109-775: International Renewable Energy Alliance ( REN Alliance ) is a formal partnership entered into on 4 June 2004 by five non-profit international renewable energy organisations: They represent the hydro , geothermal , solar , and wind power/energy and bioenergy sector. The alliance provides a unified cross-sectoral voice on renewable energy in international and regional energy fora and media. Climate change concerns, coupled with high oil prices , peak oil , and increasing government support, are driving increasing renewable energy legislation, incentives and commercialization . As of 2011, 119 countries have some form of national renewable energy policy target or renewable support policy. National targets now exist in at least 98 countries. There
218-844: A 2019 review of the existing literature, noise pollution was associated with faster cognitive decline. Across Europe, according to the European Environment Agency , it estimated 113 million people are affected by road traffic noise levels above 55 decibels, the threshold at which noise becomes harmful to human health by the WHO's definition. Sound becomes unwanted when it either interferes with normal activities such as sleep or conversation, or disrupts or diminishes one's quality of life. Noise-induced hearing loss can be caused by prolonged exposure to noise levels above 85 A-weighted decibels . A comparison of Maaban tribesmen, who were insignificantly exposed to transportation or industrial noise, to
327-415: A community through indirect (" domino ") effects. Acoustic overexposure can lead to temporary or permanent loss of hearing. Noise pollution may have caused the death of certain species of whales that beached themselves after being exposed to the loud sound of military sonar . (see also Marine mammals and sonar ) Up until recently, most research on noise impacts has been focused on marine mammals, and to
436-403: A coral reef fish, has been found to have a compromised anti-predator behavior as a result to ship noise. The distraction of anthropogenic noise is possibly distracting the fish, and thereby affecting the escape response and routine swimming of the coral fish. A study conducted on species of coral larvae, which are crucial for the expansion of coral reefs, discovered that the larvae oriented towards
545-463: A faster rate than they are consumed". Solar power , wind power , hydroelectricity , geothermal energy, and biomass are widely agreed to be the main types of renewable energy. Renewable energy often displaces conventional fuels in four areas: electricity generation , hot water / space heating , transportation , and rural (off-grid) energy services. Although almost all forms of renewable energy cause much fewer carbon emissions than fossil fuels,
654-465: A fluctuating nature, such as wind power and solar power. In contrast, controllable renewable energy sources include dammed hydroelectricity , bioenergy , or geothermal power . Renewable energy systems have rapidly become more efficient and cheaper over the past 30 years. A large majority of worldwide newly installed electricity capacity is now renewable. Renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind power, have seen significant cost reductions over
763-437: A given time. Solar energy can only be captured during the day, and ideally in cloudless conditions. Wind power generation can vary significantly not only day-to-day, but even month-to-month. This poses a challenge when transitioning away from fossil fuels: energy demand will often be higher or lower than what renewables can provide. Both scenarios can cause electricity grids to become overloaded, leading to power outages . In
872-504: A grasshopper is dependent on its ability to attract a mating partner. Male Corthippus biguttulus grasshoppers attract females by using stridulation to produce courtship songs. The females produce acoustic signals that are shorter and primarily low frequency and amplitude, in response to the male's song. Research has found that this species of grasshopper changes its mating call in response to loud traffic noise. Lampe and Schmoll (2012) found that male grasshoppers from quiet habitats have
981-948: A large portion of the total, such as Kenya (43%) and Indonesia (5%). Technical advances may eventually make geothermal power more widely available. For example, enhanced geothermal systems involve drilling around 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) into the Earth, breaking apart hot rocks and extracting the heat using water. In theory, this type of geothermal energy extraction could be done anywhere on Earth. There are also other renewable energy technologies that are still under development, including enhanced geothermal systems , concentrated solar power , cellulosic ethanol , and marine energy . These technologies are not yet widely demonstrated or have limited commercialization. Some may have potential comparable to other renewable energy technologies, but still depend on further breakthroughs from research, development and engineering. Enhanced geothermal systems (EGS) are
1090-452: A lesser degree, fish. In the past few years, scientists have shifted to conducting studies on invertebrates and their responses to anthropogenic sounds in the marine environment. This research is essential, especially considering that invertebrates make up 75% of marine species, and thus compose a large percentage of ocean food webs. Of the studies that have been conducted, a sizable variety in families of invertebrates have been represented in
1199-624: A local frequency maximum of about 7319 Hz. In contrast, male grasshoppers exposed to loud traffic noise can create signals with a higher local frequency maximum of 7622 Hz. The higher frequencies are produced by the grasshoppers to prevent background noise from drowning out their signals. This information reveals that anthropogenic noise disturbs the acoustic signals produced by insects for communication. Similar processes of behavior perturbation, behavioral plasticity, and population level shifts in response to noise likely occur in sound-producing marine invertebrates, but more experimental research
SECTION 10
#17328838260441308-638: A more energy-dense biofuel like ethanol. Wood is the most significant biomass energy source as of 2012 and is usually sourced from a trees cleared for silvicultural reasons or fire prevention . Municipal wood waste – for instance, construction materials or sawdust – is also often burned for energy. The biggest per-capita producers of wood-based bioenergy are heavily forested countries like Finland, Sweden, Estonia, Austria, and Denmark. Bioenergy can be environmentally destructive if old-growth forests are cleared to make way for crop production. In particular, demand for palm oil to produce biodiesel has contributed to
