stop their use early. Globally, they are used by about 3.6% of couples. If based on both basal body temperature and another primary sign,
10400-416: The delivery of a child, a woman who is not exclusively breastfeeding may become pregnant again after as few as four to six weeks. Some methods of birth control can be started immediately following the birth, while others require a delay of up to six months. In women who are breastfeeding, progestin-only methods are preferred over combined oral birth control pills . In women who have reached menopause , it
10530-569: The delivery of reproductive health services. Employers with more than 200 employees shall provide reproductive health services to all employees in their own respective health facilities. Those with fewer than 200 workers shall enter into partnerships with health professionals for the delivery of reproductive health services. Employers shall inform employees of the availability of family planning. They are also obliged to monitor pregnant working employees among their workforce and ensure they are provided paid half-day prenatal medical leaves for each month of
10660-468: The department is Sec. Ted Herbosa . The health secretary is also a member of the Cabinet . Americans assembled a military Board of Health on September 10, 1898, with its formal organization on September 29. Upon its creation, Dr. Frank S. Bourns is assigned as president while Dr. C. L. Mullins is assigned as assistant surgeon. The purpose of this Board of Health was to care for injured American troops but as
10790-513: The developed world is condoms and oral contraceptives, while in Africa it is oral contraceptives and in Latin America and Asia it is sterilization. In the developing world overall, 35% of birth control is via female sterilization, 30% is via IUDs, 12% is via oral contraceptives, 11% is via condoms, and 4% is via male sterilization. While less used in the developed countries than the developing world,
10920-399: The dose) fertility management. Boris provides a method for chemically inducing either temporary or non-reversible sterility, depending on the dose, "Permanent sterility in human males can be obtained by a single oral dosage containing from about 18 mg/kg to about 25 mg/kg". The permanence of this decision may cause regret in some men and women. Of women who have undergone tubal ligation after
11050-543: The economic cost of raising another child (72%); their pregnancy occurred too soon after the last one (57%); and they already have enough children (54%). One in ten women (13%) who had attempted an abortion revealed that this was because her pregnancy resulted from forced sex (ibid.). Thus, for these women, abortion has become a family planning method, in the absence of information on and access to any reliable means to prevent an unplanned and unwanted pregnancy". The bill, said Clara Padilla of EnGender Rights Inc, will "help reduce
11180-460: The female reproductive tract, either altogether or when an egg may be present. If used perfectly the first-year failure rate may be around 3.4%; however, if used poorly first-year failure rates may approach 85%. Fertility awareness methods involve determining the most fertile days of the menstrual cycle and avoiding unprotected intercourse. Techniques for determining fertility include monitoring basal body temperature , cervical secretions , or
11310-425: The first health minister. On April 13, 1987, the Department of Health was created from the previous Ministry of Health with Dr. Alfredo R. A. Bengzon as secretary of health. On December 17, 2016, Health Secretary Paulyn Jean Rossel-Ubial announced that in 2017 the government will start paying the hospital bills and medicines of poor Filipinos. She said that the Department of Health (DOH) is capable of taking care of
11440-514: The first year depend on whether or not a woman has previously given birth, being 24% in those who have and 12% in those who have not. The sponge can be inserted up to 24 hours before intercourse and must be left in place for at least six hours afterward. Allergic reactions and more severe adverse effects such as toxic shock syndrome have been reported. The current intrauterine devices (IUD) are small devices, often T-shaped, containing either copper or levonorgestrel , which are inserted into
11570-454: The full demand for birth control were met. By lengthening the time between pregnancies, birth control can improve adult women's delivery outcomes and the survival of their children. In the developing world, women's earnings, assets, and weight, as well as their children's schooling and health, all improve with greater access to birth control. Birth control increases economic growth because of fewer dependent children, more women participating in
