Misplaced Pages

#189810

67-552: Because the quokka host primarily lives on isolated islands in Western Australia , the range of the virus is limited as well. It was first described in 1972 from samples taken on Rottnest Island . This virus -related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This veterinary medicine –related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Quokka The quokka ( / ˈ k w ɒ k ə / ) ( Setonix brachyurus )

134-654: A Body Corporate on 24 July 1956. The Rottnest Island Board of Control became the Rottnest Island Board of Management "with power to sue and be sued in its corporate name, to acquire, hold, lease and dispose of real and personal property, to borrow money with the approval of the Governor and to do and permit to be done all things which are required by the Act to the be done by the Board ;...", until 1988 at which time it became

201-513: A female quokka with a joey in her pouch is pursued by a predator, she may drop her baby onto the ground; the joey produces noises which may serve to attract the predator's attention, while the mother escapes. The word "quokka" is originally derived from a Noongar word, which was probably gwaga . Today, the Noongar people refer to them as ban-gup, bungeup and quak –a. In 1658, Dutch mariner Samuel Volckertszoon wrote of sighting "a wild cat" on

268-509: A few dozen cases annually of quokkas biting people, especially children. There are restrictions regarding feeding. It is illegal for members of the public to handle the animals in any way, and feeding, particularly of "human food", is especially discouraged, as they can easily get sick. An infringement notice carrying a $ 300 fine can be issued by the Rottnest Island Authority for such an offence. The maximum penalty for animal cruelty

335-400: A good deal of brushwood and many thornbushes, so that it is hard to go over; here certain animals are found, since we saw many excrements, and besides two seals and a wild cat, resembling a civet-cat, but with browner hair. This island is dangerous to touch at, owing to the rocky reefs which are level with the water and below the surface, almost along the whole length of the shore; between it and

402-481: A new hospital to be built for the Indigenous prisoners. In May 1898, two boys disappeared, apparently drowned, after escaping from the reformatory and stealing a dinghy. After 20 years of operation, the facility closed on 21 September 1901 when the remaining 14 inmates were transferred to an industrial school on the mainland. The reformatory buildings were used as holiday accommodation as part of

469-423: A popular social media trend, with celebrities such as Chris Hemsworth , Shawn Mendes , Margot Robbie , Roger Federer and Kim Donghyuk of iKON taking part in the activity. Tourist numbers to Rottnest Island have subsequently increased. Rottnest Island Rottnest Island ( Nyungar : Wadjemup ), often colloquially referred to as "Rotto", is a 19-square-kilometre (7.3 sq mi) island off

536-414: A prison and forced labour camp for over 3,600 Aboriginal people, who were subjected to extremely harsh conditions on the island. Other historical uses of the island include as a military site, and for internment camps housing enemy aliens. Many of the island's buildings date from the colonial period, often made from locally quarried limestone, and are now used as accommodation for holidays. Rottnest

603-444: A promiscuous mating system . After a month of gestation, females give birth to a single baby called a joey. Females can give birth twice a year and produce about 17 joeys during their lifespan. The joey lives in its mother's pouch for six months. Once it leaves the pouch, the joey relies on its mother for milk for two more months and is fully weaned around eight months after birth. Females sexually mature after roughly 18 months. When

670-407: A protected area of Two Peoples Bay Nature Reserve , where they co-exist with the critically endangered Gilbert's potoroo . A quokka weighs 2.5 to 5.0 kg ( 5 + 1 ⁄ 2 to 11 lb) and is 40 to 54 cm (16 to 21 in) long with a 25-to-30 cm-long (9.8-to-12 in) tail, which is quite short for a macropod. It has a stocky build, well developed hind legs, rounded ears, and

737-421: A severe influenza epidemic in 1883, the colonial surgeon, Alfred Waylen , directed one of the large rooms in the reformatory to be used as a hospital. An estimate of sixty Indigenous deaths for that year was given by eye-witness, Edward Watson. In 1887, the prison superintendent reported one room in the reformatory still being used for sick prisoners, with two rooms used the previous winter, and made an appeal for

SECTION 10

#1733085024190

804-489: A short, broad head. Although looking rather like a very small kangaroo, it can climb small trees and shrubs up to 1.5 metres (4 ft 11 in). Its coarse fur is a grizzled brown colour, fading to buff underneath. The quokka is known to live for an average of 10 years. Quokkas are nocturnal animals; they sleep during the day in Acanthocarpus preissii , using the plants' spikes for protection and hiding. Quokkas have

