Progressive education , or educational progressivism , is a pedagogical movement that began in the late 19th century and has persisted in various forms to the present. In Europe, progressive education took the form of the New Education Movement . The term progressive was engaged to distinguish this education from the traditional curricula of the 19th century, which was rooted in classical preparation for the early-industrial university and strongly differentiated by social class . By contrast, progressive education finds its roots in modern, post-industrial experience . Most progressive education programs have these qualities in common:
135-554: The Quincy Method , also known as the Quincy Plan , or the Quincy system of learning, was a child-centered, progressive approach to education developed by Francis W. Parker , then superintendent of schools in Quincy, Massachusetts , United States, in 1875. Parker, a pioneer of the progressive school movement , rejected the traditional rigid school routine, exemplified by rote learning and
270-413: A set of essential features common to all. Some education theorists, such as Keira Sewell and Stephen Newman, argue that the term "education" is context-dependent. Evaluative or thick conceptions of education assert that it is inherent in the nature of education to lead to some form of improvement. They contrast with thin conceptions, which offer a value-neutral explanation. Some theorists provide
405-617: A Montessori Conference recognising her inspiration, reports italicized the members of the Montessori Society in the delegate lists, and numerous further events included Montessori methods and case studies. Montessori, through New Ideals in Education, its committee and members, events and publications, greatly influenced progressive state education in England. (references to be added). In July 1906, Ernest Thompson Seton sent Robert Baden-Powell
540-562: A bachelor's degree. Master's level education is more specialized than undergraduate education and often involves independent research, normally in the form of a master's thesis. Doctoral level education leads to an advanced research qualification, usually a doctor's degree, such as a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD). It usually involves the submission of a substantial academic work, such as a dissertation . More advanced levels include post-doctoral studies and habilitation . Successful completion of formal education typically leads to certification,
675-451: A balance of positive and negative feedback through praise and constructive criticism. Intelligence significantly influences individuals' responses to education. It is a cognitive trait associated with the capacity to learn from experience, comprehend, and apply knowledge and skills to solve problems. Individuals with higher scores in intelligence metrics typically perform better academically and pursue higher levels of education. Intelligence
810-502: A child to lead to a consciousness of social responsibility, Herbart advocated that teachers utilize a methodology with five formal steps: "Using this structure a teacher prepared a topic of interest to the children, presented that topic, and questioned them inductively, so that they reached new knowledge based on what they had already known, looked back, and deductively summed up the lesson's achievements, then related them to moral precepts for daily living". John Melchior Bosco (1815–1888)
945-885: A child's ethnicity. Historically, gender has played a pivotal role in education as societal norms dictated distinct roles for men and women. Education traditionally favored men, who were tasked with providing for the family, while women were expected to manage households and care for children, often limiting their access to education. Although these disparities have improved in many modern societies, gender differences persist in education . This includes biases and stereotypes related to gender roles in various academic domains, notably in fields such as science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM), which are often portrayed as male-dominated. Such perceptions can deter female students from pursuing these subjects. In various instances, discrimination based on gender and social factors occurs openly as part of official educational policies, such as
1080-475: A command of fundamental processes, worthy home membership, vocation, citizenship, worthy use of leisure, and ethical character. They emphasized life adjustment and reflected the social efficiency model of progressive education. From 1919 to 1955, the Progressive Education Association founded by Stanwood Cobb and others worked to promote a more student-centered approach to education. During
1215-429: A comprehensive and well-rounded education, while vocational training focuses more on specific practical skills within a field. The curricula also cover various aspects besides the topic to be discussed, such as the teaching method, the objectives to be reached, and the standards for assessing progress. By determining the curricula, governmental institutions have a strong impact on what knowledge and skills are transmitted to
1350-605: A copy of his book The Birchbark Roll of the Woodcraft Indians . Seton was a British-born Canadian-American living in the United States. They shared ideas about youth training programs. In 1907 Baden-Powell wrote a draft called Boy Patrols . In the same year, to test his ideas, he gathered 21 boys of mixed social backgrounds and held a week-long camp in August on Brownsea Island in England. His organizational method, now known as
1485-511: A descriptive conception of education by observing how the term is commonly used in ordinary language . Prescriptive conceptions, on the other hand, define what constitutes good education or how education should be practiced. Many thick and prescriptive conceptions view education as an endeavor that strives to achieve specific objectives , which may encompass acquiring knowledge, learning to think rationally , and cultivating character traits such as kindness and honesty. Various scholars emphasize
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#17330852209931620-551: A dish together. Some theorists differentiate between the three types based on the learning environment: formal education occurs within schools , non-formal education takes place in settings not regularly frequented, such as museums, and informal education unfolds in the context of everyday routines. Additionally, there are disparities in the source of motivation. Formal education tends to be propelled by extrinsic motivation , driven by external rewards. Conversely, in non-formal and informal education, intrinsic motivation, stemming from
1755-443: A government report on Montessori. The conference decided that its remit was to promote the 'liberation of the child in the school', and though inspired by Montessori, would encourage, support and network teachers and educationalists who sought, through their schools and methods, that aim. They changed their name the following year to New Ideals in Education. Each subsequent conference was opened with reference to its history and origin as
1890-495: A hierarchical structure, with the attainment of earlier levels serving as a prerequisite for higher ones. Short-cycle tertiary education concentrates on practical aspects, providing advanced vocational and professional training tailored to specialized professions. Bachelor's level education, also known as undergraduate education , is typically longer than short-cycle tertiary education. It is commonly offered by universities and culminates in an intermediary academic credential known as
2025-529: A laboratory, a place where students are working, furnished and equipped as work spaces, tailored to meet the requirements of specific subjects. Useful and attractive learning materials, instruments and reference books were put within the students' reach. The benches were replaced by large tables to facilitate co-operation and group instruction. This second experiment formed the basis for the next experiments, those in Dalton and New York, from 1919 onwards. The only addition
2160-509: A later experiment in 1911 and 1912, Parkhurst re-organized the education in a large school for nine- to fourteen-year-olds. Instead of each grade, each subject was appointed its own teacher and its own classroom. The subject teachers made assignments: they converted the subject matter for each grade into learning assignments. In this way, learning became the students' own work; they could carry out their work independently, work at their own pace and plan their work themselves. The classroom turned into
