78-539: The R-29RM Shtil (Russian: Штиль, lit. "Calmness" , NATO reporting name SS-N-23 Skiff ) was a liquid propellant, submarine-launched ballistic missile in use by the Russian Navy . It had the alternate Russian designations RSM-54 and GRAU index 3M27 . It was designed to be launched from the Delta IV submarine, each of which is capable of carrying 16 missiles. The R-29RM could carry four 100 kiloton warheads and had
156-414: A nuclear warhead and allows a single launched missile to strike several targets. Submarine-launched ballistic missiles operate in a different way from submarine-launched cruise missiles . Modern submarine-launched ballistic missiles are closely related to intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), with ranges of over 5,500 kilometres (3,000 nmi), and in many cases SLBMs and ICBMs may be part of
234-716: A Polaris A-1 on 20 July 1960. Fifty-two days later, the Soviet Union made its first successful underwater launch of a submarine ballistic missile in the White Sea, on 10 September 1960 from the same converted Project 611 ( NATO reporting name Zulu-IV class) submarine that first launched the R-11FM. The Soviets were only a year behind the US with their first SSBN, the ill-fated K-19 of Project 658 (Hotel class), commissioned in November 1960. However,
312-484: A different target. Although the US did not commission any new SSBNs from 1967 through 1981, it did introduce two new SLBMs. Thirty-one of the 41 original US SSBNs were built with larger diameter launch tubes with future missiles in mind. In the early 1970s the Poseidon (C-3) missile entered service, and those 31 SSBNs were backfitted with it. Poseidon offered a massive MIRV capability of up to 14 warheads per missile. Like
390-721: A lone Typhoon used as a testbed for new missiles (the R-39s unique to the Typhoons were reportedly scrapped in 2012). Upgraded missiles such as the R-29RMU Sineva (SS-N-23 Sineva) were developed for the Deltas. In 2013 the Russians commissioned the first Borei-class submarine , also called the Dolgorukiy class after the lead vessel. By 2015 two others had entered service. This class is intended to replace
468-533: A member in 2006. Other closely related members include Willy Ley (1976), a German-American science writer, and Hermann Oberth (1976), a German scientist who advised von Braun's rocket team in the U.S. from 1955 to 1958; neither Ley, nor Oberth moved to the US via the Operation Paperclip. Two lunar craters are named after Paperclip scientists: Debus after Kurt Debus , the first director of NASA's Kennedy Space Center , and von Braun . Dr. Adolf Busemann
546-615: A program to resettle the evacuees in the Third World , which the Germans referred to as General Walsh's Urwald-Programm ("jungle program"); but the program was not carried out. In 1948, the evacuees received settlements of 69.5 million Reichsmarks from the U.S., a settlement that soon became severely devalued during the currency reform that introduced the Deutsche Mark as the official currency of western Germany. John Gimbel concludes that
624-717: A range of 7,700 kilometres (4,200 nmi), entered service on the first Delta-I boat in 1972, before the Yankee class was even completed. A total of 43 Delta-class boats of all types entered service 1972–90, with the SS-N-18 on the Delta III class and the R-29RM Shtil (SS-N-23) on the Delta IV class. The new missiles had increased range and eventually multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles ( MIRV ), multiple warheads that could each hit
702-656: A range of about 8,500 kilometres (5,300 mi). They were replaced with the newer R-29RMU2 Sineva and later with the enhanced variant R-29RMU2.1 Layner . Development of the R-29RM started in 1979 at the Makeyev Rocket Design Bureau . The navy accepted the armament in 1986 and subsequently installed the D-9RM launch system consisting of a cluster of 16 R-29RM on board the nuclear-propelled Project 667BDRM submarines . On 6 August 1991 at 21:09, K-407 Novomoskovsk , under
780-548: A submarine or from a launch site on land. Operation Paperclip Operation Paperclip was a secret United States intelligence program in which more than 1,600 German scientists, engineers, and technicians were taken from former Nazi Germany to the U.S. for government employment after the end of World War II in Europe , between 1945 and 1959; several were former members of the Nazi Party . The effort began in earnest in 1945, as