871-451: A small shrub species of the family Malvaceae , is one of the quokka's favoured foods. Rottnest Island visitors are urged to never feed quokkas, in part because eating "human food" such as chips can cause dehydration and malnourishment, both of which are detrimental to the quokka's health. Despite the relative lack of fresh water on Rottnest Island, quokkas do have high water requirements, which they satisfy mostly through eating vegetation. On

938-459: A spot to pitch tents. A reformatory for boys was opened on 16 May 1881. The reformatory buildings were adjacent to the Quod and included a workshop, a kitchen, two large dormitories, a school room and four small cells. Carpenter John Watson constructed the buildings and became the superintendent for the life of the establishment. Watson taught the boys carpentry, joinery and gardening. During

1005-476: A very significant fire which consumed around two-thirds of the island in 1955. Some of these bushfires were caused by European hunting parties and on one occasion almost wiped out the quokka population. In 1846, a pilot service was established under Captain Edward Back. It continued for 56 years until 1903. The pilot's and crews quarters were located in at least three of the colonial buildings identified in

1072-585: Is a $ 50,000 fine and a five-year prison sentence. In addition to restrictions on human interactions with quokkas, they have been tested to be potentially harmful to humans with their high salmonella infection rates, especially in the summer heat. This has been proven and experimented by scientists who have taken blood tests on wild quokkas on Rottnest Island. Quokkas can also be observed at several zoos and wildlife parks around Australia, including Perth Zoo , Taronga Zoo , Wild Life Sydney , Adelaide Zoo , and Caversham Wildlife Park . Physical interaction

1139-588: Is a small macropod about the size of a domestic cat . It is the only member of the genus Setonix . Like other marsupials in the macropod family (such as kangaroos and wallabies ), the quokka is herbivorous and mainly nocturnal . The quokka's range is a small area of southwestern Australia . They inhabit some smaller islands off the coast of Western Australia , particularly Rottnest Island just off Perth and Bald Island near Albany . Isolated, scattered populations also exist in forest and coastal heath between Perth and Albany. A small colony inhabits

1206-502: Is an unincorporated area with no local government, subject to direct administration by the government of Western Australia. It is administered by the state's Rottnest Island Authority , which on 1 July 2017 became part of the newly created Department of Biodiversity, Conservation and Attractions . Rottnest is well known for its population of quokkas, and is also home to colonies of Australian sea lions and southern fur seals, as well as various birds and three native tree species, notably

1273-478: Is generally not permitted without explicit permission from supervising staff. Quokka behaviour in response to human interaction has been examined in zoo environments. One brief study indicated fewer animals remained visible from the visitor paths when the enclosure was an open or walk-through environment. This may have been due to the quokkas acquiring avoidance behaviour of visitors, which the authors propose has implications for stress management in their exhibition to

1340-733: Is the largest known deaths in custody gravesite in Australia. Historical records note that the first cemetery, likely adjacent to the European cemetery, became full following an outbreak of influenza in 1883 and that a second was established further away from the prison. The area is now known as the Wadjemup Aboriginal Burial Ground. Although slavery, as legally defined, was never widespread in Western Australia (and, indeed, called blackbirding rather than plain slavery in

1407-480: Is thought to have been unoccupied for thousands of years. The island was observed and explored by various Dutch, French and English maritime expeditions from around 1619 onward, including by Frederick de Houtman around 28 July 1619. The first Europeans known to have landed on Rottnest Island were about 14 sailors from a Dutch expedition, including Abraham Leeman van Santwits from Waeckende Boey , who landed near Bathurst Point on 19 March 1658 while their ship

SECTION 20

#1733085024190

1474-627: The Rottnest Island pine . The island is a popular recreational and tourist destination, with daily ferry services from Perth , the state's capital and largest city. It has a permanent population of around 300 people, with around 780,000 annual visitors. The land that is now Rottnest Island was inhabited by Noongar people until rising sea levels separated it from the mainland of Western Australia about 7,000 years ago. The island features in Noongar story lines as Wadjemup. Aboriginal artefacts on