2295-640: A low cost. Conversely, in nations like the United States and Singapore, tertiary education often comes with high tuition fees , leading students to rely on substantial loans to finance their studies. High education costs can pose a significant barrier for students in developing countries , as their families may struggle to cover school fees, purchase uniforms, and buy textbooks. The academic literature explores various types of education, including traditional and alternative approaches. Traditional education encompasses long-standing and conventional schooling methods, characterized by teacher-centered instruction within
2430-540: A more inclusive and emotionally supportive environment. This category encompasses various forms, such as charter schools and specialized programs catering to challenging or exceptionally talented students, alongside homeschooling and unschooling . Alternative education incorporates diverse educational philosophies, including Montessori schools , Waldorf education , Round Square schools , Escuela Nueva schools , free schools, and democratic schools . Alternative education encompasses indigenous education , which emphasizes
2565-603: A more individual level, education fosters personal development , encompassing learning new skills, honing talents , nurturing creativity , enhancing self-knowledge , and refining problem-solving and decision-making abilities. Moreover, education contributes positively to health and well-being. Educated individuals are often better informed about health issues and adjust their behavior accordingly, benefit from stronger social support networks and coping strategies , and enjoy higher incomes, granting them access to superior healthcare services . The social significance of education
2700-706: A more sustainable and equitable world. Thus, education not only serves to maintain societal norms but also acts as a catalyst for social development . This extends to evolving economic circumstances, where technological advancements, notably increased automation , impose new demands on the workforce that education can help meet. As circumstances evolve, skills and knowledge taught may become outdated, necessitating curriculum adjustments to include subjects like digital literacy , and promote proficiency in handling new technologies. Moreover, education can embrace innovative forms such as massive open online courses to prepare individuals for emerging challenges and opportunities. On
2835-464: A mutual-fund society (an early version of the Grameen Bank ) to teach them the benefits of saving and self-reliance. The principles underlying his educational method that won over the hearts and minds of thousands of youth who flocked to his oratory were: 'be reasonable', 'be kind', 'believe' and 'be generous in service'. Today his method of education is practiced in nearly 3000 institutions set up around
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#17330852209932970-410: A pivotal role in democracies by enhancing civic participation through voting and organizing, while also promoting equal opportunities for all. On an economic level, individuals become productive members of society through education, acquiring the technical and analytical skills necessary for their professions, as well as for producing goods and providing services to others. In early societies, there
3105-438: A pivotal role in equipping a country to adapt to changes and effectively confront new challenges. It raises awareness and contributes to addressing contemporary global issues , including climate change , sustainability , and the widening disparities between the rich and the poor. By instilling in students an understanding of how their lives and actions impact others, education can inspire individuals to strive towards realizing
3240-1379: A pivotal role in policy-making endeavors aimed at mitigating their impact. Socioeconomic status is influenced by factors beyond just income , including financial security , social status , social class , and various attributes related to quality of life . Low socioeconomic status impacts educational success in several ways. It correlates with slower cognitive development in language and memory, as well as higher dropout rates. Families with limited financial means may struggle to meet their children's basic nutritional needs, hindering their development. Additionally, they may lack resources to invest in educational materials such as stimulating toys, books, and computers. Financial constraints may also prevent attendance at prestigious schools, leading to enrollment in institutions located in economically disadvantaged areas. Such schools often face challenges such as teacher shortages and inadequate educational materials and facilities like libraries, resulting in lower teaching standards. Moreover, parents may be unable to afford private lessons for children falling behind academically. In some cases, students from economically disadvantaged backgrounds are compelled to drop out of school to contribute to family income. Limited access to information about higher education and challenges in securing and repaying student loans further exacerbate
3375-481: A popular form of homeschooling . Maria Montessori (1870–1952) began to develop her philosophy and methods in 1897. She based her work on her observations of children and experimentation with the environment, materials, and lessons available to them. She frequently referred to her work as "scientific pedagogy", arguing for the need to go beyond observation and measurement of students, to developing new methods to transform them. Although Montessori education spread to
3510-511: A prerequisite for advancing to higher levels of education and entering certain professions . Undetected cheating during exams, such as utilizing a cheat sheet , poses a threat to this system by potentially certifying unqualified students. In most countries, primary and secondary education is provided free of charge. However, there are significant global disparities in the cost of tertiary education. Some countries, such as Sweden, Finland, Poland, and Mexico, offer tertiary education for free or at
3645-551: A socially useful need. Like Dewey he also felt that students should be actively engaged in their learning rather than actively disengaged with the simple reading and regurgitation of material. The most famous early practitioner of progressive education was Francis Parker ; its best-known spokesperson was the philosopher John Dewey . In 1875 Francis Parker became superintendent of schools in Quincy, Massachusetts , after spending two years in Germany studying emerging educational trends on
3780-701: A stable society by imparting fundamental skills necessary for interacting with the environment and fulfilling individual needs and aspirations. In contemporary society, these skills encompass speaking, reading, writing, arithmetic , and proficiency in information and communications technology . Additionally, education facilitates socialization by instilling awareness of dominant social and cultural norms , shaping appropriate behavior across diverse contexts. It fosters social cohesion , stability, and peace, fostering productive engagement in daily activities. While socialization occurs throughout life, early childhood education holds particular significance. Moreover, education plays
3915-540: A structured school environment. Regulations govern various aspects, such as the curriculum and class schedules. Alternative education serves as an umbrella term for schooling methods that diverge from the conventional traditional approach. These variances might encompass differences in the learning environment, curriculum content, or the dynamics of the teacher-student relationship. Characteristics of alternative schooling include voluntary enrollment, relatively modest class and school sizes, and customized instruction, fostering
4050-454: A whole, with primary education showing particularly high rates of return. Additionally, besides bolstering economic prosperity, education contributes to technological and scientific advancements, reduces unemployment, and promotes social equity . Moreover, increased education is associated with lower birth rates , partly due to heightened awareness of family planning , expanded opportunities for women, and delayed marriage . Education plays
4185-482: Is a purposeful activity aimed at achieving goals like the transmission of knowledge , skills, and character traits. However, extensive debate surrounds its precise nature beyond these general features. One approach views education as a process occurring during events such as schooling, teaching, and learning. Another perspective perceives education not as a process but as the mental states and dispositions of educated individuals resulting from this process. Furthermore,