858-821: Is known for developing rocket and space-flight technology, including the V-2 missile . In late 1932, he worked for the German army to develop new liquid propulsion -based missiles. He received a doctorate in physics in 1934 from the Friedrich-Wilhelms University of Berlin . He and his team then surrendered to the Allies at the end of World War II, shortly after Hitler's suicide in 1945. They were brought to America through Operation Paperclip and assimilated into NASA 's space program, where they worked on missile technology at Fort Bliss before transferring to Huntsville, Alabama . He became
SECTION 10
#1733084580680936-536: The Cold War , as they can hide from reconnaissance satellites and fire their nuclear weapons with virtual impunity. This makes them immune to a first strike directed against nuclear forces, allowing each side to maintain the capability to launch a devastating retaliatory strike , even if all land-based missiles have been destroyed. This relieves each side of the necessity to adopt a launch on warning posture, with its attendant risk of accidental nuclear war. Additionally,
1014-539: The Cold War . Despite its contributions to American scientific advances, Operation Paperclip has been controversial because of the Nazi affiliations of many recruits, and the ethics of assimilating individuals associated with war crimes into American society. The operation was not solely focused on rocketry; efforts were directed toward synthetic fuels, medicine, and other fields of research. Notable advances in aeronautics fostered rocket and space-flight technologies pivotal in
1092-676: The Japanese war and to aid our postwar military research". The term "Overcast" was the name first given by the German scientists' family members for the housing camp where they were held in Bavaria . In late summer 1945, the JCS established the JIOA, a subcommittee of the Joint Intelligence Community, to directly oversee Operation Overcast and later Operation Paperclip. The JIOA representatives included
1170-736: The Lunar Roving Vehicle . However, the main projects from the Marshall Space Flight Center were the V-2 rocket and the Apollo missions. The V-2 rocket was developed in Germany at the Peenemünde military research center. Wernher von Braun was the director of Peenemünde and worked with a team of engineers, physicists, and chemists. The Nazis used the V-2 missile during World War II to attack Paris,
1248-808: The Naval Submarine Base King's Bay in Georgia was built for the Trident I-equipped force. Both the United States and the Soviet Union commissioned larger SSBNs designed for new missiles in 1981. The American large SSBN was the Ohio class , also called the "Trident submarine", with the largest SSBN armament ever of 24 missiles, initially Trident I but built with much larger tubes for the Trident II (D-5) missile , which entered service in 1990. The entire class
1326-451: The Office of Military Government, United States (OMGUS), which had jurisdiction over the western part of occupied Germany, held a conference to consider the status of the evacuees, the monetary claims that the evacuees had filed against the United States, and the "possible violation by the U.S. of laws of war or Rules of Land Warfare ". The OMGUS director of Intelligence Robert L. Walsh initiated
1404-1160: The Space Race . The operation played a crucial role in the establishment of NASA and the success of the Apollo missions to the Moon. Operation Paperclip was part of a broader strategy by the US to harness German scientific talent in the face of emerging Cold War tensions, and ensuring this expertise did not fall into the hands of the Soviet Union or other nations. The operation's legacy has remained controversial in subsequent decades. In February 1945, Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF) set up T-Force , or Special Sections Subdivision, which grew to over 2,000 personnel by June. T-Force examined 5,000 German targets, seeking expertise in synthetic rubber and oil catalysts, new designs in armored equipment, V-2 (rocket) weapons, jet and rocket propelled aircraft, naval equipment, field radios, secret writing chemicals, aero medicine research, gliders, and "scientific and industrial personalities". When large numbers of German scientists began to be discovered by
1482-749: The intellectual reparations owed to the US and the UK, valued at US$ 10 billion in patents and industrial processes. The NASA Distinguished Service Medal is the highest award which may be bestowed by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). After more than two decades of service and leadership in NASA, four Nazi members from Operation Paperclip were awarded the NASA Distinguished Service Medal in 1969: Kurt Debus , Eberhard Rees, Arthur Rudolph , and Wernher von Braun. Ernst Geissler