11700-428: The full demand for birth control were met. These benefits are achieved by reducing the number of unplanned pregnancies that subsequently result in unsafe abortions and by preventing pregnancies in those at high risk. Birth control also improves child survival in the developing world by lengthening the time between pregnancies. In this population, outcomes are worse when a mother gets pregnant within eighteen months of
11830-424: The government to "promote, without biases, all effective natural and modern methods of family planning that are medically safe and legal." Although abortion is recognized as illegal and punishable by law, the bill states that "the government shall ensure that all women needing care for post-abortion complications shall be treated and counseled in a humane, non-judgmental and compassionate manner". The bill calls for
11960-616: The hope of preventing pregnancy. Emergency contraceptives are often given to victims of rape. They work primarily by preventing ovulation or fertilization. They are unlikely to affect implantation, but this has not been completely excluded. A number of options exist, including high dose birth control pills , levonorgestrel , mifepristone , ulipristal and IUDs. All methods have minimal side effects. Providing emergency contraceptive pills to women in advance of sexual activity does not affect rates of sexually transmitted infections, condom use, pregnancy rates, or sexual risk-taking behavior. In
12090-572: The hospital bills and medicines of poor Filipinos owing to its bigger budget starting in 2017. A total of ₱96.336 billion was allocated to the DOH in the 2017 national budget, which includes funds for the construction of additional health facilities and drug rehabilitation centers. Ubial said poor patients in government hospitals do not even have to present PhilHealth cards when they avail of assistance. She added that poor patients will no longer be billed by government hospitals. Senator Loren Legarda , chair of
12220-481: The hostilities between Filipinos and Americans waned in 1901, a civilian Board of Health was now deemed appropriate with Dr. L. M. Maus as the first health commissioner. In the early 1900s, 200,222 lives including 66,000 children were lost; three percent of the population was decimated in the worst epidemic in Philippine health history. In view of this, the Americans organized and erected several institutions, including
12350-539: The increased risk, they are included in decision tools such as the DASH score and PERC rule used to predict the risk of blood clots. The effect on sexual drive is varied, with increase or decrease in some but with no effect in most. Combined oral contraceptives reduce the risk of ovarian cancer and endometrial cancer and do not change the risk of breast cancer. They often reduce menstrual bleeding and painful menstruation cramps . The lower doses of estrogen released from
12480-401: The infant, and the baby is younger than six months. If breastfeeding is the infant's only source of nutrition and the baby is less than 6 months old, 93–99% of women are estimated to have protection from becoming pregnant in the first six months (0.75–7.5% failure rate). The failure rate increases to 4–7% at one year and 13% at two years. Feeding formula, pumping instead of nursing, the use of
12610-490: The injectable version should be used. Progestin-only pills may improve menstrual symptoms and can be used by breastfeeding women as they do not affect milk production . Irregular bleeding may occur with progestin-only methods, with some users reporting no periods . The progestins drospirenone and desogestrel minimize the androgenic side effects but increase the risks of blood clots and are thus not first line. The perfect use first-year failure rate of injectable progestin
12740-582: The local population officer . SEC. 18. Certificate of Compliance SEC. 19. Capability Building of Barangay Health Workers SEC. 20. Pro Bono Services for Indigent Women SEC. 21. Sexual and Reproductive health SEC. 22. Right to Reproductive Health Care Information SEC. 23. Implementing Mechanisms SEC. 24. Reporting Requirements SEC. 25. Congressional Committee SEC. 26. Prohibited Acts SEC. 27. Penalties SEC. 28. Appropriations SEC. 29. Implementing Rules and Regulations SEC. 30–32. Separability Clause, Repealing Clause, Effectivity The bill mandates
12870-425: The majority of women who go for an abortion are married or in a consensual union (91%), the mother of three or more children (57%), and poor (68%) (Juarez, Cabigon, and Singh 2005). For these women, terminating a pregnancy is an anguished choice they make in the face of severe constraints. When women who had attempted an abortion were asked their reasons for doing so, their top three responses were: they could not afford