1541-421: The colonial buildings of Rottnest Island —buildings 4, 5 and 6. Rottnest was the site of internment camps in both World War I and World War II In World War I, it was mostly used for German and Austrian suspected enemy aliens, and was closed towards the end of the war, due to poor living conditions. The camp was sited near the present-day Caroline Thomson Camping Area. In World War II,

1608-520: The pearling industry ), the "assignment" system effectively implemented a system of forced labour, and was condemned by Reverend J. B. Gribble and the Anti-Slavery Society . Aboriginal people who refused assignment were sent to Rottnest Island to be "civilised", and were used in chain gangs to perform hard labour including farming, quarrying and collecting salt. Most of the island's historic Settlement—including Government House (Hotel Rottnest),

1675-736: The 1970s in South West of Western Australia. With climate change limiting the optimal living conditions of the quokka and changing the abundance of their diet, the quokka are listed as vulnerable on the IUCN Red List of threatened species. The increasing risk of severe bushfires presents a serious risk to quokkas, as quokka populations have a slow recovery rate after bushfires and take a long time to recolonise intensely burnt landscapes. Quokkas have little fear of humans and commonly approach people closely, particularly on Rottnest Island, where they are abundant. Though quokkas are approachable, there are

1742-515: The 20th century, the quokka's distribution on the mainland had been reduced by more than 50% to an area of about 17,800 km (6,900 sq mi). Despite being numerous on the small, offshore islands, the quokka is classified as vulnerable. On the mainland, where it is threatened by introduced predatory species such as red foxes, cats, and dogs, it requires dense ground cover for refuge. Clearfell logging , agricultural development, and housing expansion have reduced their habitat, contributing to

1809-577: The Fremantle port. The location of the island was seen as being important to the defense of the important port of Fremantle, the major base for the Allies in the Indian Ocean, as bombardment of any attacking ships could be made from the island before the ships would come into range of the port. A light railway was built from the jetty at Kingstown Barracks on Thomson Bay, to transport materiel and munitions to

1876-487: The Parks and Reserves Act to control and manage the island (excluding the lighthouse and prison reserve). The Board of Control became a Body Corporate in 1956 and became a Board of Management. Between 24 July 1956 and 29 May 1988, it was changed to the "Board of Management". Section 3, subsection 4 of the Parks and Reserves Act 1895–1955 provided legislative scope for the Rottnest Island Board of Control became

1943-556: The Rottnest Island Authority. During this time the managing instrumentality was informally and generally referred to as the "Rottnest Island Board" (RIB). In 1988 the "Rottnest Island Authority" commenced operations. In May 1966, Rottnest Island and Carnac Island were included in the boundaries of the Shire of Cockburn, which became the City of Cockburn in 1971. However, the council has "no involvement in or responsibility for any functions relating to

2010-476: The Rottnest Lodge until 2022 when they were closed for redevelopment of more recently constructed parts of the site to create new accommodation and tourist facilities. In 1856, the settlement structures—the two-storey prison / workshop building, stables, barns and piggery were burnt down. Their former locations are identified in the area between the shops in the settlement area. The fire was deliberately lit by

2077-442: The camp was used exclusively for Italian enemy aliens and was situated near the airstrip. It had capacity for 120 internees. It was closed about halfway through the war, and its occupants were sent to various other internment and work camps on the mainland. Also during World War II, two 9.2-inch guns were installed near the middle of the island at Oliver Hill, and two six-inch guns installed at Bickley Point, for defence of

Quokkapox virus - Misplaced Pages Continue

2144-562: The church, Salt Store, museum, gift shop, original waterfront cottages and The Quod—was built by forced Aboriginal prison labour working under extremely harsh conditions. Six Aboriginal prisoners were sent to Rottnest Island in August 1838 under the superintendence of Constable Laurence Welch and a small military force: Helia, for murder; Buoyeen, for assault; Molly Dobbin, Tyoocan, Goodap and Cogat, for theft. All six escaped shortly after their arrival by stealing Thomson's boat. Helia drowned during

2211-553: The climate continues to change so does the Australian landscape; being herbivores, the quokka rely on many native plants for their diet as well as protection. The quokka were found to prefer malvaceae species as a main source of food, using shrubs as shelter during the hottest points of the day. Due to factors such as wildfires and anthropogenic influence, the location of the natural flora has been changing making it harder for them to access. Invasive species and environmental changes are