1560-450: The nuclear test series Operation Dominic . The first Soviet SSBN with 16 missiles was the Project 667A (Yankee class), which first entered service in 1967 with 32 boats completed by 1974. By the time the first Yankee was commissioned the US had built 41 SSBNs, nicknamed the " 41 for Freedom ". The short range of the early SLBMs dictated basing and deployment locations. By the late 1960s
1638-577: The Allies (Hall 2022). In March 1946, a V-2 was test-fired in New Mexico, followed by the first launch of a captured V-2 in April of the same year. After months of adaptation, a V-2 missile was fired in White Sands Proving Ground, New Mexico that broke a record with an altitude of 116 miles (186.68 km). The V-2 rockets were used to test the effects of cosmic rays on fruit flies and seeds. They also took
SECTION 20
#17330845806801716-415: The Allies advanced into Germany and discovered a wealth of scientific talent and advanced research that had contributed to Germany's wartime technological advancements. The U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff officially established Operation Overcast (operations "Overcast" and "Paperclip" were related, and the terms are often used interchangeably) on July 20, 1945, with the dual aims of leveraging German expertise for
1794-570: The Braunschweig Laboratory. He gave a speech in 1935 at the Volta Congress, an international meeting on the problems of high-speed aeronautics. At this conference, he presented his first theory of how the angle of sweep of a plane wing reduces drag at supersonic speed. After the war, he traveled to the United States to assist them with the war tensions with Russia, where he continued his work on his theory of wing sweep. Wernher von Braun
1872-564: The CIOS was responsible for scouting and kidnapping high-profile individuals to block technological advancements in nations hostile to the U.S. Much U.S. effort was focused on Saxony and Thuringia , which on July 1, 1945, would become part of the Soviet Occupation zone . Many German research facilities and personnel had been evacuated to these states, particularly from the Berlin area. Fearing that
1950-690: The German government began recalling from combat a number of scientists, engineers, and technicians to work in research and development to bolster German defense for a protracted war with the USSR. The recall from frontline combat included 4,000 rocketeers returned to Peenemünde , in northeast coastal Germany. Overnight, Ph.D.s were liberated from KP duty , masters of science were recalled from orderly service, mathematicians were hauled out of bakeries, and precision mechanics ceased to be truck drivers. The Nazi government's recall of their now-useful intellectuals for scientific work first required identifying and locating
2028-555: The Hotel class carried only three R-13 missiles (NATO reporting name SS-N-4) each and had to surface and raise the missile to launch. Submerged launch was not an operational capability for the Soviets until 1963, when the R-21 missile (SS-N-5) was first backfitted to Project 658 (Hotel class) and Project 629 (Golf class) submarines. The Soviet Union was able to beat the U.S. in launching and testing
2106-879: The Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) in Huntsville, Alabama after taking control of the Development Operations Division from the Army's Redstone Arsenal . The Redstone Arsenal was led by the Army Ballistic Missile Agency . Wernher von Braun became the first director of the MSFC. The MSFC's development team was formed by American engineers from the Redstone Arsenal and 118 German migrants who came from Peenemünde through Operation Paperclip. Von Braun worked with Operation Paperclip to get scientists from his team to
2184-822: The Navy, beginning in late 1955. However, at the Project Nobska submarine warfare conference in 1956, physicist Edward Teller stated that a physically small one-megaton warhead could be produced for the relatively small, solid-fueled Polaris missile , and this prompted the Navy to leave the Jupiter program in December of that year. Soon Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Arleigh Burke concentrated all Navy strategic research on Polaris , still under Admiral Raborn's Special Project Office. All US SLBMs have been solid-fueled while all Soviet and Russian SLBMs have been liquid-fueled except for