13000-521: The male before ejaculation . Sterilization, while highly effective, is not usually reversible; all other methods are reversible, most immediately upon stopping them. Safe sex practices, such as with the use of condoms or female condoms , can also help prevent sexually transmitted infections . Other methods of birth control do not protect against sexually transmitted infections. Emergency birth control can prevent pregnancy if taken within 72 to 120 hours after unprotected sex. Some argue not having sex
13130-411: The method is referred to as symptothermal. First-year failure rates of 20% overall and 0.4% for perfect use have been reported in clinical studies of the symptothermal method. A number of fertility tracking apps are available, as of 2016, but they are more commonly designed to assist those trying to get pregnant rather than prevent pregnancy. The withdrawal method (also known as coitus interruptus)
13260-540: The moment of fertilization". The PMA condemns abortifacients that "destroys the fertilized egg or the embryo" and "abhors any procedure...or medication that will interrupt any stage of fertilization and prevents its normal, physiological, uninterrupted growth to adulthood". Jo Imbong, founder of the Abay Pamilya Foundation, reported that "Lagman said in a House hearing that the bill would protect human life 'from implantation' ", and not from fertilization, noting at
13390-417: The most effective form of emergency contraceptive. In those who are overweight or obese , levonorgestrel is less effective and an IUD or ulipristal is recommended. Dual protection is the use of methods that prevent both sexually transmitted infections and pregnancy. This can be with condoms either alone or along with another birth control method or by the avoidance of penetrative sex . If pregnancy
13520-783: The most widely used form of reversible contraception, with more than 180 million users worldwide. Evidence supports effectiveness and safety in adolescents and those who have and have not previously had children. IUDs do not affect breastfeeding and can be inserted immediately after delivery. They may also be used immediately after an abortion. Once removed, even after long term use, fertility returns to normal immediately. While copper IUDs may increase menstrual bleeding and result in more painful cramps, hormonal IUDs may reduce menstrual bleeding or stop menstruation altogether. Cramping can be treated with painkillers like non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs . Other potential complications include expulsion (2–5%) and rarely perforation of
13650-432: The number of abortions by providing increased access to information and services on modern contraceptive methods, that in turn will reduce the number of unwanted—and often aborted—pregnancies". Both sides of the debate accuse the other side of deception and misleading the public. The pro-RH people accuse the anti-RH group of misleading the public by calling the bill an abortion bill, when the bill states that abortion remains
13780-994: The number of women using IUDs as of 2007 was more than 180 million. Avoiding sex when fertile is used by about 3.6% of women of childbearing age, with usage as high as 20% in areas of South America. As of 2005, 12% of couples are using a male form of birth control (either condoms or a vasectomy) with higher rates in the developed world. Usage of male forms of birth control has decreased between 1985 and 2009. Contraceptive use among women in Sub-Saharan Africa has risen from about 5% in 1991 to about 30% in 2006. As of 2012, 57% of women of childbearing age want to avoid pregnancy (867 of 1,520 million). About 222 million women, however, were not able to access birth control, 53 million of whom were in sub-Saharan Africa and 97 million of whom were in Asia. This results in 54 million unplanned pregnancies and nearly 80,000 maternal deaths
13910-469: The penis exiting from anal intercourse ) where sperm can be deposited near the entrance to the vagina and can travel along the vagina's lubricating fluids. Abstinence-only sex education does not reduce teenage pregnancy . Teen pregnancy rates and STI rates are generally the same or higher in states where students are given abstinence-only education, as compared with comprehensive sex education . Some authorities recommend that those using abstinence as
14040-430: The poor". They announced that "Catholic social teachings recognize the primacy of the well-formed conscience over wooden compliance to directives from political and religious authorities", urging Catholic authorities to withdraw their opposition the bill. Citing Catholic documents and scientific studies, they reasoned that "the RH Bill is pro-life, pro-women, pro-poor, pro-youth, and pro-informed choice". They emphasized that
14170-416: The poor, do exacerbate poverty and make it harder for the government to address it", while at the same time clarifying that it would be "extreme" to view "population growth as the principal cause of poverty that would justify the government resorting to draconian and coercive measures to deal with the problem (e.g., denial of basic services and subsidies to families with more than two children)". They illustrate