1417-506: A new type of geothermal power which does not require natural hot water reservoirs or steam to generate power. Most of the underground heat within drilling reach is trapped in solid rocks, not in water. EGS technologies use hydraulic fracturing to break apart these rocks and release the heat they contain, which is then harvested by pumping water into the ground. The process is sometimes known as "hot dry rock" (HDR). Unlike conventional geothermal energy extraction, EGS may be feasible anywhere in
1526-703: A physiological or behavioral response was triggered. Most of the time, this related to stress, and provided concrete evidence that marine invertebrates detect and respond to noise. Some of the most informative studies in this category focus on hermit crabs. In one study, it was found that the behavior of the hermit crab Pagurus bernhardus , when attempting to choose a shell, was modified when subjected to noise. Proper selection of hermit crab shells strongly contributes to their ability to survive. Shells offer protection against predators, high salinity and desiccation. However, researchers determined that approach to shell, investigation of shell, and habitation of shell, occurred over
1635-405: A population's evolutionary trajectory by selecting traits, sapping resources normally devoted to other activities and thus leading to profound genetic and evolutionary consequences. Several reasons have been identified relating to hypersensitivity in invertebrates when exposed to anthropogenic noise. Invertebrates have evolved to pick up sound, and a large portion of their physiology is adapted for
1744-409: A range of construction strategies and technologies that aim to optimize the distribution of solar heat in a building. Examples include solar chimneys , orienting a building to the sun, using construction materials that can store heat , and designing spaces that naturally circulate air . From 2020 to 2022, solar technology investments almost doubled from USD 162 billion to USD 308 billion, driven by
1853-416: A renewable power source , although this is controversial. Renewable energy installations can be large or small and are suited for both urban and rural areas. Renewable energy is often deployed together with further electrification . This has several benefits: electricity can move heat and vehicles efficiently and is clean at the point of consumption. Variable renewable energy sources are those that have
1962-428: A shorter time duration with anthropogenic noise as a factor. This indicated that assessment and decision-making processes of the hermit crab were both altered, even though hermit crabs are not known to evaluate shells using any auditory or mechanoreception mechanisms. In another study that focused on Pagurus bernhardus and the blue mussel, ( Mytilus edulis) physical behaviors exhibited a stress response to noise. When
2071-863: A source, while vision is limited to tens of meters underwater. As anthropogenic noises continue to increase, doubling every decade, this compromises the survivability of marine species. One study discovered that as seismic noises and naval sonar increases in marine ecosystems, cetacean , such as whales and dolphins, diversity decreases. Noise pollution has also impaired fish hearing, killed and isolated whale populations, intensified stress response in marine species, and changed species' physiology. Because marine species are sensitive to noise, most marine wildlife are located in undisturbed habitats or areas not exposed to significant anthropogenic noise, limiting suitable habitats to forage and mate. Whales have changed their migration route to avoid anthropogenic noise, as well as altering their calls. For many marine organisms, sound
2180-426: A typical U.S. population showed that chronic exposure to moderately high levels of environmental noise contributes to hearing loss. Noise exposure in the workplace can also contribute to noise-induced hearing loss and other health issues. Occupational hearing loss is one of the most common work-related illnesses in the U.S. and worldwide. It is less clear how humans adapt to noise subjectively. Tolerance for noise
2289-702: A variety of environmental conditions and perform more efficiently allowing a greater proportion of photon energy to end up in the storage compounds, i.e., carbohydrates (rather than building and sustaining living cells). However, prominent research faces hurdles, Sun Catalytix a MIT spin-off stopped scaling up their prototype fuel-cell in 2012 because it offers few savings over other ways to make hydrogen from sunlight. Most new renewables are solar, followed by wind then hydro then bioenergy. Investment in renewables, especially solar, tends to be more effective in creating jobs than coal, gas or oil. Worldwide, renewables employ about 12 million people as of 2020, with solar PV being
SECTION 20
#17328838260442398-452: Is thermal energy (heat) extracted from the Earth's crust . It originates from several different sources , of which the most significant is slow radioactive decay of minerals contained in the Earth's interior , as well as some leftover heat from the formation of the Earth . Some of the heat is generated near the Earth's surface in the crust, but some also flows from deep within the Earth from
2507-471: Is a more economical means of long-term renewable energy storage, in terms of capital expenditures compared to pumped hydroelectric or batteries. Solar power produced around 1.3 terrawatt-hours (TWh) worldwide in 2022, representing 4.6% of the world's electricity. Almost all of this growth has happened since 2010. Solar energy can be harnessed anywhere that receives sunlight; however, the amount of solar energy that can be harnessed for electricity generation
2616-537: Is a technology for generating electricity by mixing fresh water and salty sea water in large power cells. Most marine energy harvesting technologies are still at low technology readiness levels and not used at large scales. Tidal energy is generally considered the most mature, but has not seen wide deployment. The world's largest tidal power station is on Sihwa Lake , South Korea, which produces around 550 gigawatt-hours of electricity per year. Earth emits roughly 10 W of infrared thermal radiation that flows toward
2725-419: Is about 800 times denser than air , even a slow flowing stream of water, or moderate sea swell , can yield considerable amounts of energy. Water can generate electricity with a conversion efficiency of about 90%, which is the highest rate in renewable energy. There are many forms of water energy: Much hydropower is flexible, thus complementing wind and solar. In 2021, the world renewable hydropower capacity
2834-651: Is also a wide range of policies at state/provincial and local levels. As of December 2019, the honorary chairman of the REN Alliance is former Australian senator Peter Rae , who was previously also chairman of Hydro Tasmania . Renewable energy Renewable energy (or green energy ) is energy from renewable natural resources that are replenished on a human timescale . The most widely used renewable energy types are solar energy , wind power , and hydropower . Bioenergy and geothermal power are also significant in some countries. Some also consider nuclear power