2262-680: The Ordnance Rocket Center, its facility for rocket research and development. On April 1, 1950, the Fort Bliss missile development operation, including von Braun and his team of over 130 Paperclip members, was transferred to Redstone Arsenal. In early 1950, legal U.S. residency for some of the Project Paperclip specialists was effected through the U.S. consulate in Ciudad Juárez , Chihuahua , Mexico; thus, German scientists legally entered
2340-762: The Osenberg List stuffed in a toilet; the list subsequently reached MI6 , who transmitted it to U.S. intelligence . Then U.S. Army Major Robert B. Staver, Chief of the Jet Propulsion Section of the Research and Intelligence Branch of the United States Army Ordnance Corps , used the Osenberg List to compile his list of German scientists to be captured and interrogated; Wernher von Braun , Germany's best rocket scientist, headed Major Staver's list. In Operation Overcast, Major Staver's original intent
2418-557: The Polaris A-3 was deployed on all US SSBNs with a range of 4,600 kilometres (2,500 nmi), a great improvement on the 1,900 kilometres (1,000 nmi) range of Polaris A-1. The A-3 also had three warheads that landed in a pattern around a single target. The Yankee class was initially equipped with the R-27 Zyb missile (SS-N-6) with a range of 2,400 kilometres (1,300 nmi). The US was much more fortunate in its basing arrangements than
R-29RM Shtil - Misplaced Pages Continue
2496-636: The Rocket Branch of the Research and Development Division of the U.S. Army's Ordnance Corps, offered initial one-year contracts to the rocket scientists; 127 of them accepted. In September 1945, the first group of seven rocket scientists (aerospace engineers) arrived at Fort Strong on Long Island in Boston harbor: Wernher von Braun , Erich W. Neubert, Theodor A. Poppel, William August Schulze , Eberhard Rees , Wilhelm Jungert, and Walter Schwidetzky. Beginning in late 1945, three rocket-scientist groups arrived in
2574-490: The Russian RSM-56 Bulava , which entered service in 2014. The world's first operational nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine (SSBN) was USS George Washington (SSBN-598) with 16 Polaris A-1 missiles, which entered service in December 1959 and conducted the first SSBN deterrent patrol November 1960 – January 1961. George Washington also conducted the first successful submerged SLBM launch with
2652-491: The Soviet takeover would limit U.S. ability to exploit German scientific and technical expertise, and not wanting the Soviet Union to benefit from it, the United States instigated an "evacuation operation" of scientific personnel from Saxony and Thuringia, issuing orders such as: On orders of Military Government you are to report with your family and baggage as much as you can carry tomorrow noon at 1300 hours (Friday, 22 June 1945) at
2730-568: The Soviets, the US also desired a longer-range missile that would allow SSBNs to be based in CONUS. In the late 1970s the Trident I (C-4) missile with a range of 7,400 kilometres (4,000 nmi) and eight MIRV warheads was backfitted to 12 of the Poseidon-equipped submarines. The SSBN facilities (primarily a submarine tender and floating dry dock ) of the base at Rota, Spain were disestablished and
2808-637: The Soviets. Thanks to NATO and the US possession of Guam , US SSBNs were permanently forward deployed at Advanced Refit Sites in Holy Loch , Scotland, Rota, Spain , and Guam by the middle 1960s, resulting in short transit times to patrol areas near the Soviet Union. The SSBN facilities at the Advanced Refit Sites were austere, with only a submarine tender and floating dry dock . Converted merchant ships designated T-AKs ( Military Sealift Command cargo ships) were provided to ferry missiles and supplies to
2886-427: The Space Camp Hall of Fame (which began in 2007): Wernher von Braun (2007), Georg von Tiesenhausen (2007), and Oscar Holderer (2008). The New Mexico Museum of Space History includes the International Space Hall of Fame. Two Operation Paperclip members are members of the International Space Hall of Fame: Wernher von Braun (1976) and Ernst Steinhoff (1979). Hubertus Strughold was inducted in 1978 but removed as
2964-465: The US with the collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War in 1991. The US rapidly decommissioned its remaining 31 older SSBNs, with a few converted to other roles, and the base at Holy Loch was disestablished. Most of the former Soviet SSBN force was gradually scrapped under the provisions of the Nunn–Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction agreement through 2012. By that time the Russian SSBN force stood at six Delta-IVs, three Delta-IIIs, and