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4320-498: Is a small town near Bolpur in the Birbhum district of West Bengal, India, approximately 160 km north of Kolkata. He de-emphasized textbook learning in favor of varied learning resources from nature. The emphasis here was on self-motivation rather than on discipline, and on fostering intellectual curiosity rather than competitive excellence. There were courses on a great variety of cultures, and study programs devoted to China, Japan, and
4455-590: Is advocating for education policies, such as the treaty Convention on the Rights of the Child , which declares education as a fundamental human right for all children and young people. The Education for All initiative aimed to provide basic education to all children, adolescents, and adults by 2015, later succeeded by the Sustainable Development Goals initiative, particularly goal 4 . Related policies include
4590-596: Is akin to secondary education in complexity but places greater emphasis on vocational training to ready students for the workforce. In some countries, tertiary education is synonymous with higher education , while in others, tertiary education encompasses a broader spectrum. Tertiary education builds upon the foundation laid in secondary education but delves deeper into specific fields or subjects. Its culmination results in an academic degree . Tertiary education comprises four levels: short-cycle tertiary, bachelor's , master's , and doctoral education. These levels often form
4725-443: Is based more on experiential learning that concentrate on the development of a child's talents. 21st century skills are a series of higher-order skills , abilities, and learning dispositions that have been identified as being required for success in the rapidly changing, digital society and workplaces. Many of these skills are also defining qualities of progressive education as well as being associated with deeper learning , which
4860-540: Is based on mastering skills such as analytic reasoning, complex problem solving, and teamwork. These skills differ from traditional academic skills in that they are not primarily content knowledge-based. Hermann Lietz founded three Landerziehungsheime (country boarding schools) in 1904 based on Reddie's model for boys of different ages. Lietz eventually succeeded in establishing five more Landerziehungsheime. Edith and Paul Geheeb founded Odenwaldschule in Heppenheim in
4995-596: Is compulsory in numerous countries across Central and East Asia, Europe, and the Americas. In some nations, it represents the final phase of compulsory education. However, mandatory lower secondary education is less common in Arab states, sub-Saharan Africa, and South and West Asia. Upper secondary education typically commences around the age of 15, aiming to equip students with the necessary skills and knowledge for employment or tertiary education. Completion of lower secondary education
5130-403: Is funded and controlled by the government and available to the general public. It typically does not require tuition fees and is therefore a form of free education . In contrast, private education is funded and managed by private institutions. Private schools often have a more selective admission process and offer paid education by charging tuition fees. A more detailed classification focuses on
5265-424: Is necessary to maintain social stability. By facilitating individuals' integration into society, education fosters economic growth and diminishes poverty . It enables workers to enhance their skills, thereby improving the quality of goods and services produced, which ultimately fosters prosperity and enhances competitiveness. Public education is widely regarded as a long-term investment that benefits society as
5400-417: Is normally a prerequisite. The curriculum encompasses a broader range of subjects, often affording students the opportunity to select from various options. Attainment of a formal qualification, such as a high school diploma , is frequently linked to successful completion of upper secondary education. Education beyond the secondary level may fall under the category of post-secondary non-tertiary education, which
5535-677: Is often closely associated with the concept of IQ , a standardized numerical measure assessing intelligence based on mathematical-logical and verbal abilities. However, it has been argued that intelligence encompasses various types beyond IQ. Psychologist Howard Gardner posited distinct forms of intelligence in domains such as mathematics , logic , spatial cognition , language, and music. Additional types of intelligence influence interpersonal and intrapersonal interactions. These intelligences are largely autonomous, meaning that an individual may excel in one type while performing less well in another. According to proponents of learning style theory,
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5670-415: Is seen as a process of shared experience, involving the discovery of a common world and the collaborative solving of problems . There are several classifications of education. One classification depends on the institutional framework, distinguishing between formal, non-formal, and informal education. Another classification involves different levels of education based on factors such as the student's age and
5805-411: Is the "participation of the individual in the social consciousness of the race" (Dewey, 1897, para. 1). As such, education should take into account that the student is a social being. The process begins at birth with the child unconsciously gaining knowledge and gradually developing their knowledge to share and partake in society. For Dewey, education, which regulates "the process of coming to share in
5940-399: Is to overcome the challenges posed by these impairments, providing affected students with access to an appropriate educational structure. In the broadest sense, special education also encompasses education for intellectually gifted children , who require adjusted curricula to reach their fullest potential. Classifications based on the teaching method include teacher-centered education, where
6075-817: Is underscored by the annual International Day of Education on January 24, established by the United Nations , which designated 1970 as the International Education Year. Organized institutions play a pivotal role in multiple facets of education. Entities such as schools, universities, teacher training institutions, and ministries of education comprise the education sector. They interact not only with one another but also with various stakeholders, including parents, local communities, religious groups, non-governmental organizations , healthcare professionals, law enforcement agencies, media platforms, and political leaders. Numerous individuals are directly engaged in
6210-413: Is usually overseen and regulated by the government and often mandated up to a certain age. Non-formal and informal education occur outside the formal schooling system, with non-formal education serving as a middle ground. Like formal education, non-formal education is organized, systematic, and pursued with a clear purpose, as seen in activities such as tutoring , fitness classes, and participation in
6345-573: The Big Five personality traits , are associated with academic success. Other mental factors include self-efficacy , self-esteem , and metacognitive abilities. Sociological factors center not on the psychological attributes of learners but on their environment and societal position. These factors encompass socioeconomic status , ethnicity , cultural background , and gender , drawing significant interest from researchers due to their association with inequality and discrimination . Consequently, they play
6480-667: The Convention against Discrimination in Education and the Futures of Education initiative. Some influential organizations are non-governmental rather than intergovernmental. For instance, the International Association of Universities promotes collaboration and knowledge exchange among colleges and universities worldwide, while the International Baccalaureate offers international diploma programs. Institutions like
6615-532: The Dalton Plan at the beginning of the twentieth century with the goal of reforming the then current pedagogy and classroom management. She wanted to break the teacher-centered lockstep teaching. During her first experiment, which she implemented in a small elementary school as a young teacher in 1904, she noticed that when students are given freedom for self-direction and self-pacing and to help one another, their motivation increases considerably and they learn more. In