2943-527: Is called the Lombard effect . Researchers have found that humpback whales' song lengths were longer when low-frequency sonar was active nearby. Underwater noise pollution is not only limited to oceans, and can occur in freshwater environments as well. Noise pollution has been detected in the Yangtze River, and has resulted in the endangerment of Yangtze finless porpoises . A study conducted on noise pollution in
3052-520: Is common in Iceland, or to generate electricity. At smaller scales, geothermal power can be generated with geothermal heat pumps , which can extract heat from ground temperatures of under 30 °C (86 °F), allowing them to be used at relatively shallow depths of a few meters. Electricity generation requires large plants and ground temperatures of at least 150 °C (302 °F). In some countries, electricity produced from geothermal energy accounts for
3161-400: Is currently only available on Apple iOS devices. Noise pollution affects both health and behavior. Unwanted sound (noise) can damage physiological health and mental health. Noise pollution is associated with several health conditions, including cardiovascular disorders, hypertension , high stress levels, tinnitus , hearing loss, sleep disturbances, and other harmful effects. According to
3270-401: Is enough fuel for breeder reactors to satisfy the world's energy needs for 5 billion years at 1983's total energy consumption rate, thus making nuclear energy effectively a renewable energy. In addition to seawater the average crustal granite rocks contain significant quantities of uranium and thorium with which breeder reactors can supply abundant energy for the remaining lifespan of the sun on
3379-692: Is for reproduction purposes, navigation, or to notify others of prey or predators. However, anthropogenic noises inhibit species from detecting these sounds, affecting overall communication within the population. Species such as birds, amphibians, reptiles, fishes, mammals, and invertebrates are examples of biological groups that are impacted by noise pollution. If animals cannot communicate with one another, this would result in reproduction to decline (not able to find mates), and higher mortality (lack of communication for predator detection). European robins living in urban environments are more likely to sing at night in places with high levels of noise pollution during
International Renewable Energy Alliance - Misplaced Pages Continue
3488-514: Is frequently independent of decibel levels. Murray Schafer's soundscape research was groundbreaking in this regard. In his work, he makes compelling arguments about how humans relate to noise on a subjective level, and how such subjectivity is conditioned by culture. Schafer notes that sound is an expression of power in material culture. As such, fast cars or Harley Davidson motorcycles with aftermarket pipes tend to have louder engines not only for safety reasons, but for expressions of power by dominating
3597-422: Is in keeping children and elderly healthy. Noise generated by traffic, ships, vehicles, and aircraft can affect the survivability of wildlife species and can reach undisturbed habitats. Although sounds are commonly present in the environment, anthropogenic noises are distinguishable due to differences in frequency and amplitude. Many animals use sounds to communicate with others of their species, whether that
3706-518: Is influenced by weather conditions , geographic location and time of day. There are two mainstream ways of harnessing solar energy: solar thermal , which converts solar energy into heat; and photovoltaics (PV), which converts it into electricity. PV is far more widespread, accounting for around two thirds of the global solar energy capacity as of 2022. It is also growing at a much faster rate, with 170 GW newly installed capacity in 2021, compared to 25 GW of solar thermal. Passive solar refers to
3815-518: Is key to assessing measurements of noise pollution. Several metrics describing noise exposure include: Researchers with the US National Park Service found that human activity doubles the background-noise levels in 63 percent of protected spaces like national parks, and increases them tenfold in 21 percent. In the latter places, "if you could have heard something 100 feet away, now you can only hear it 10 feet away," Sound can be measured in
3924-618: Is mainly caused by machines, transport and propagation systems. Poor urban planning may give rise to noise disintegration or pollution, side-by-side industrial and residential buildings can result in noise pollution in the residential areas. Some of the main sources of noise in residential areas include loud music , transportation (traffic, rail, airplanes, etc.), lawn care maintenance, construction , electrical generators, wind turbines, explosions and people. Documented problems associated with noise in urban environments go back as far as ancient Rome . Research suggests that noise pollution in
4033-460: Is more valuable than VRE countries with large hydroelectric developments such as Canada and Norway are spending billions to expand their grids to trade with neighboring countries having limited hydro. Biomass is biological material derived from living, or recently living organisms. Most commonly, it refers to plants or plant-derived materials. As an energy source, biomass can either be used directly via combustion to produce heat, or converted to
4142-437: Is needed. Boat-noise has been shown to affect the embryonic development and fitness of the sea hare Stylocheilus striatus . Anthropogenic noise can alter conditions in the environment that have a negative effect on invertebrate survival. Although embryos can adapt to normal changes in their environment, evidence suggests they are not well adapted to endure the negative effects of noise pollution. Studies have been conducted on
4251-596: Is not possible to use or store excess electricity. Electrical energy storage is a collection of methods used to store electrical energy. Electrical energy is stored during times when production (especially from intermittent sources such as wind power , tidal power , solar power ) exceeds consumption, and returned to the grid when production falls below consumption. Pumped-storage hydroelectricity accounts for more than 85% of all grid power storage . Batteries are increasingly being deployed for storage and grid ancillary services and for domestic storage. Green hydrogen
4360-650: Is now noisy and chaotic due to ships, oil drilling, sonar equipment, and seismic testing. The principal anthropogenic noise sources come from merchant ships, naval sonar operations, underwater explosions (nuclear), and seismic exploration by oil and gas industries. Cargo ships generate high levels of noise due to propellers and diesel engines. This noise pollution significantly raises the low-frequency ambient noise levels above those caused by wind. Animals such as whales that depend on sound for communication can be affected by this noise in various ways. Higher ambient noise levels also cause animals to vocalize more loudly, which