3042-508: The United States ( Operation Paperclip ) and for the Soviet Union on their SLBM programs. These and other early SLBM systems required vessels to be surfaced when they fired missiles, but launch systems were adapted to allow underwater launching in the 1950-1960s. A converted Project 611 (Zulu-IV class) submarine launched the world's first SLBM, an R-11FM (SS-N-1 Scud-A, naval variant of the SS-1 Scud ) on 16 September 1955. Five additional Project V611 and AV611 (Zulu-V class) submarines became
3120-436: The United States for duty at Fort Bliss , Texas, and at White Sands Proving Grounds , New Mexico , as "War Department Special Employees". In 1946, the United States Bureau of Mines employed seven German synthetic fuel scientists at a Fischer–Tropsch chemical plant in Louisiana , Missouri . On June 1, 1949, the Chief of Ordnance of the United States Army designated Redstone Arsenal in Huntsville, Alabama , as
3198-423: The United States from Latin America. Between 1945 and 1952, the United States Air Force sponsored the largest number of Paperclip scientists, importing 260 men, of whom 36 returned to Germany, and one, Walter Schreiber , emigrated to Argentina. The United States Army Signal Corps employed 24 specialists—including the physicists Georg Goubau , Gunter Guttwein, Georg Hass, Horst Kedesdy, and Kurt Lehovec ;
R-29RM Shtil - Misplaced Pages Continue
3276-473: The United States held some of Germany's best minds for three years, therefore depriving the German recovery of their expertise. In May 1945, the U.S. Navy "received in custody" Herbert A. Wagner , the inventor of the Hs 293 missile; for two years, he first worked at the Special Devices Center, at Castle Gould and at Hempstead House, Long Island, New York; in 1947, he moved to the Naval Air Station Point Mugu . In August 1945, Colonel Holger Toftoy , head of
3354-499: The United States. They began work at Fort Bliss in El Paso, Texas in September 1945, and most of the team had arrived by 1946. Von Braun and his team worked as consultants for the military until 1950 when they began transferring to Huntsville. Originally, the center focused on weaponry and further development of the V-2 rocket line but later became one of NASA's main development centers for space flight project. The team also worked on missions that related to Moon landing missions, such as
3432-436: The V-2 rocket. After capturing them, the Allies initially housed them and their families in Landshut , Bavaria, in southern Germany. Beginning on July 19, 1945, the U.S. Joint Chiefs managed the captured ARC rocketeers under Operation Overcast. However, when the "Camp Overcast" name of the scientists' quarters became locally known, the program was renamed Operation Paperclip in November 1945. Despite these attempts at secrecy,
3510-486: The advancing Allied forces in late April 1945, the Special Sections Subdivision set up the Enemy Personnel Exploitation Section to manage and interrogate them. The Enemy Personnel Exploitation Section established a detention center, Camp Dustbin , first near Paris and later in Kransberg Castle outside Frankfurt. The U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) established the first secret recruitment program, called Operation Overcast, on July 20, 1945, initially "to assist in shortening
3588-437: The aging Deltas, and carries 16 solid-fuel RSM-56 Bulava missiles, with a reported range of 10,000 kilometres (5,400 nmi) and six MIRV warheads. The US is building a replacement for the Ohio class ; however, the first of the class wasn't laid down until October 2020. Ballistic missile submarines have been of great strategic importance for the United States, Russia, and other nuclear powers since they entered service in
3666-414: The army's director of intelligence, the chief of naval intelligence, the assistant chief of Air Staff-2 (air force intelligence), and a representative from the State Department . In November 1945, Operation Overcast was renamed Operation Paperclip by Ordnance Corps officers, who would attach a paperclip to the folders of those rocket experts whom they wished to employ in the United States. The project
3744-471: The command of Captain Second Rank Sergey Yegorov , became the world's only submarine to successfully launch an all-missile salvo , launching 16 R-29RM (RSM-54) ballistic missiles of the total weight of almost 700 tons in 244 seconds (operation code name "Behemoth-2" ). All the missile hit their designated targets at the Kura Missile Test Range in Kamchatka . Several R-29RM were retrofitted as Shtil' carrier rockets to be launched by Delta-class submarines,