6750-871: The Erasmus Programme facilitate student exchanges between countries, while initiatives such as the Fulbright Program provide similar services for teachers. Educational success, also referred to as student and academic achievement, pertains to the extent to which educational objectives are met, such as the acquisition of knowledge and skills by students. For practical purposes, it is often primarily measured in terms of official exam scores, but numerous additional indicators exist, including attendance rates, graduation rates, dropout rates, student attitudes, and post-school indicators such as later income and incarceration rates. Several factors influence educational achievement, such as psychological factors related to
6885-541: The Friends' schools, Steiner Waldorf schools and those belonging to the Round Square Conference . The King Alfred School was radical for its time in that it provided a secular education and that boys and girls were educated together. Alexander Sutherland Neill believed children should achieve self-determination and should be encouraged to think critically rather than blindly obeying. He implemented his ideas with
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#17330852209937020-491: The Girl Guides in 1910. Traditional education uses extrinsic motivation, such as grades and prizes. Progressive education is more likely to use intrinsic motivation, basing activities on the interests of the child. Praise may be discouraged as a motivator. Progressive education is a response to traditional methods of teaching. It is defined as an educational movement which gives more value to experience than formal learning. It
7155-607: The Great Depression the organization conducted the Eight-Year Study , evaluating the effects of progressive programs. More than 1500 students over four years were compared to an equal number of carefully matched students at conventional schools. When they reached college, the experimental students were found to equal or surpass traditionally educated students on all outcomes: grades, extracurricular participation, dropout rates, intellectual curiosity, and resourcefulness. Moreover,
7290-466: The No Child Left Behind Act passed in 2002. Against these critics eloquent spokespersons stepped forward in defense of the progressive tradition. The Open Classroom movement, led by Herb Kohl and George Dennison, recalled many of Parker's child centered reforms. The late 1960s and early 1970s saw a rise and decline in the number of progressive schools. There were several reasons for
7425-478: The Odenwald in 1910 using their concept of progressive education, which integrated the work of the head and hand. Janusz Korczak was one notable follower and developer of Pestalozzi's ideas. He wrote The names of Pestalozzi, Froebel and Spencer shine with no less brilliance than the names of the greatest inventors of the twentieth century. For they discovered more than the unknown forces of nature; they discovered
7560-536: The sciences , music , and art . Another objective is to facilitate personal development. Presently, primary education is compulsory in nearly all nations, with over 90% of primary-school-age children worldwide attending such schools. Secondary education succeeds primary education and typically spans the ages of 12 to 18 years. It is normally divided into lower secondary education (such as middle school or junior high school) and upper secondary education (like high school , senior high school, or college , depending on
7695-500: The scouting movement. Informal education, on the other hand, occurs in an unsystematic manner through daily experiences and exposure to the environment. Unlike formal and non-formal education, there is typically no designated authority figure responsible for teaching. Informal education unfolds in various settings and situations throughout one's life, often spontaneously, such as children learning their first language from their parents or individuals mastering cooking skills by preparing
7830-410: The 1940s and trials in the 1950s, resulting in the introduction in 1962 of public comprehensive schools ("grundskola") instead of the previously separated parallel schools for theoretical and non-theoretical education. The ideas from Reddie's Abbotsholme spread to schools such as Bedales School (1893), King Alfred School, London (1898) and St Christopher School , Letchworth (1915), as well as all
7965-678: The Cook County Normal School in Chicago , a school that also served to train teachers in Parker's methods. In 1894 Parker's Talks on Pedagogics, which drew heavily on the thinking of Fröbel , Pestalozzi and Herbart , became one of the first American writings on education to gain international fame. That same year, philosopher John Dewey moved from the University of Michigan to the newly established University of Chicago where he became chair of
8100-702: The Lincoln School of Teachers College "as a laboratory for the working out of an elementary and secondary curriculum which shall eliminate obsolete material and endeavor to work up in usable form material adapted to the needs of modern living." (Cremin, 282) Based on Flexner's demand that the modern curriculum "include nothing for which an affirmative case can not be made out" (Cremin, 281) the new school organized its activities around four fundamental fields: science , industry , aesthetics and civics . The Lincoln School built its curriculum around "units of work" that reorganized traditional subject matter into forms embracing
8235-502: The Middle East. He was of the view that education should be a "joyous exercise of our inventive and constructive energies that help us to build up character." Seikatsu Tsuzurikata is a grassroots movement in Japan that has many parallels to the progressive education movement, but it developed completely independently, beginning in the late 1920s. The Japanese progressive educational movement
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#17330852209938370-661: The Norfolk coastal village of East Runton, the first Montessori School in England. Pictures of this school, and its children, illustrated the 'Montessori's Own Handbook' (1914). Hawker had been impressed by his visit to Montessori's Casa dei Bambini in Rome, he gave numerous talks on Montessori's work after 1912, assisting in generating a national interest in her work. He organised the Montessori Conference 1914 in partnership with Edmond Holmes, ex-Chief Inspector of Schools, who had written
8505-525: The Patrol System and a key part of Scouting training, allowed the boys to organize themselves into small groups with an elected patrol leader. Baden Powell then wrote Scouting for Boys (London, 1908). The Brownsea camp and the publication of Scouting for Boys are generally regarded as the start of the Scout movement which spread throughout the world. Baden-Powell and his sister Agnes Baden-Powell introduced
8640-574: The Philanthropinum at Dessau in 1774. He developed new teaching methods based on conversation and play with the child, and a program of physical development. Such was his success that he wrote a treatise on his methods, "On the best and hitherto unknown method of teaching children of noblemen". Christian Gotthilf Salzmann (1744–1811) was the founder of the Schnepfenthal institution , a school dedicated to new modes of education (derived heavily from
8775-479: The United States in 1911 there were conflicts with the American educational establishment and was opposed by William Heard Kilpatrick. However Montessori education returned to the United States in 1960 and has since spread to thousands of schools there. In 1914 the Montessori Society in England organised its first conference. Hosted by Rev Bertram Hawker, who had set up, in partnership with his local elementary school in
8910-417: The age of the learner are childhood education, adolescent education, adult education, and elderly education. Categories based on the biological sex of students include single-sex education and mixed-sex education . Special education is tailored to meet the unique needs of students with disabilities , addressing various impairments on intellectual , social, communicative, and physical levels. Its goal
9045-484: The child's emerging interests should determine classroom activities, the importance of child-centered vs. societal–centered learning, the relationship of community building to individual growth, and especially the relationship between emotion, thought and experience. In 1955, the publication of Rudolf Flesch's Why Johnny Can't Read leveled criticism of reading programs at the progressive emphasis on reading in context. The conservative McCarthy era raised questions about