14300-576: The poor, to have the number of children they want and can feasibly care and provide for. There are several studies cited by those who support the bill: Opponents of the bill argue that: President Aquino stated he was not an author of the bill. He also stated that he gives full support to a firm population policy, educating parents to be responsible, providing contraceptives to those who ask for them, but he refuses to promote contraceptive use. He said that his position "is more aptly called responsible parenthood rather than reproductive health". The Philippines
14430-407: The predominant school in thinking among academics about population growth for the last half-century". For example, the 1992 study of Ross Levine and David Renelt, which covered 119 countries over 30 years (versus a University of the Philippines study of 3 countries over a few years). The RAND study also said that a large population can promote growth given the right fundamentals. Thus, they refer to
14560-454: The pregnancy period that they are employed. The national government and local governments will ensure the availability of reproductive health care services like family planning and prenatal care . Any person or public official who prohibits or restricts the delivery of legal and medically safe reproductive health care services will be meted penalty by imprisonment or a fine. Free choice regarding reproductive health enables people, especially
14690-647: The present bill". Proponents such as Lagman also stressed that official Catholic teaching itself, expressed in the Encyclical Humanae Vitae issued only forty years ago in 1964, is not infallible. He said that the Papal Commission on Birth Control, which included ranking prelates and theologians, recommended that the Church change its teaching on contraception as it concluded that "the regulation of conception appears necessary for many couples who wish to achieve
14820-538: The regional offices and directors. One of the priorities of the Marcos administration was health maintenance. From 1975 to the mid-1980s, four specialty hospitals were built in succession. The first three institutions were spearheaded by First Lady Imelda Marcos . The Philippine Heart Center was established on February 14, 1975, with Dr. Avelino Aventura as director. Second, the Philippine Children's Medical Center
14950-403: The rise of maternal and child deaths "could be attained by improving maternal and child health care without the necessity of distributing contraceptives. The millions of funds intended for the contraceptive devices may just well be applied in improving the skills of our health workers in reducing maternal and child mortality in the Philippines". Senator Majority Floor Leader Tito Sotto said that
15080-466: The risk is less than that of pregnancy. After stopping or removing many methods of birth control, including oral contraceptives, IUDs, implants and injections, the rate of pregnancy during the subsequent year is the same as for those who used no birth control. For individuals with specific health problems, certain forms of birth control may require further investigations. For women who are otherwise healthy, many methods of birth control should not require
15210-618: The ruins of Dudley Castle in England, and are dated back to 1640. They were made of animal gut, and were most likely used to prevent the spread of sexually transmitted infections during the English Civil War . Casanova , living in 18th-century Italy, described the use of a lambskin covering to prevent pregnancy; however, condoms only became widely available in the 20th century. Department of Health (Philippines) The Department of Health ( DOH ; Filipino : Kagawaran ng Kalusugan )
15340-626: The safety of birth control methods among women with specific medical conditions. The most effective methods of birth control are sterilization by means of vasectomy in males and tubal ligation in females, intrauterine devices (IUDs), and implantable birth control . This is followed by a number of hormone-based methods including contraceptive pills , patches , vaginal rings , and injections . Less effective methods include physical barriers such as condoms , diaphragms and birth control sponges and fertility awareness methods . The least effective methods are spermicides and withdrawal by
15470-582: The same time that the Records of the Constitutional Commission state that "Human life begins at fertilization". Proponents argue that research by the Guttmacher Institute , involved in advancing international reproductive health, reveals that the use of contraceptives can reduce abortion rates by 85%. Proponents such as 14 Ateneo de Manila University professors, argued thus: "Studies show that