3822-492: The continental United States ( CONUS ) at risk. This resulted in only a small percentage of the Soviet force occupying patrol areas at any time, and was a great motivation for longer-range Soviet SLBMs, which would allow them to patrol close to their bases, in areas sometimes referred to as "deep bastions". These missiles were the R-29 Vysota series (SS-N-8, SS-N-18, SS-N-23), equipped on Projects 667B, 667BD, 667BDR, and 667BDRM (Delta-I through Delta-IV classes). The SS-N-8, with
3900-596: The deployment of highly accurate missiles on ultra-quiet submarines allows an attacker to sneak up close to the enemy coast and launch a missile on a depressed trajectory (a non-optimal ballistic trajectory which trades off reduced throw-weight for a faster and lower path, effectively reducing the time between launch and impact), thus opening the possibility of a decapitation strike . Specific types of SLBMs (current, past and under development) include: Some former Russian SLBMs have been converted into Volna and Shtil' launch vehicles to launch satellites – either from
3978-439: The director of the Marshall Space Flight Center in 1960. Von Braun is also a controversial figure for his involvement with the Nazi party and the slave labor involved in developing the V-2 rocket in Germany before it began to be developed in the United States. He became a member of the Nazi party in 1937 and was made a junior SS officer in 1940. In July 1960, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) established
SECTION 50
#17330845806804056-426: The east closer to the American forces, to avoid the advancing Soviet army. A project to halt the research was codenamed "Project Safehaven"; it was not initially targeted against the Soviet Union but addressed the concern that German scientists might emigrate and continue their research in countries that had remained neutral during the war. To avoid the complications involved with the emigration of German scientists,
4134-405: The end of 1982. These were all in the Pacific, and the Guam SSBN base was disestablished; the first several Ohio -class boats used new Trident facilities at Naval Submarine Base Bangor , Washington . Eighteen Ohio -class boats were commissioned by 1997, four of which were converted as cruise missile submarines (SSGN) in the 2000s to comply with START I treaty requirements. The Soviet large SSBN
4212-458: The end of the war, particularly from the Berlin area. The USSR then relocated more than 2,200 Nazi specialists and their families—more than 6,000 people—with Operation Osoaviakhim during one night on October 22, 1946. In a secret directive circulated on September 3, 1946, President Truman officially approved Operation Paperclip and expanded it to include 1,000 German scientists under "temporary, limited military custody". News media revealed
4290-434: The field of astronautics by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA). For their service, three Operation Paperclip members were awarded the Goddard Astronautics Award: Wernher von Braun (1961), Hans von Ohain (1966), and Krafft Arnold Ehricke (1984). The U.S. Space & Rocket Center in Huntsville, Alabama, owns and operates the U.S. Space Camp . Several Operation Paperclip members are members of
4368-425: The first SLBM with a live nuclear warhead, an R-13 that detonated in the Novaya Zemlya Test Range in the Arctic Ocean, doing so on 20 October 1961, just ten days before the gigantic 50 Mt Tsar Bomba 's detonation in the same general area. The United States eventually conducted a similar test in the Pacific Ocean on 6 May 1962, with a Polaris A-2 launched from USS Ethan Allen (SSBN-608) as part of
4446-430: The later part of World War II, Germany was at a logistical disadvantage, having failed to conquer the USSR with Operation Barbarossa (June–December 1941), and its drive for the Caucasus (June 1942 – February 1943). The failed conquest had depleted German resources, and its military–industrial complex was unprepared to defend the Greater Germanic Reich against the Red Army's westward counterattack. By early 1943,
4524-519: The newer R-29RMU Sineva on 23 August 2010. This Russian military article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article relating to missiles is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Submarine-launched ballistic missile A submarine-launched ballistic missile ( SLBM ) is a ballistic missile capable of being launched from submarines . Modern variants usually deliver multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles (MIRVs), each of which carries