4469-520: Is often associated with unsustainable deforestation . As part of the global effort to limit climate change , most countries have committed to net zero greenhouse gas emissions . In practice, this means phasing out fossil fuels and replacing them with low-emissions energy sources. This much needed process, coined as "low-carbon substitutions" in contrast to other transition processes including energy additions, needs to be accelerated multiple times in order to successfully mitigating climate change. At
International Renewable Energy Alliance - Misplaced Pages Continue
4578-477: Is that the heated water can be stored until it is needed, eliminating the need for a separate energy storage system. Solar thermal power can also be converted to electricity by using the steam generated from the heated water to drive a turbine connected to a generator. However, because generating electricity this way is much more expensive than photovoltaic power plants, there are very few in use today. Humans have harnessed wind energy since at least 3500 BC. Until
4687-553: Is the primary means of learning about their environments. For example, many species of marine mammals and fish use sound as their primary means of navigating, communicating, and foraging. Anthropogenic noise can have a detrimental effect on animals, increasing the risk of death by changing the delicate balance in predator or prey detection and avoidance, and interfering with the use of the sounds in communication, especially in relation to reproduction, and in navigation and echolocation. These effects then may alter more interactions within
4796-662: Is to slow and eventually stop climate change , which is widely agreed to be caused mostly by greenhouse gas emissions . In general, renewable energy sources cause much lower emissions than fossil fuels. The International Energy Agency estimates that to achieve net zero emissions by 2050, 90% of global electricity generation will need to be produced from renewable sources. Renewables also cause much less air pollution than fossil fuels, improving public health, and are less noisy . The deployment of renewable energy still faces obstacles, especially fossil fuel subsidies , lobbying by incumbent power providers, and local opposition to
4905-463: The 2023 United Nations Climate Change Conference , around three-quarters of the world's countries set a goal of tripling renewable energy capacity by 2030. The European Union aims to generate 40% of its electricity from renewables by the same year. Renewable energy is more evenly distributed around the world than fossil fuels, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. It also brings health benefits by reducing air pollution caused by
5014-488: The NASA Office of Science and Technology Policy examined the concept and concluded that with current and near-future technologies it would be economically uncompetitive. Collection of static electricity charges from water droplets on metal surfaces is an experimental technology that would be especially useful in low-income countries with relative air humidity over 60%. Breeder reactors could, in principle, depending on
5123-561: The mantle and core . Geothermal energy extraction is viable mostly in countries located on tectonic plate edges, where the Earth's hot mantle is more exposed. As of 2023, the United States has by far the most geothermal capacity (2.7 GW, or less than 0.2% of the country's total energy capacity ), followed by Indonesia and the Philippines. Global capacity in 2022 was 15 GW. Geothermal energy can be either used directly to heat homes, as
5232-400: The 20th century, it was primarily used to power ships, windmills and water pumps. Today, the vast majority of wind power is used to generate electricity using wind turbines. Modern utility-scale wind turbines range from around 600 kW to 9 MW of rated power. The power available from the wind is a function of the cube of the wind speed, so as wind speed increases, power output increases up to
5341-512: The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) published a study examining the efficacy of 192 sound measurement apps on Apple and Android smartphones. The authors found that only 10 apps, all of which were on the App Store , met all acceptability criteria. Of these 10 apps, only 4 apps met accuracy criteria within 2 dB(A) from the reference standard. As a result of this study, they created
5450-638: The NIOSH Sound Level Meter App to increase accessibility and decrease costs of monitoring noise using crowdsourcing data with a tested and highly accurate application. The app is compliant with ANSI S1.4 and IEC 61672 requirements. The app calculates the following measures: total run time, instantaneous sound level, A-weighted equivalent sound level (LAeq), maximum level (LAmax), C-weighted peak sound level, time-weighted average (TWA), dose, and projected dose. Dose and projected dose are based on sound level and duration of noise exposure in relation to
5559-597: The NIOSH recommended exposure limit of 85 dB(A) for an eight-hour work shift. Using the phone's internal microphone (or an attached external microphone), the NIOSH Sound Level Meter measures instantaneous sound levels in real time and converts sound into electrical energy to calculate measurements in A-, C-, or Z-weighted decibels. App users are able to generate, save, and e-mail measurement reports. The NIOSH Sound Level Meter
SECTION 50
#17328838260445668-558: The OCTA-KONG was found to have been detectable by the dolphins up to 3.5 km away from the original source, and while the noise was not found to be life-threatening it was indicated that prolonged exposure to this noise could be responsible for auditory damage. Noise pollution is common in marine ecosystems, affecting at least 55 marine species. For many marine populations, sound is their primary sense used for their survival; able to detect sound hundreds to thousands of kilometers away from
5777-671: The United States is the highest in low-income and racial minority neighborhoods, and noise pollution associated with household electricity generators is an emerging environmental degradation in many developing nations. High noise levels can contribute to cardiovascular effects in humans and an increased incidence of coronary artery disease . In animals, noise can increase the risk of death by altering predator or prey detection and avoidance, interfere with reproduction and navigation, and contribute to permanent hearing loss. Researchers measure noise in terms of pressure , intensity , and frequency . Sound pressure level (SPL) represents