9180-474: The complexity of the content. Further categories focus on the topic, teaching method, medium used, and funding. The most common division is between formal , non-formal , and informal education . Formal education occurs within a structured institutional framework, typically with a chronological and hierarchical order. The modern schooling system organizes classes based on the student's age and progress, ranging from primary school to university. Formal education
9315-423: The connection between individual development and the resulting societal contribution. The five key ideas which composed his concept of individual maturation were Inner Freedom, Perfection, Benevolence, Justice, and Equity or Recompense. According to Herbart, abilities were not innate but could be instilled, so a thorough education could provide the framework for moral and intellectual development. In order to develop
9450-762: The content to be learned by participating in classroom activities like discussions, resulting in a deeper understanding of the subject. Motivation can also help students overcome difficulties and setbacks. An important distinction lies between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsically motivated students are driven by an interest in the subject and the learning experience itself. Extrinsically motivated students seek external rewards such as good grades and recognition from peers. Intrinsic motivation tends to be more beneficial, leading to increased creativity, engagement, and long-term commitment. Educational psychologists aim to discover methods to increase motivation, such as encouraging healthy competition among students while maintaining
9585-620: The continent. Parker was opposed to rote learning, believing that there was no value in knowledge without understanding. He argued instead schools should encourage and respect the child's creativity. Parker's Quincy System called for child-centered and experience-based learning. He replaced the traditional curriculum with integrated learning units based on core themes related to the knowledge of different disciplines. He replaced traditional readers, spellers and grammar books with children's own writing, literature , and teacher prepared materials. In 1883 Parker left Massachusetts to become Principal of
9720-556: The country). Lower secondary education usually requires the completion of primary school as its entry prerequisite. It aims to expand and deepen learning outcomes, with a greater focus on subject-specific curricula , and teachers often specialize in one or a few specific subjects. One of its goals is to acquaint students with fundamental theoretical concepts across various subjects, laying a strong foundation for lifelong learning . In certain instances, it may also incorporate rudimentary forms of vocational training . Lower secondary education
9855-587: The decline: Progressive education has been viewed as an alternative to the test-oriented instruction legislated by the No Child Left Behind educational funding act. Alfie Kohn has been an outspoken critic of the No Child Left Behind Act and a passionate defender of the progressive tradition. Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941) was one of the most effective practitioners of the concept of progressive education . He expanded Santiniketan , which
9990-516: The department of philosophy , psychology and education. He and his wife enrolled their children in Parker's school before founding their own school two years later. Whereas Parker started with practice and then moved to theory, Dewey began with hypotheses and then devised methods and curricula to test them. By the time Dewey moved to Chicago at the age of thirty-five, he had already published two books on psychology and applied psychology. He had become dissatisfied with philosophy as pure speculation and
10125-509: The development of children and the changing needs of adult life. The first and second grades carried on a study of community life in which they actually built a city. A third grade project growing out of the day-to-day life of the nearby Hudson River became one of the most celebrated units of the school, a unit on boats, which under the guidance of its legendary teacher Miss Curtis, became an entrée into history , geography , reading , writing , arithmetic , science, art and literature. Each of
10260-547: The development of students' personalities. Evidence-based education employs scientific studies to determine the most effective educational methods. Its aim is to optimize the effectiveness of educational practices and policies by ensuring they are grounded in the best available empirical evidence . This encompasses evidence-based teaching, evidence-based learning, and school effectiveness research. Autodidacticism , or self-education, occurs independently of teachers and institutions. Primarily observed in adult education, it offers
10395-604: The director and his wife as principal, the University of Chicago Laboratory school, was dedicated "to discover in administration, selection of subject-matter, methods of learning, teaching, and discipline , how a school could become a cooperative community while developing in individuals their own capacities and satisfy their own needs." (Cremin, 136) For Dewey the two key goals of developing a cooperative community and developing individuals ' own capacities were not at odds; they were necessary to each other. This unity of purpose lies at
10530-421: The early stages of education when the child's mind is not yet fully developed. This is particularly relevant in cases where young children must learn certain things without comprehending the underlying reasons, such as specific safety rules and hygiene practices. Education can be characterized from both the teacher's and the student's perspectives. Teacher-centered definitions emphasize the perspective and role of
10665-428: The education sector, such as students, teachers, school principals, as well as school nurses and curriculum developers. Various aspects of formal education are regulated by the policies of governmental institutions. These policies determine at what age children need to attend school and at what times classes are held, as well as issues pertaining to the school environment, such as infrastructure. Regulations also cover
10800-451: The emergence of ancient civilizations , the invention of writing led to an expansion of knowledge, prompting a transition from informal to formal education. Initially, formal education was largely accessible to elites and religious groups. The advent of the printing press in the 15th century facilitated widespread access to books, thus increasing general literacy . In the 18th and 19th centuries, public education gained significance, paving
10935-433: The enjoyment of the learning process, typically prevails. While the differentiation among the three types is generally clear, certain forms of education may not neatly fit into a single category. In primitive cultures, education predominantly occurred informally, with little distinction between educational activities and other daily endeavors. Instead, the entire environment served as a classroom, and adults commonly assumed
11070-464: The exact qualifications and requirements that teachers need to fulfill. An important aspect of education policy concerns the curriculum used for teaching at schools, colleges, and universities. A curriculum is a plan of instruction or a program of learning that guides students to achieve their educational goals. The topics are usually selected based on their importance and depend on the type of school. The goals of public school curricula are usually to offer
11205-656: The first English-speaking kindergarten in the United States – the language at Schurz's kindergarten had been German, to serve an immigrant community – in Boston in 1860. This paved the way for the concept's spread in the USA. The German émigré Adolph Douai had also founded a kindergarten in Boston in 1859, but was obliged to close it after only a year. By 1866, however, he was founding others in New York City. William Heard Kilpatrick (1871–1965)
11340-498: The formal schooling system, while informal education entails unstructured learning through daily experiences. Formal and non-formal education are categorized into levels, including early childhood education , primary education , secondary education , and tertiary education . Other classifications focus on teaching methods, such as teacher-centered and student-centered education , and on subjects, such as science education , language education , and physical education . Additionally,