4602-470: The ongoing war effort against Japan and to bolster U.S. postwar military research. The operation, conducted by the Joint Intelligence Objectives Agency (JIOA), was largely actioned by special agents of the U.S. Army 's Counterintelligence Corps (CIC). Many selected scientists were involved in the Nazi rocket program, aviation, or chemical/biological warfare. The Soviet Union conducted a similar program, called Operation Osoaviakhim , that emphasized many of
4680-447: The physical chemists Rudolf Brill, Ernst Baars [ de ] , and Eberhard Both; the geophysicist Helmut Weickmann; the optician Gerhard Schwesinger; and the engineers Eduard Gerber, Richard Guenther, and Hans Ziegler . In 1959, 94 Operation Paperclip men went to the United States, including Friedwardt Winterberg and Friedrich Wigand. Overall, through its operations to 1990, Operation Paperclip imported 1,600 men as part of
4758-424: The port of Antwerp, and Great Britain, among many other targets. Roughly five thousand people died in these attacks. The location of V-2 production moved to Mittelwerk in Nordhausen after a British raid on Peenemünde on August 17, 1943. Mittelwerk was supplemented with slave labor from Dora, a nearby concentration camp. Production of the V-2 missile moved to the United States after Wernher von Braun surrendered to
SECTION 60
#17330845806804836-429: The press interviewed several of the scientists later that year. Early on, the United States created the Combined Intelligence Objectives Subcommittee (CIOS). This provided the information on targets for the T-Forces that went in and targeted scientific, military, and industrial installations (and their employees) for their know-how. Initial priorities were advanced technology, such as infrared , that could be used in
4914-505: The program as early as December 1946. On April 26, 1946, the Joint Chiefs of Staff issued directive JCS 1067/14 to General Eisenhower instructing that he "preserve from destruction and take under your control records, plans, books, documents, papers, files and scientific, industrial and other information and data belonging to ... German organizations engaged in military research"; and that, excepting war-criminals , German scientists be detained for intelligence purposes as required. In
4992-408: The same family of weapons. The first practical design of a submarine -based launch platform was developed by the Germans near the end of World War II involving a launch tube which contained a V-2 ballistic missile variant and was towed behind a submarine, known by the code-name Prüfstand XII . The war ended before it could be tested, but the engineers who had worked on it were taken to work for
5070-452: The same fields of research. The operation, characterized by the recruitment of German specialists and their families, relocated more than 6000 experts to the US. It has been valued at US$ 10 billion in patents and industrial processes. Recruits included such notable figures as Wernher von Braun , a leading rocket-technology scientist. Those recruited were instrumental in the development of the U.S. space program and military technology during
5148-562: The scientists were gathered as a part of Operation Overcast, but most were transported to villages in the countryside where there were neither research facilities nor work; they were provided with stipends, and required to report twice weekly to police headquarters to prevent them from leaving. The Joint Chiefs of Staff directive on research and teaching stated that technicians and scientists should be released "only after all interested agencies were satisfied that all desired intelligence information had been obtained from them". On November 5, 1947,
5226-444: The scientists, engineers, and technicians, then ascertaining their political and ideological reliability. Werner Osenberg [ de ] , the engineer-scientist heading the Wehrforschungsgemeinschaft (Defense Research Association), recorded the names of the politically cleared men to the Osenberg List, thus reinstating them to scientific work. In March 1945, at Bonn University , a Polish laboratory technician found pieces of
5304-406: The sites. With two rotating crews per boat, about one-third of the total US force could be in a patrol area at any time. The Soviet bases, in Severomorsk (near Murmansk ) for the Arctic - Atlantic theater in Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky for the Pacific theater, required their SSBNs to make a long transit (e.g., through NATO-monitored waters in the Atlantic) to their mid-ocean patrol areas to hold