2278-411: The coast of Western Australia , located 18 kilometres (11 mi) west of Fremantle . A sandy, low-lying island formed on a base of aeolianite limestone , Rottnest is an A-class reserve, the highest level of protection afforded to public land . Together with Garden Island , Rottnest Island is a remnant of Pleistocene dune ridges. Along with several other islands, Rottnest became separated from

2345-562: The crossing, but the others apparently survived. The Colonial Secretary, Peter Broun , announced in June 1839 that the island would be converted to "an Establishment for the Aborigines", and between 1838 and 1931 (except for the period from 1849 to 1855) Rottnest was used as an Aboriginal prison. Henry Vincent , the Gaoler at Fremantle, was put in charge of the establishment. On 7 December 1848, there

2412-620: The deaths were from influenza . In 2015—after numerous protests from local Aboriginal people for the Rottnest Island Authority to create a memorial recognising the events, deaths and unmarked graves which lie on Rottnest Island—work begun on the Wadjemup Aboriginal Burial Ground . Artefacts from this period continue to be identified and recorded. Len Collard describes these artefacts, such as glass and ceramic spearheads, as an important demonstration of transitional cultural engineering through use of traditional methods to modify

2479-442: The decline of the species, as has the clearing and burning of the remaining swamplands. Moreover, quokkas usually have a litter size of one and successfully rear one young each year. Although they are constantly mating, usually one day after the young are born, the small litter size, along with the restricted space and threatening predators, contributes to the scarcity of the species on the mainland. An estimated 4,000 quokkas live on

2546-473: The establishment of the British Swan River Colony at nearby Fremantle , William Clarke and Robert Thomson received land grants for town lots and pasture land on the island. Thomson immediately moved to the island with his wife and eight children. He developed pasture land for hay production west of Herschel Lake as well as salt harvesting from the several salt lakes which was then exported to

2613-404: The guns and infrastructure were decommissioned and parts of the railway removed. The 9.2-inch battery, however, was saved from disposal because the high cost of removing and shipping the guns to the mainland exceeded their value as scrap metal. In the 1990s, the gun emplacements and railway were extensively reconstructed, and since then a popular tourist activity has included a tour of the guns and

2680-463: The guns. Captain (later Brigadier) Frank Bertram Hussey (1908–1985) was seconded from the Australian Staff Corps to oversee the construction of this. The military fixtures including the barracks and railway became known as the "Rottnest Island Fortress". A number of concrete lookouts and bunkers were built around the island also. Near Wadjemup Lighthouse , a Battery Observation Post (BOP)

2747-460: The island have been dated from 6,500 to more than 30,000 years ago. However, other evidence suggests human occupation significantly before 50,000, possibly as early as 70,000  BP . No evidence has been found that the Whadjuk Noongar people continued to inhabit or visit the island after its separation from the mainland, and by the time of European exploration in the 1600s, the island

Quokkapox virus - Misplaced Pages Continue

2814-558: The island. In 1696, Dutch explorer Willem de Vlamingh mistook them for giant rats, and renamed the Wadjemup island 't Eylandt 't Rottenest , which means "the rat nest island" in Dutch. Vlamingh had originally described them "as a kind of rat as big as a common cat". On the mainland, quokkas prefer areas with more vegetation, both for a wider variety of food and also for cover from predators such as dingoes , red foxes , and feral cats . In

2881-407: The mainland around 7,000 years ago, when sea levels rose; the traditional Noongar name for the island is Wadjemup , which means 'place across the water where the spirits are'. Human artefacts have been found on the island dating back at least 30,000 years, but visitation and habitation of the island by the Noongar people appears to have ceased following its separation from the mainland. The island

2948-411: The mainland settlement. Salt was an important commodity before the advent of refrigeration. Between 1838 and 1931, Aboriginal prisoners held on Rottnest Island were held in deplorable conditions and subjected to cruel and inhumane treatment. Of the approximately 3,600 people imprisoned there, at least 373 people died and were buried in unmarked graves in at least two areas to the north of the Quod. It

3015-748: The mainland there are also numerous rocks and reefs, and slightly more to southward there is another small island. This large island to which we have been unwilling to give a name, leaving this matter to the Honourable Lord Governor-General's pleasure, may be seen at 7 or 8 miles' distance out at sea in fine weather. I surmise that brackish or freshwater might be obtainable there, and likewise good firewood, but not without great trouble. In his 1681 chart, English captain John Daniel marked an island as Maiden's Isle , possibly referring to Rottnest. The name did not survive, however. The island