11475-516: The founding of Summerhill School in 1921. Neill believed that children learn better when they are not compelled to attend lessons. The school was also managed democratically, with regular meetings to determine school rules. Pupils had equal voting rights with school staff. Fröbel's student Margarethe Schurz founded the first kindergarten in the United States at Watertown, Wisconsin , in 1856, and she also inspired Elizabeth Peabody , who went on to found
11610-486: The freedom to choose what and when to study, making it a potentially more fulfilling learning experience. However, the lack of structure and guidance may lead to aimless learning, while the absence of external feedback could result in autodidacts developing misconceptions and inaccurately assessing their learning progress. Autodidacticism is closely associated with lifelong education , which entails continuous learning throughout one's life. Categories of education based on
11745-463: The heart of the progressive education philosophy. In 1912, Dewey sent out students of his philosophy to found The Park School of Buffalo and The Park School of Baltimore to put it into practice. These schools operate to this day within a similar progressive approach. At Columbia, Dewey worked with other educators such as Charles Eliot and Abraham Flexner to help bring progressivism into the mainstream of American education. In 1917 Columbia established
11880-600: The ideas of Jean-Jacques Rousseau ). He wrote Elements of Morality, for the Use of Children , one of the first books translated into English by Mary Wollstonecraft . Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746–1827) was a Swiss pedagogue and educational reformer who exemplified Romanticism in his approach. He founded several educational institutions both in German- and French-speaking regions of Switzerland and wrote many works explaining his revolutionary modern principles of education. His motto
12015-457: The importance of critical thinking in distinguishing education from indoctrination . They argue that indoctrination focuses solely on instilling beliefs in students, regardless of their rationality; whereas education also encourages the rational ability to critically examine and question those beliefs. However, it is not universally accepted that these two phenomena can be clearly distinguished, as some forms of indoctrination may be necessary in
12150-502: The individual student, and sociological factors associated with the student's social environment. Additional factors encompass access to educational technology , teacher quality, and parental involvement. Many of these factors overlap and mutually influence each other. On a psychological level, relevant factors include motivation , intelligence , and personality. Motivation is the internal force propelling people to engage in learning. Motivated students are more likely to interact with
12285-508: The influence of progressive pedagogy grew broader and more diffuse, practitioners began to vary their application of progressive principles. As varying interpretations and practices made evaluation of progressive reforms more difficult to assess, critics began to propose alternative approaches. The seeds of the debate over progressive education can be seen in the differences of Parker and Dewey. These have to do with how much and by whom curriculum should be worked out from grade to grade, how much
12420-514: The lead writer on education for The New Republic and The Nation , published a collection of her articles on progressive education as a book, titled Our Enemy the Child . In 1918, the National Education Association , representing superintendents and administrators in smaller districts across the country, issued its report "Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education." It emphasized the education of students in terms of health,
12555-459: The liberal ideas at the roots of the progressive reforms. The launching of Sputnik in 1957 at the height of the Cold War gave rise to a number of intellectually competitive approaches to disciplinary knowledge, such as BSCS biology PSSC physics, led by university professors such as Jerome Bruner and Jerrold Zacharias . Some Cold War reforms incorporated elements of progressivism. For example,
12690-428: The nature of education, its objectives, impacts, and methods for enhancement. Education studies encompasses various subfields, including philosophy , psychology , sociology , and economics of education . Additionally, it explores topics such as comparative education , pedagogy , and the history of education . In prehistory , education primarily occurred informally through oral communication and imitation . With
12825-649: The new methods, aiming to replicate them in their own schools. Many of Quincy’s teachers were recruited by districts in other states, spreading the Quincy method beyond Massachusetts to New Jersey, New York, Connecticut, Vermont, Florida, Minnesota, and other places. When in 1883 Parker became principal of the Cook County Normal School in Chicago, he developed the method further, introducing teacher training based on modern educational methods. Progressive education Progressive education can be traced back to
12960-403: The period from birth until the commencement of primary school . It is designed to facilitate holistic child development, addressing physical, mental, and social aspects. Early childhood education is pivotal in fostering socialization and personality development , while also imparting fundamental skills in communication, learning, and problem-solving. Its overarching goal is to prepare children for
13095-735: The preferred method of acquiring knowledge and skills is another factor. They hold that students with an auditory learning style find it easy to comprehend spoken lectures and discussions, whereas visual learners benefit from information presented visually, such as in diagrams and videos. To facilitate efficient learning, it may be advantageous to incorporate a wide variety of learning modalities. Learning styles have been criticized for ambiguous empirical evidence of student benefits and unreliability of student learning style assessment by teachers. The learner's personality may also influence educational achievement. For instance, characteristics such as conscientiousness and openness to experience , identified in
13230-509: The preservation and transmission of knowledge and skills rooted in indigenous heritage. This approach often employs traditional methods such as oral narration and storytelling. Other forms of alternative schooling include gurukul schools in India, madrasa schools in the Middle East, and yeshivas in Jewish tradition. Some distinctions revolve around the recipients of education. Categories based on
13365-423: The principles of what was to become Waldorf education in 1907. He established a series of schools based on these principles beginning in 1919. The focus of the education is on creating a developmentally appropriate curriculum that holistically integrates practical, artistic, social, and academic experiences. There are more than a thousand schools and many more early childhood centers worldwide; it has also become
13500-463: The role of educators. However, informal education often proves insufficient for imparting large quantities of knowledge. To address this limitation, formal educational settings and trained instructors are typically necessary. This necessity contributed to the increasing significance of formal education throughout history. Over time, formal education led to a shift towards more abstract learning experiences and topics, distancing itself from daily life. There
13635-721: The sciences and arts with a program of physical exercise, manual labour, recreation, crafts and arts. Schools modeling themselves after Abbotsholme were established throughout Europe, and the model was particularly influential in Germany. Reddie often engaged foreign teachers, who learned its practices, before returning home to start their own schools. Hermann Lietz an Abbotsholme teacher founded five schools (Landerziehungsheime für Jungen) on Abbotsholme's principles. Other people he influenced included Kurt Hahn , Adolphe Ferrière and Edmond Demolins . His ideas also reached Japan, where it turned into "Taisho-era Free Education Movement" (Taisho Jiyu Kyoiku Undo) Education according to John Dewey