5886-417: The Yangtze River suggested that the elevated levels of noise pollution altered the temporal hearing threshold of the finless porpoises and posed a significant threat to their survival. Noise pollution has emerged as a prominent stressor on coral reef ecosystems. Coral reefs are among the most important ecosystems of the earth, as well as they are of great importance to several communities and cultures around
5995-435: The air using a sound level meter , a device consisting of a microphone, an amplifier , and a time meter. Sound level meters can measure noise at different frequencies (usually A- and C-weighted levels). There are two settings for response time constants, fast ( time constant = 0.125 seconds, similar to human hearing) or slow (1 second, used for calculating averages over widely varying sound levels). Sound level meters meet
6104-448: The amount of pressure relative to atmospheric pressure during sound wave propagation that can vary with time; this is also known as the sum of the amplitudes of a wave. Sound intensity , measured in Watts per meters-squared, represents the flow of sound over a particular area. Although sound pressure and intensity differ, both can describe the level of loudness by comparing the current state to
6213-460: The behavior of the hermit crab can be attributed to the noise produced. Another study that demonstrates a stress response in invertebrates was conducted on the squid species Doryteuthis pealeii . The squid was exposed to sounds of construction known as pile driving, which impacts the sea bed directly and produces intense substrate-borne and water-borne vibrations. The squid reacted by jetting, inking, pattern change and other startle responses. Since
6322-446: The burning of fossil fuels. The potential worldwide savings in health care costs have been estimated at trillions of dollars annually. The two most important forms of renewable energy, solar and wind, are intermittent energy sources : they are not available constantly, resulting in lower capacity factors . In contrast, fossil fuel power plants are usually able to produce precisely the amount of energy an electricity grid requires at
6431-778: The cold outer space. Solar energy hits the surface and atmosphere of the earth and produces heat. Using various theorized devices like emissive energy harvester (EEH) or thermoradiative diode, this energy flow can be converted into electricity. In theory, this technology can be used during nighttime. Producing liquid fuels from oil-rich (fat-rich) varieties of algae is an ongoing research topic. Various microalgae grown in open or closed systems are being tried including some systems that can be set up in brownfield and desert lands. There have been numerous proposals for space-based solar power , in which very large satellites with photovoltaic panels would be equipped with microwave transmitters to beam power back to terrestrial receivers. A 2024 study by
6540-402: The coral reef ecosystem. Among coral reef fish, sound detection and generation can span from 1 Hz to 200 kHz, while their hearing abilities encompasses frequencies within the range of 100 Hz to 1 kHz. Several different types of anthropogenic noise are at the same frequencies as marine organisms in coral reefs use for navigation, communication, and other purposes, which disturbs
6649-543: The crops used to produce bioethanol and biodiesel are grown specifically for this purpose, although used cooking oil accounted for 14% of the oil used to produce biodiesel as of 2015. The biomass used to produce biofuels varies by region. Maize is the major feedstock in the United States, while sugarcane dominates in Brazil. In the European Union, where biodiesel is more common than bioethanol, rapeseed oil and palm oil are
SECTION 60
#17328838260446758-637: The crossing of boats and ships overlaps with the natural sounds of the coral reef organisms. This pollution impacts the various organisms inhabiting the coral reefs in different ways, and ultimately damages the capabilities of the reef and may cause permanent deterioration. Healthy coral reefs are naturally noisy, consisting of the sounds of breaking waves and tumbling rocks, as well as the sounds produced by fish and other organisms. Marine organisms use sound for purposes such as navigating, foraging, communicating, and reproductive activities. The sensitivity and range of hearing varies across different organisms within
6867-556: The day, suggesting that they sing at night because it is quieter, and their message can propagate through the environment more clearly. The same study showed that daytime noise was a stronger predictor of nocturnal singing than night-time light pollution , to which the phenomenon often is attributed. Anthropogenic noise reduced the species richness of birds found in Neotropical urban parks. Zebra finches become less faithful to their partners when exposed to traffic noise. This could alter
6976-412: The deforestation of tropical rainforests in Brazil and Indonesia. In addition, burning biomass still produces carbon emissions, although much less than fossil fuels (39 grams of CO 2 per megajoule of energy, compared to 75 g/MJ for fossil fuels). Some biomass sources are unsustainable at current rates of exploitation (as of 2017). Biofuels are primarily used in transportation, providing 3.5% of
7085-435: The distributional, physiological, and behavioral patterns of coral reef organisms. Some of the observed changes has been compromised hearing, increased heart rate in coral fish and a reduction in the number of larvae reaching their settlement areas. Ultimately, the outcome of such changes results in reduced survival rates and altered patterns which potentially alters the entirety of the reef ecosystem. The white damselfish,
7194-508: The elderly may have cardiac problems due to noise, according to the World Health Organization, children are especially vulnerable to noise, and the effects that noise has on children may be permanent. Noise poses a serious threat to a child's physical and psychological health, and may negatively interfere with a child's learning and behavior. Exposure to persistent noise pollution shows how important maintaining environmental health
7303-585: The fastest-growing renewable energy technology. It is cheap, low-maintenance and scalable; adding to an existing PV installation as demanded arises is simple. Its main disadvantage is its poor performance in cloudy weather. PV systems range from small, residential and commercial rooftop or building integrated installations, to large utility-scale photovoltaic power station . A household's solar panels can either be used for just that household or, if connected to an electrical grid, can be aggregated with millions of others. The first utility-scale solar power plant