3082-468: The mainland, quokkas only live in areas that have 600 mm (24 in) or more of rain per year. The quokkas chew their cud , similar to cows. At the time of colonial settlement, the quokka was widespread and abundant, with its distribution encompassing an area of about 41,200 km (15,900 sq mi) of the South West of Western Australia, including the two offshore islands, Bald and Rottnest. By 1992, following extensive population declines in

3149-450: The mainland, with nearly all mainland populations being groups of fewer than 50, although one declining group of over 700 occurs in the southern forest between Nannup and Denmark . In 2015, an extensive bushfire near Northcliffe nearly eradicated one of the local mainland populations, with an estimated 90% of the 500 quokkas dying. In 2007, the quokka population on Rottnest Island was estimated at between 8,000 and 12,000. Snakes are

3216-417: The new materials of European settlement. Five Aboriginal prisoners were executed on Rottnest in the late 19th century, all for murder: In 2015 the restoration and recognition of the Wadjemup Aboriginal Burial Ground began. As of June 2016 buildings have been removed from the site and pathway constructed around it. Prior to the closure of the tourist camp in 2018, the burial ground was being using as

3283-420: The northern side of the island, near The Basin. He described the island as "...pleasurable above all islands I have ever seen—a paradise on earth". During their time on the island, they found no people. Holes were dug on the island, yielding water of good drinking quality. They also noted that the wood from the trees on the island had an exquisite scent—akin to rosewood —and a quantity was cut and brought on board

3350-488: The primary threats to quokkas. A study found that the mainland populations prefer to live in areas with an average rainfall that exceeded 700 mm but fell below 1000 mm, which becomes increasingly complicated as aridity continues to increase in South west Australia . Increasing temperatures have also been found to play an important role in the distribution of the quokka as the mean annual temperatures have increased exponentially since

3417-413: The prison was announced. At that time, there were 33 Aboriginal prisoners serving sentences there. However, the prison continued to be used as a forced labour camp for Aboriginal prisoners until 1931. Some 3,700 Aboriginal men and boys were imprisoned there during the life of the establishment. There may be as many as 369 inmates' graves on the island; one writer has suggested that 95% of

SECTION 50

#1733085024190

3484-406: The public. In the mid-2010s, quokkas earned a reputation on the internet as "the world's happiest animals" and symbols of positivity, as frontal photos of their faces make them appear to be smiling (they do not, in fact "smile" in the human sense; this can be attributed to their natural facial structures). Many photos of smiling quokkas have since gone viral , and the "quokka selfie " has become

3551-410: The quokka's only predator on the island. The population on smaller Bald Island, where the quokka has no predators, is 600–1,000. At the end of summer and into autumn, a seasonal decline of quokkas occurs on Rottnest Island, where loss of vegetation and reduction of available surface water can lead to starvation. This species saw the most significant decline from 1930 to the 1990s, when their distribution

3618-514: The roof of Vincent's kitchen and proceeded to the salt house, through the window of which they got out a dinghy which was confined there. They then went to the pilot's whaleboat moored a short distance offshore, and succeeded in getting to the mainland 16 kilometres (10 mi) north of Fremantle. Five of the escapees were retaken by J. Drummond at Toodyay . A quadrangular building was constructed in 1863–1864 and generally referred to as "the Quod "; it

3685-587: The ship. Other explorers who stopped at the island included members of the French expedition of Nicholas Baudin in Naturaliste and Geographe in 1801 (when he planted a flag and left a bottle with a letter) and 1803, Phillip Parker King in 1822, and Captain James Stirling in 1827. Early visitors commonly reported that much of the island was heavily wooded, which is not the case today. In 1831, shortly after

3752-555: The superintendent, Henry Vincent, after two prisoners had escaped into nearby bush. Vincent lit the fire with the intent of flushing the prisoners out of their hiding place. The prevailing winds at the time were blowing away from the buildings; however, the wind changed direction which brought the flames into the settlement. About 50 tons of hay was also destroyed. Major bushfires occurred in March ;1894, January 1910, January 1917, March 1939, February 1949, and