13770-745: The situation. Low socioeconomic status is also associated with poorer physical and mental health , contributing to a cycle of social inequality that persists across generations. Ethnic background correlates with cultural distinctions and language barriers, which can pose challenges for students in adapting to the school environment and comprehending classes. Moreover, explicit and implicit biases and discrimination against ethnic minorities further compound these difficulties. Such biases can impact students' self-esteem, motivation, and access to educational opportunities. For instance, teachers may harbor stereotypical perceptions, albeit not overtly racist , leading to differential grading of comparable performances based on
13905-510: The skills necessary to become productive members of society. In doing so, it stimulates economic growth and raises awareness of local and global problems . Organized institutions play a significant role in education. For instance, governments establish education policies to determine the timing of school classes, the curriculum, and attendance requirements. International organizations , such as UNESCO , have been influential in promoting primary education for all children . Many factors influence
14040-434: The social consciousness," is the "only sure" method of ensuring social progress and reform (Dewey, 1897, para. 60). In this respect, Dewey foreshadows Social Reconstructionism , whereby schools are a means to reconstruct society. As schools become a means for social reconstruction, they must be given the proper equipment to perform this task and guide their students. The American teacher Helen Parkhurst (1886–1973) developed
14175-546: The social institutions responsible for education, such as family, school, civil society, state, and church. Compulsory education refers to education that individuals are legally mandated to receive, primarily affecting children who must attend school up to a certain age. This stands in contrast to voluntary education, which individuals pursue based on personal choice rather than legal obligation. Education serves various roles in society , spanning social, economic, and personal domains. Socially, education establishes and maintains
14310-649: The spelling-book method, and even stated that the spelling book should be burned, although he did favor oral spelling. Emphasis was instead placed on social skills and self-expression through cultural activities and physical training, as well as teacher-prepared materials, experience-based learning and children's own writing. A survey by the Massachusetts State Board of Education published four years later showed that Quincy students excelled at reading, writing, and spelling, and ranked fourth in their county in math. Hundreds of visitors traveled to Quincy to observe
14445-538: The student's age, the duration of learning, and the complexity of the content covered. Additional criteria include entry requirements, teacher qualifications, and the intended outcome of successful completion. The levels are grouped into early childhood education (level 0), primary education (level 1), secondary education (levels 2–3), post-secondary non-tertiary education (level 4), and tertiary education (levels 5–8). Early childhood education, also referred to as preschool education or nursery education, encompasses
14580-593: The student, ensuring the process is beneficial, and conducting it in a morally appropriate manner. While such precise definitions often characterize the most typical forms of education effectively, they face criticism because less common types of education may occasionally fall outside their parameters. Dealing with counterexamples not covered by precise definitions can be challenging, which is why some theorists prefer offering less exact definitions based on family resemblance instead. This approach suggests that all forms of education are similar to each other but need not share
14715-663: The students. Examples of governmental institutions include the Ministry of Education in India, the Department of Basic Education in South Africa, and the Secretariat of Public Education in Mexico. International organizations also play a pivotal role in education. For example, UNESCO is an intergovernmental organization that promotes education through various means. One of its activities
14850-434: The study found that the more the school departed from the traditional college preparatory program, the better was the record of the graduates. (Kohn, Schools, 232) By mid-century, many public school programs had also adopted elements of progressive curriculum. At mid-century Dewey believed that progressive education had "not really penetrated and permeated the foundations of the educational institution."(Kohn, Schools, 6,7) As
14985-727: The subject encompass science education , language education , art education , religious education , physical education , and sex education . Special mediums such as radio or websites are utilized in distance education , including e-learning (use of computers), m-learning (use of mobile devices), and online education. Often, these take the form of open education , wherein courses and materials are accessible with minimal barriers, contrasting with traditional classroom or onsite education. However, not all forms of online education are open; for instance, some universities offer full online degree programs that are not part of open education initiatives. State education, also known as public education ,
15120-425: The success of education. Psychological factors include motivation , intelligence , and personality . Social factors, such as socioeconomic status , ethnicity , and gender , are often associated with discrimination . Other factors encompass access to educational technology , teacher quality, and parental involvement. The primary academic field examining education is known as education studies . It delves into
15255-401: The teacher in transmitting knowledge and skills in a morally appropriate manner. On the other hand, student-centered definitions analyze education based on the student's involvement in the learning process, suggesting that this process transforms and enriches their subsequent experiences. It's also possible to consider definitions that incorporate both perspectives. In this approach, education
15390-480: The teacher plays a central role in imparting information to students, and student-centered education , where students take on a more active and responsible role in shaping classroom activities. In conscious education, learning and teaching occur with a clear purpose in mind. Unconscious education unfolds spontaneously without conscious planning or guidance. This may occur, in part, through the influence of teachers' and adults' personalities , which can indirectly impact
15525-565: The term "education" can denote the mental states and qualities of educated individuals and the academic field studying educational phenomena. The precise definition of education is disputed, and there are disagreements about the aims of education and the extent to which education differs from indoctrination by fostering critical thinking . These disagreements impact how to identify, measure, and enhance various forms of education. Essentially, education socializes children into society by instilling cultural values and norms , equipping them with
15660-573: The term may also refer to the academic field that studies the methods, processes, and social institutions involved in teaching and learning. Having a clear understanding of the term is crucial when attempting to identify educational phenomena, measure educational success, and improve educational practices. Some theorists provide precise definitions by identifying specific features exclusive to all forms of education. Education theorist R. S. Peters , for instance, outlines three essential features of education, including imparting knowledge and understanding to
15795-494: The transition to primary education. While preschool education is typically optional, in certain countries such as Brazil, it is mandatory starting from the age of four. Primary (or elementary) education usually begins between the ages of five and seven and spans four to seven years. It has no additional entry requirements and aims to impart fundamental skills in reading, writing, and mathematics. Additionally, it provides essential knowledge in subjects such as history , geography ,
15930-468: The units was broadly enough conceived so that different children could concentrate on different aspects depending on their own interests and needs. Each of the units called for widely diverse student activities, and each sought to deal in depth with some critical aspect of contemporary civilization. Finally each unit engaged children working together cooperatively and also provided opportunities for individual research and exploration. In 1924, Agnes de Lima ,