15600-446: The use of contraceptives allow families to invest more in each child's education, health, nutrition and eventually reduce poverty and hunger at the household level. At the national level, fertility reduction cuts the cost of social services with fewer people attending school or seeking medical care and as demand eases for housing, transportation, jobs, water, food, and other natural resources. The Asian Development Bank in 2004 also listed
15730-499: The use of modern birth control, is one of the most cost-effective health interventions. For every dollar spent, the United Nations estimates that two to six dollars are saved. These cost savings are related to preventing unplanned pregnancies and decreasing the spread of sexually transmitted illnesses. While all methods are beneficial financially, the use of copper IUDs resulted in the greatest savings. The total medical cost for
15860-406: The user's adherence to taking the pills. Combined hormonal contraceptives are associated with a slightly increased risk of venous and arterial blood clots . Venous clots, on average, increase from 2.8 to 9.8 per 10,000 women years which is still less than that associated with pregnancy. Due to this risk, they are not recommended in women over 35 years of age who continue to smoke. Due to
15990-490: The uterus (less than 0.7%). A previous model of the intrauterine device (the Dalkon shield ) was associated with an increased risk of pelvic inflammatory disease ; however, the risk is not affected with current models in those without sexually transmitted infections around the time of insertion. IUDs appear to decrease the risk of ovarian cancer . Two broad categories exist, surgical and non-surgical. Surgical sterilization
16120-415: The uterus. They are one form of long-acting reversible contraception which are the most effective types of reversible birth control. Failure rates with the copper IUD is about 0.8% while the levonorgestrel IUD has a failure rates of 0.2% in the first year of use. Among types of birth control, they, along with birth control implants, result in the greatest satisfaction among users. As of 2007 , IUDs are
16250-433: The vaginal ring may reduce the risk of breast tenderness, nausea , and headache associated with higher dose estrogen products. Progestin-only pills, injections and intrauterine devices are not associated with an increased risk of blood clots and may be used by women with a history of blood clots in their veins. In those with a history of arterial blood clots, non-hormonal birth control or a progestin-only method other than
16380-471: Was among the heads of state who signed the Declaration on Population. The 30 countries who participated in the signing of the declaration were acknowledged by U.N. Secretary-General U Thant during a United Nations ceremony on December 11, 1967, a day after Human Rights Day . The Philippines agreed the population problem should be considered as the principal element for long-term economic development. Thus,
16510-571: Was built in 1979. Then in 1983, the National Kidney and Transplant Institute was set up. This was soon followed by the Lung Center of the Philippines , which was constructed under the guidance of Health Minister Dr. Enrique Garcia . With a shift to a parliamentary form of government, the Department of Health was transformed into the Ministry of Health on June 2, 1978, with Dr. Clemente S. Gatmaitan as
16640-537: Was created under DOH. Under E.O. 94, the Institute of Nutrition was created in 1948 to coordinate various nutrition activities of the different agencies. On February 20, 1958, Executive Order 288 provided for the reorganization of the Department of Health. This entailed a partial decentralization of powers and created eight Regional Health Offices. Under this setup, the Secretary of Health passed on some of responsibilities to
16770-608: Was pending in the legislature. Heated debates and rallies supporting and opposing the Bill took place nationwide. The Supreme Court of the Philippines delayed the implementation of the law in March 2013 in response to challenges. In April 2014, the Court ruled the law was "not unconstitutional" but struck down eight provisions partially or in full. The history of reproductive health law in the Philippines dates back to 1967 when President Ferdinand Marcos
16900-463: Was worth more than its weight in silver and, by late antiquity, it was fully extinct. Most methods of birth control used in antiquity were probably ineffective. The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle ( c. 384–322 BC) recommended applying cedar oil to the womb before intercourse, a method which was probably only effective on occasion. A Hippocratic text On the Nature of Women recommended that
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