7412-548: The fuel cycle employed, extract almost all of the energy contained in uranium or thorium , decreasing fuel requirements by a factor of 100 compared to widely used once-through light water reactors , which extract less than 1% of the energy in the actinide metal (uranium or thorium) mined from the earth. The high fuel-efficiency of breeder reactors could greatly reduce concerns about fuel supply, energy used in mining, and storage of radioactive waste . With seawater uranium extraction (currently too expensive to be economical), there
7521-439: The hermit crab and mussel were exposed to different types of noise, significant variation in the valve gape occurred in the blue mussel. The hermit crab responded to the noise by lifting the shell off of the ground multiple times, then vacating the shell to examine it before returning inside. The results from the hermit crab trials were ambiguous with respect to causation; more studies must be conducted in order to determine whether
7630-736: The horizontal axis units currently in use. As offshore wind speeds average ~90% greater than that of land, offshore resources can contribute substantially more energy than land-stationed turbines. Investments in wind technologies reached USD 161 billion in 2020, with onshore wind dominating at 80% of total investments from 2013 to 2022. Offshore wind investments nearly doubled to USD 41 billion between 2019 and 2020, primarily due to policy incentives in China and expansion in Europe. Global wind capacity increased by 557 GW between 2013 and 2021, with capacity additions increasing by an average of 19% each year. Since water
7739-427: The leading causes of noise effects in invertebrates is because sound is used in multiple behavioral contexts by many groups. This includes regularly sound produced or perceived in the context of aggression or predator avoidance. Invertebrates also utilize sound to attract or locate mates, and often employ sound in the courtship process. Many of the studies that were conducted on invertebrate exposure to noise found that
7848-408: The main feedstocks. China, although it produces comparatively much less biofuel, uses mostly corn and wheat. In many countries, biofuels are either subsidized or mandated to be included in fuel mixtures . There are many other sources of bioenergy that are more niche, or not yet viable at large scales. For instance, bioethanol could be produced from the cellulosic parts of crops, rather than only
7957-504: The main sequence of stellar evolution. Artificial photosynthesis uses techniques including nanotechnology to store solar electromagnetic energy in chemical bonds by splitting water to produce hydrogen and then using carbon dioxide to make methanol. Researchers in this field strived to design molecular mimics of photosynthesis that use a wider region of the solar spectrum, employ catalytic systems made from abundant, inexpensive materials that are robust, readily repaired, non-toxic, stable in
8066-453: The maximum output for the particular turbine. Areas where winds are stronger and more constant, such as offshore and high-altitude sites, are preferred locations for wind farms. Wind-generated electricity met nearly 4% of global electricity demand in 2015, with nearly 63 GW of new wind power capacity installed. Wind energy was the leading source of new capacity in Europe, the US and Canada, and
8175-472: The medium-term, this variability may require keeping some gas-fired power plants or other dispatchable generation on standby until there is enough energy storage, demand response , grid improvement, and/or baseload power from non-intermittent sources. In the long-term, energy storage is an important way of dealing with intermittency. Using diversified renewable energy sources and smart grids can also help flatten supply and demand. Sector coupling of
8284-511: The natural marine soundscape. Noise from shipping and small boats is at the same frequency as sounds generated by marine organisms, and therefore acts as a disruptive element in the sound environment of coral reefs. Both longer-term and acute effects have been documented on coral reefs organisms after exposure to noise pollution. Anthropogenic noise is essentially a persistent stressor on coral reefs and its inhabitants. Both temporary and permanent noise pollution has been found to induce changes in
8393-472: The natural sound environment of the coral reefs. Anthropogenic sources of noise are generated by a range of different human activities, such as shipping , oil and gas exploration and fishing. The principal cause of noise pollution on coral reefs is boat and ship activities. The use of smaller motorboats, for purposes as fishing or tourism within coral reef areas, and larger vessels, such as cargo ships transporting goods, significantly amplifies disturbances to
8502-627: The noise around them. Therefore, it is suggested that marine invertebrates are likely perceiving the effects of noise differently than marine mammals. It is reported that invertebrates can detect a large range of sounds, but noise sensitivity varies substantially between each species. Generally, however, invertebrates depend on frequencies under 10 kHz. This is the frequency at which a great deal of ocean noise occurs. Therefore, not only does anthropogenic noise often mask invertebrate communication, but it also negatively impacts other biological system functions through noise-induced stress. Another one of
8611-788: The past decade, making them more competitive with traditional fossil fuels. In most countries, photovoltaic solar or onshore wind are the cheapest new-build electricity. From 2011 to 2021, renewable energy grew from 20% to 28% of global electricity supply. Power from the sun and wind accounted for most of this increase, growing from a combined 2% to 10%. Use of fossil energy shrank from 68% to 62%. In 2022, renewables accounted for 30% of global electricity generation and are projected to reach over 42% by 2028. Many countries already have renewables contributing more than 20% of their total energy supply, with some generating over half or even all their electricity from renewable sources. The main motivation to replace fossil fuels with renewable energy sources
8720-571: The power generation sector with other sectors may increase flexibility: for example the transport sector can be coupled by charging electric vehicles and sending electricity from vehicle to grid . Similarly the industry sector can be coupled by hydrogen produced by electrolysis, and the buildings sector by thermal energy storage for space heating and cooling. Building overcapacity for wind and solar generation can help ensure sufficient electricity production even during poor weather. In optimal weather, it may be necessary to curtail energy generation if it
8829-482: The primary challenges for new developments. It is popular to repower old dams thereby increasing their efficiency and capacity as well as quicker responsiveness on the grid. Where circumstances permit existing dams such as the Russell Dam built in 1985 may be updated with "pump back" facilities for pumped-storage which is useful for peak loads or to support intermittent wind and solar power. Because dispatchable power