5382-461: The submarines being mobile can send a payload directly into a heliosynchronous orbit , notably used by imaging satellites. Outside the confines of the Russian military, this capability has been used commercially to place three out of four microsatellites into a low Earth orbit with one cancellation assigned to the Baikonur Cosmodrome for better financial terms. The last boat carrying R-29RM, K-51 Verkhoturye , went into refit to be rearmed with
5460-771: The town square in Bitterfeld . There is no need to bring winter clothing. Easily carried possessions, such as family documents, jewelry, and the like should be taken along. You will be transported by motor vehicle to the nearest railway station. From there you will travel on to the West. Please tell the bearer of this letter how large your family is. By 1947, this evacuation operation had netted an estimated 1,800 technicians and scientists and 3,700 family members. Those with special skills or knowledge were taken to detention and interrogation centers, such as one code-named " Dustbin " (located first at Chesnay , near Versailles and then moved to Kransberg Castle outside Frankfurt ) to be held and interrogated, in some cases for months. A few of
5538-441: The war against Japan; finding out what technology had been passed on to Japan; and finally to halt research elsewhere. Von Braun and more than a thousand of his colleagues decided to surrender to Americans in 1945. One of the engineers later recalled their options: "We despise the French, we are mortally afraid of the Soviets, we do not believe the British can afford us. So that leaves the Americans." On June 20, 1945, they moved from
5616-477: The world's first operational ballistic missile submarines (SSBs) with two R-11FM missiles each, entering service in 1956–57. The United States Navy initially worked on a sea-based variant of the US Army Jupiter intermediate-range ballistic missile , projecting four of the large, liquid-fueled missiles per submarine. Rear Admiral W. F. "Red" Raborn headed a Special Project Office to develop Jupiter for
5694-561: Was awarded the medal in 1973. The Department of Defense Distinguished Civilian Service Award is the highest civilian award given by the United States Department of Defense . After two decades of service, Nazi member from Operation Paperclip Siegfried Knemeyer was awarded the Department of Defense Distinguished Civilian Service Award in 1966. The Goddard Astronautics Award is the highest honor bestowed for notable achievements in
5772-740: Was born in Lubeck, Germany, in 1902. He graduated from the Carolo Wilhelmina Technical University in Braunschweig and received a Ph.D. in engineering in 1924. In 1925, the Max-Planck Institute invited him to become an official aeronautical research scientist, and in 1930, he became a professor at Georgia Augusta University in Goettingen. Busemann spent many years working for the German government, most notably directing research at
5850-454: Was converted to use Trident II by the early 2000s. Trident II offered a range of over 8,000 kilometres (4,300 nmi) with eight larger MIRV warheads than Trident I. When the USS ; Ohio (SSBN-726) commenced sea trials in 1980, two of the first ten US SSBNs had their missiles removed to comply with SALT treaty requirements; the remaining eight were converted to attack submarines (SSN) by
5928-455: Was not initially targeted against the Soviet Union; rather the concern was that German scientists might emigrate and continue their research in countries that remained neutral during the war. Much U.S. effort was focused on Saxony and Thuringia , which on July 1, 1945, became part of the Soviet occupation zone . Many German research facilities and personnel had been evacuated to these states before
6006-487: Was only to interview the scientists, but what he learned changed the operation's purpose. On May 22, 1945, he transmitted to the U.S. Department of War Colonel Joel Holmes' telegram urging the evacuation to America of 100 of the 400 German scientists in his custody, as most "important for [the] Pacific war " effort. Most of the Osenberg List engineers worked at the Baltic coast German Army Research Center Peenemünde , developing
6084-597: Was the Project 941 Akula , famous as the Typhoon-class (and not to be confused with the Project 971 Shchuka attack submarine , called "Akula" by NATO). The Typhoons were the largest submarines ever built at 48,000 tons submerged. They were armed with 20 of the new R-39 Rif (SS-N-20) missiles with a range of 8,300 kilometres (4,500 nmi) and 10 MIRV warheads. Six Typhoons were commissioned in 1981–89. New SSBN construction terminated for over 10 years in Russia and slowed in
#679320