16065-694: The unknown half of humanity: children. His Orphan's Home in Warsaw became a model institution and exerted influence on the educational process in other orphanages of the same type. The Quaker school run in Ballitore , Co Kildare in the 18th century had students from as far away as Bordeaux (where there was a substantial Irish émigré population), the Caribbean and Norway. Notable pupils included Edmund Burke and Napper Tandy . Sgoil Éanna , or in English St Enda's
16200-500: The way for the global movement to provide primary education to all, free of charge , and compulsory up to a certain age. Presently, over 90% of primary-school-age children worldwide attend primary school. The term "education" originates from the Latin words educare , meaning "to bring up," and educere , meaning "to bring forth." The definition of education has been explored by theorists from various fields. Many agree that education
16335-474: The work of Zacharias and Bruner was based in the developmental psychology of Jean Piaget and incorporated many of Dewey's ideas of experiential education. Bruner's analysis of developmental psychology became the core of a pedagogical movement known as constructivism , which argues that the child is an active participant in making meaning and must be engaged in the progress of education for learning to be effective. This psychological approach has deep connections to
16470-569: The work of both Parker and Dewey and led to a resurgence of their ideas in second half of the century. In 1965, President Johnson inaugurated the Great Society and the Elementary and Secondary Education Act suffused public school programs with funds for sweeping education reforms. At the same time the influx of federal funding also gave rise to demands for accountability and the behavioral objectives approach of Robert F. Mager and others foreshadowed
16605-794: The works of John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau , both of whom are known as forerunners of ideas that would be developed by theorists such as John Dewey . Considered one of the first of the British empiricists , Locke believed that "truth and knowledge… arise out of observation and experience rather than manipulation of accepted or given ideas". He further discussed the need for children to have concrete experiences in order to learn. Rousseau deepened this line of thinking in Emile, or On Education , where he argued that subordination of students to teachers and memorization of facts would not lead to an education. In Germany, Johann Bernhard Basedow (1724–1790) established
16740-644: The world by the members of the Salesian Society he founded in 1873. While studying for his doctorate in Göttingen in 1882–1883, Cecil Reddie was greatly impressed by the progressive educational theories being applied there. Reddie founded Abbotsholme School in Derbyshire , England, in 1889. Its curriculum enacted the ideas of progressive education. Reddie rejected rote learning, classical languages and corporal punishment. He combined studies in modern languages and
16875-808: Was "Learning by head, hand and heart". His research and theories closely resemble those outlined by Rousseau in Emile. He is further considered by many to be the "father of modern educational science" His psychological theories pertain to education as they focus on the development of object teaching, that is, he felt that individuals best learned through experiences and through a direct manipulation and experience of objects. He further speculated that children learn through their own internal motivation rather than through compulsion. (See Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic motivation). A teacher's task will be to help guide their students as individuals through their learning and allow it to unfold naturally. Friedrich Wilhelm August Fröbel (1782–1852)
17010-471: Was a denunciation of the English school system of the time and a declaration of his own educational principles. In Sweden, an early proponent of progressive education was Alva Myrdal , who with her husband Gunnar co-wrote Kris i befolkningsfrågan (1934), a most influential program for the social-democratic hegemony (1932–1976) popularly known as " Folkhemmet ". School reforms went through government reports in
17145-659: Was a greater emphasis on understanding general principles and concepts rather than simply observing and imitating specific behaviors. Types of education are often categorized into different levels or stages. One influential framework is the International Standard Classification of Education , maintained by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). This classification encompasses both formal and non-formal education and distinguishes levels based on factors such as
17280-413: Was a pupil of Dewey and one of the most effective practitioners of the concept as well as the more adept at proliferating the progressive education movement and spreading word of the works of Dewey. He is especially well known for his "project method of teaching". This developed the progressive education notion that students were to be engaged and taught so that their knowledge may be directed to society for
17415-457: Was a student of Pestalozzi who laid the foundation for modern education based on the recognition that children have unique needs and capabilities. He believed in "self-activity" and play as essential factors in child education. The teacher's role was not to indoctrinate but to encourage self-expression through play, both individually and in group activities. He created the concept of kindergarten . Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776–1841) emphasized
17550-493: Was concerned about the education of street children who had left their villages to find work in the rapidly industrialized city of Turin , Italy. Exploited as cheap labor or imprisoned for unruly behavior, Bosco saw the need for creating a space where they would feel at home. He called it an 'Oratory' where they could play, learn, share friendships, express themselves, develop their creative talents and pick up skills for gainful self-employment. With those who had found work, he set up
17685-531: Was founded in 1908 by Pádraig Pearse on Montessori principles. Its former assistant headmaster Thomas MacDonagh and other teachers including Pearse; games master Con Colbert ; Pearse's brother, Willie, the art teacher, and Joseph Plunkett , and occasional lecturer in English, were executed by the British after the 1916 Rising. Pearse and MacDonagh were two of the seven leaders who signed the Irish Declaration of Independence . Pearse's book The Murder Machine
17820-632: Was minimal specialization , with children typically learning a broad range of skills essential for community functioning. However, modern societies are increasingly complex, with many professions requiring specialized training alongside general education. Consequently, only a relatively small number of individuals master certain professions. Additionally, skills and tendencies acquired for societal functioning may sometimes conflict, with their value dependent on context. For instance, fostering curiosity and questioning established teachings promotes critical thinking and innovation, while at times, obedience to authority
17955-436: Was one of the stepping stones to the modernization of Japan and it has resonated down to the present. Education Education is the transmission of knowledge , skills , and character traits and manifests in various forms. Formal education occurs within a structured institutional framework, such as public schools , following a curriculum. Non-formal education also follows a structured approach but occurs outside
18090-485: Was seeking ways to make philosophy directly relevant to practical issues. Moving away from an early interest in Hegel , Dewey proceeded to reject all forms of dualism and dichotomy in favor of a philosophy of experience as a series of unified wholes in which everything can be ultimately related. In 1896, John Dewey opened what he called the laboratory school to test his theories and their sociological implications. With Dewey as
18225-604: Was the use of graphs, charts enabling students to keep track of their own progress in each subject. In the nineteen-twenties and nineteen-thirties, Dalton education spread throughout the world. There is no certainty regarding the exact numbers of Dalton schools, but there was Dalton education in America, Australia, England, Germany, the Netherlands, the Soviet Union, India, China and Japan. Rudolf Steiner (1861–1925) first described
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