8938-461: The purpose of detecting environmental vibrations. Antennae or hairs on the organism pick up particle motion. Anthropogenic noise created in the marine environment, such as pile driving and shipping, are picked up through particle motion; these activities exemplify near-field stimuli. The ability to detect vibration through mechanosensory structures is most important in invertebrates and fish. Mammals, also, depend on pressure detector ears to perceive
9047-514: The renewable energy sector. Globally in 2020 there are over 10 million jobs associated with the renewable energy industries, with solar photovoltaics being the largest renewable employer. The clean energy sectors added about 4.7 million jobs globally between 2019 and 2022, totaling 35 million jobs by 2022. Noise pollution Noise pollution , or sound pollution , is the propagation of noise or sound with potential harmful effects on humans and animals. The source of outdoor noise worldwide
9156-669: The required standards set by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) and in the United States, the American National Standards Institute as type 0, 1, or 2 instruments. Type 0 devices are not required to meet the same criteria expected of types 1 and 2 since scientists use these as laboratory reference standards. Type 1 (precision) instruments are to study the precision of capturing sound measurements, while type 2 instruments are for general field use. Type 1 devices acceptable by
9265-406: The research. A variation in the complexity of their sensory systems exists, which allows scientists to study a range of characteristics and develop a better understanding of anthropogenic noise impacts on living organisms. Even marine invertebrates, such as crabs ( Carcinus maenas ), have been shown to be negatively affected by ship noise. Larger crabs were noted to be negatively affected more by
9374-484: The responses recorded are similar to those identified when faced with a predator, it is implied that the squid initially viewed the sounds as a threat. However, it was also noted that the alarm responses decreased over a period of time, signifying that the squid had likely acclimated to the noise. Regardless, it is apparent that stress occurred in the squid, and although further investigation has not been pursued, researchers suspect that other implications exist that may alter
9483-582: The same loudness level. The most commonly used weighted levels are A-weighting , C-weighting, and Z-weighting. A-weighting mirrors the range of hearing, with frequencies of 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. This gives more weight to higher frequencies and less weight to lower frequencies. C-weighting has been used to measure peak sound pressure or impulse noise, similar to loud short-lived noises from machinery in occupational settings. Z-weighting, also known as zero-weighting, represents noise levels without any frequency weights. Understanding sound pressure levels
9592-442: The sea hare to determine the effects of boat noise on the early stages of life and the development of embryos. Researchers have studied sea hares from the lagoon of Moorea Island , French Polynesia. In the study, recordings of boat noise were made by using a hydrophone. In addition, recordings of ambient noise were made that did not contain boat noise. In contrast to ambient noise playbacks, mollusks exposed to boat noise playbacks had
9701-585: The second largest in China. In Denmark, wind energy met more than 40% of its electricity demand while Ireland, Portugal and Spain each met nearly 20%. Globally, the long-term technical potential of wind energy is believed to be five times total current global energy production, or 40 times current electricity demand, assuming all practical barriers needed were overcome. This would require wind turbines to be installed over large areas, particularly in areas of higher wind resources, such as offshore, and likely also industrial use of new types of VAWT turbines in addition to
9810-523: The sector's increasing maturity and cost reductions, particularly in solar photovoltaic (PV), which accounted for 90% of total investments. China and the United States were the main recipients, collectively making up about half of all solar investments since 2013. Despite reductions in Japan and India due to policy changes and COVID-19 , growth in China, the United States, and a significant increase from Vietnam's feed-in tariff program offset these declines. Globally,
9919-418: The seed as is common today. Sweet sorghum may be a promising alternative source of bioethanol, due to its tolerance of a wide range of climates. Cow dung can be converted into methane. There is also a great deal of research involving algal fuel , which is attractive because algae is a non-food resource, grows around 20 times faster than most food crops, and can be grown almost anywhere. Geothermal energy
10028-451: The solar sector added 714 gigawatts (GW) of solar PV and concentrated solar power (CSP) capacity between 2013 and 2021, with a notable rise in large-scale solar heating installations in 2021, especially in China, Europe, Turkey, and Mexico. A photovoltaic system , consisting of solar cells assembled into panels , converts light into electrical direct current via the photoelectric effect . PV has several advantages that make it by far
10137-420: The sound of healthy reefs. The noise created by anthropogenic activities could mask this soundscape, hindering the larvae from swimming towards the reef. Noise pollution ultimately poses a threat to the behavioral patterns of several coral organisms. Terrestrial anthropogenic noise affects the acoustic communications in grasshoppers while producing sound to attract a mate. The fitness and reproductive success of
10246-419: The sounds than smaller crabs. Repeated exposure to the sounds did lead to acclimatization . Underwater noise pollution due to human activities is also prevalent in the sea, and given that sound travels faster through water than through air, is a major source of disruption of marine ecosystems and does significant harm to sea life, including marine mammals, fish and invertebrates. The once-calm sea environment
10355-770: The soundscape are indicative of class differences in urban environments. Noise pollution can have negative affects on adults and children on the autistic spectrum . Those with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) can have hyperacusis, which is an abnormal sensitivity to sound. People with ASD who experience hyperacusis may have unpleasant emotions, such as fear and anxiety, and uncomfortable physical sensations in noisy environments with loud sounds. This can cause individuals with ASD to avoid environments with noise pollution, which in turn can result in isolation and negatively affect their quality of life. Sudden explosive noises typical of high-performance car exhausts and car alarms are types of noise pollution that can affect people with ASD. While