3819-420: The tunnels, with the journey to the battery being made on a purpose-built train from Kingstown Barracks. Prior to about 1880, communication with the mainland was primarily with semaphore flags and flares . A staffed lookout at Bathurst Point included a signalling station which relayed shipping information between Wadjemup Lighthouse at the centre of the island and Arthur Head at Fremantle. A heliograph

3886-880: The wild, the quokka's range is restricted to a very small range in the South West of Western Australia, with a number of small scattered populations. One large population exists on Rottnest Island and a smaller population is on Bald Island near Albany . These islands are free of the aforementioned predators. On Rottnest, quokkas are common and occupy a variety of habitats , ranging from semiarid scrub to cultivated gardens. Prickly Acanthocarpus plants, which are unaccommodating for humans and other relatively large animals to walk through, provide their favourite daytime shelter for sleeping. Additionally, they are known for their ability to climb trees. Like most macropods, quokkas eat many types of vegetation, including grasses, sedges and leaves. A study found that Guichenotia ledifolia ,

3953-529: Was careened nearby. Waeckende Boey (under command of Samuel Volkersen ) had been searching for survivors of Vergulde Draeck , which had been wrecked off the western coast of Australia in April 1656. Volkersen described the island in his journal: In slightly under 32° S. Lat. there is a large island, at about 3 miles' distance from the mainland of the South-land ; this island has high mountains, with

4020-442: Was another escape by Aboriginal prisoners, with eight out of the 10 prisoners then on the island escaping. Those who escaped came from the north and eastward. "The plan of escape, as related by one of themselves, exhibits considerable foresight and sagacity, being not only well conceived, but as well executed". The Aboriginals burrowed under the sill door until there was room for them to all pass underneath. They all then crept over

4087-520: Was built as a lookout to coordinate aiming and firings from the Bickley and Oliver Hill Batteries. A Signals Building, associated with the BOP and a Women's Army Barracks, built to house officers and staff who operated the BOP were constructed there also. The latter building is used nowadays for occasional accommodation for University and other scientific research groups working on the island. After World War II,

SECTION 60

#1733085024190

4154-513: Was first documented by Willem de Vlamingh in 1696, who called it ' t Eylandt 't Rottenest ("Rats' Nest Island") after the quokka population. Following establishment of the Swan River Colony (now Perth) in 1829, the island was initially used by British settlers for agricultural purposes, and a permanent settlement was built in Thomson Bay. From 1838 to 1931, Rottnest Island was also used as

4221-468: Was given the name ' t Eylandt 't Rottenest ('Rats' Nest Island'; the quokkas were mistaken for large rats ) by Dutch captain Willem de Vlamingh , who spent six days exploring the island from 29 December 1696. De Vlamingh led a fleet of three ships, De Geelvink , De Nijptang and Weseltje , searching for the survivors of Ridderschap van Holland that had gone missing two years earlier, and anchored on

4288-402: Was installed in 1879 at Signal Hill, the small rise overlooking the main settlement in Thomson Bay. A Frenchman by the name of Henri Courderot was the heliograph operator and was paid $ 10 per year to operate the service once a day weather permitting. A single circuit submarine communications cable was laid from Cottesloe in 1900, after which the heliograph service was discontinued. This

4355-506: Was reduced by over half. The quokka markedly declined in its abundance and distribution in the early 1930s, and this tendency has continued till today. Their presence on the mainland has declined to such an extent that they are only found in small groups in bushland surrounding Perth. The quokka is now listed as vulnerable in accordance with the IUCN criteria. The quokka, while not in complete danger of going extinct, are considered threatened. As

4422-539: Was replaced with a larger cable in 1935. After Rottnest was proclaimed as an A-class Reserve in 1917, management was vested in the "Rottnest Island Board of Control" which continued until 1956. The first chairman was Hal Colebatch , who served from 13 May 1917 to 23 July 1956. Rottnest Island was declared an A class reserve under the Permanent Reserves Act in May ;1917. A Board was then appointed under

4489-405: Was used for tourist accommodation until 2018, when it was closed after decades of protests by Aboriginal people. There were about twenty prisoners there in 1844; by 1880, there were 170. Vincent retired in 1867 after complaints regarding cruelty to prisoners; he was replaced by William Jackson. In the early 1880s, an influenza epidemic struck, killing about sixty inmates. In 1902, the abolition of

#189810