10464-592: The soundscape with a particular sound. Other key research in this area can be seen in Fong's comparative analysis of soundscape differences between Bangkok, Thailand, and Los Angeles, California, US. Based on Schafer's research, Fong's study showed how soundscapes differ based on the level of urban development in the area. He found that cities in the periphery have different soundscapes than inner city areas. Fong's findings tie not only soundscape appreciation to subjective views of sound, but also demonstrates how different sounds of
10573-607: The squid's survival habits. An additional study examined the impact noise exposure had on the Indo-Pacific humpbacked dolphin ( Sousa chinensis ). The dolphins were exposed to elevated noise levels due to construction in the Pearl River Estuary in China, specifically caused by the world's largest vibration hammer—the OCTA-KONG. The study suggested that while the dolphin's clicks were not affected, their whistles were because of susceptibility to auditory masking . The noise from
10682-416: The standards have a margin of error of ±1.5 dB, while type 2 instruments meet a margin of error of ±2.3 dB. Sound can also be measured using a noise dosimeter, a device similar to a sound level meter. Individuals have used dosimeters to measure personal exposure levels in occupational settings given their smaller, more portable size. Unlike many sound level meters, a dosimeter microphone attaches to
10791-468: The technology employing the most at almost 4 million. However, as of February 2024, the world's supply of workforce for solar energy is lagging greatly behind demand as universities worldwide still produce more workforce for fossil fuels than for renewable energy industries. In 2021, China accounted for almost half of the global increase in renewable electricity. There are 3,146 gigawatts installed in 135 countries, while 156 countries have laws regulating
10900-407: The ten biggest solar power stations are in China, including the biggest, Golmud Solar Park in China. Unlike photovoltaic cells that convert sunlight directly into electricity, solar thermal systems convert it into heat. They use mirrors or lenses to concentrate sunlight onto a receiver, which in turn heats a water reservoir. The heated water can then be used in homes. The advantage of solar thermal
11009-501: The term is not synonymous with low-carbon energy . Some non-renewable sources of energy, such as nuclear power , generate almost no emissions, while some renewable energy sources can be very carbon-intensive, such as the burning of biomass if it is not offset by planting new plants. Renewable energy is also distinct from sustainable energy , a more abstract concept that seeks to group energy sources based on their overall permanent impact on future generations of humans. For example, biomass
11118-826: The threshold of hearing; this results in decibel units on the logarithmic scale. The logarithmic scale accommodates the vast range of sound heard by the human ear. Frequency, or pitch, is measured in Hertz (Hz) and reflects the number of sound waves propagated through the air per second. The range of frequencies heard by the human ear range from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz; however, sensitivity to hearing higher frequencies decreases with age. Some organisms, such as elephants, can register frequencies between 0 and 20 Hz (infrasound), and others, such as bats, can recognize frequencies above 20,000 Hz (ultrasound) to echolocate. Researchers use different weights to account for noise frequency with intensity, as humans do not perceive sound at
11227-484: The use of land for renewable installations. Like all mining, the extraction of minerals required for many renewable energy technologies also results in environmental damage . In addition, although most renewable energy sources are sustainable , some are not. Renewable energy is usually understood as energy harnessed from continuously occurring natural phenomena. The International Energy Agency defines it as "energy derived from natural processes that are replenished at
11336-467: The worker and monitors levels throughout a work shift. Additionally, dosimeters can calculate the percent dose or time-weighted average (TWA). In recent years, scientists and audio engineers have been developing smartphone apps to conduct sound measurements, similar to the standalone sound level meters and dosimeters. In 2014, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) within
11445-484: The world's transport energy demand in 2022, up from 2.7% in 2010. Biojet is expected to be important for short-term reduction of carbon dioxide emissions from long-haul flights. Aside from wood, the major sources of bioenergy are bioethanol and biodiesel . Bioethanol is usually produced by fermenting the sugar components of crops like sugarcane and maize , while biodiesel is mostly made from oils extracted from plants, such as soybean oil and corn oil . Most of
11554-502: The world, depending on the cost of drilling. EGS projects have so far primarily been limited to demonstration plants , as the technology is capital-intensive due to the high cost of drilling. Marine energy (also sometimes referred to as ocean energy) is the energy carried by ocean waves , tides , salinity , and ocean temperature differences . Technologies to harness the energy of moving water include wave power , marine current power , and tidal power . Reverse electrodialysis (RED)
11663-479: The world, that depend on the reefs for the services they provide, such as fishing and tourism. The reefs contribute substantially to global biodiversity and productivity, and is a critical part of the support systems of the earth. Anthropogenic noise, originating from human activities, has increased underwater noise in the natural sound environment of the reefs. The preeminent sources of noise pollution on coral reefs are boat and ship activities. The sound created by
11772-455: Was 1,360 GW. Only a third of the world's estimated hydroelectric potential of 14,000 TWh/year has been developed. New hydropower projects face opposition from local communities due to their large impact, including relocation of communities and flooding of wildlife habitats and farming land. High cost and lead times from permission process, including environmental and risk assessments, with lack of environmental and social acceptance are therefore
11881-517: Was built in 1982 in Hesperia, California by ARCO . The plant was not profitable and was sold eight years later. However, over the following decades, PV cells became significantly more efficient and cheaper. As a result, PV adoption has grown exponentially since 2010. Global capacity increased from 230 GW at the end of 2015 to 890 GW in 2021. PV grew fastest in China between 2016 and 2021, adding 560 GW, more than all advanced economies combined. Four of
#43956