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117-678: The roots of Mission Africa stretch back to the mid-1880s, when a group of chiefs from the Ibeno region of the Niger Delta approached the Calabar Mission of the Free Church of Scotland and asked for a missionary to work among them. The over-extended mission, unable to comply, passed on the request to Henry Grattan Guinness at his Harley Missionary Training College in London , where he circulated it. One of

234-503: A consistent trend in Nigerian's long line of dictatorial rulers, who almost universally been spared any kind of justice. In 1985, another general, this time General Ibrahim Babangida , stole power and again alleged that his predecessors were corrupt violators of human rights and promised to rectify the situation, committing to a return to democracy by 1990. Nigeria had been saddled with a crushingly large international debt at this point. This

351-562: A daily occurrence. Following the civil war, local communities increasingly demanded social and environmental justice from the federal government, with Ken Saro Wiwa and the Ogoni tribe as the lead figures for this phase of the struggle. Cohesive oil protests became most pronounced in 1990 with the publication of the Ogoni Bill of Rights. Indigenous people protested against the lack of economic development, e.g. schools, good roads, and hospitals, in

468-487: A day. Operated by Chevron's Star Deep and a company called Famfa, Agbami is only one offshore concession; there are others named Akpo, Bonga and Erha. Natural gas reserves are well over 5,300 km (187 × 10 ^  cu ft), the gas reserves are three times as substantial as the crude oil reserves. The biggest natural gas initiative is the Nigerian Liquified Natural Gas Company , which

585-476: A decree. Following the war with Biafra , the government felt it necessary to secure and gain more control over the oil industry. Nationalization of the oil sector was also precipitated by Nigeria's desire to join OPEC , which was encouraging member states to acquire 51% stakes and become increasingly involved in the oil sector. Although the Nigerian government had maintained involvement in the industry prior to 1971, this

702-503: A dispute between Cameroon and Nigeria over the small territory of Bakassi . A new phase of the struggle saw the declaration of an Independent Niger Delta Republic by Isaac Adaka Boro during Nigerian president Ironsi's administration, just before the Nigerian Civil War . Also just before the Nigerian civil war, Southeastern State of Nigeria was created (also known as Southeastern Nigeria or Coastal Southeastern Nigeria), which had

819-655: A government initiative, and the Development Initiative, a community development non-governmental organization based in Port Harcourt . Uz and Uz Transnational, a company with a strong commitment to the Niger Delta, has introduced ways of developing the poor in the Niger Delta, especially in Rivers State. In September 2008, MEND released a statement proclaiming that their militants had launched an " oil war " throughout

936-430: A part of the eastern region of Nigeria , which came into being in 1951 (one of the three regions, and later one of the four regions). The majority of the people were those from the colonial Calabar and Ogoja divisions, the present-day Ogoja , Annang , Ibibio , Oron , Efik , Ijaw and Ogoni people. The National Council of Nigeria and Cameroon (NCNC) was the ruling political party of the region. The NCNC later became

1053-528: A printing press at Etinan, as well as numerous primary schools. Membership of the Church was at first confined to rural areas, only slowly penetrating the towns and cities. By the year 2000, the denomination had grown to over 1,000 congregations throughout Nigeria which vary in size from around 50 people to over 1,000. The Mission changed its name from Qua Iboe Mission to Qua Iboe Fellowship in 1986, and then became known as Mission Africa in mid-2002. The change of name

1170-400: A result of the numerous small fields, an extensive and well-developed pipeline network has been engineered to transport the crude oil. Also because of the lack of highly productive fields, money from the jointly operated (with the federal government) companies is constantly directed towards petroleum exploration and production. Nigeria's petroleum is classified mostly as "light" and "sweet", as

1287-452: A sense of displacement and identity crisis among the affected groups/communities. Additionally, when communities fight back against the oil industries as an act of protest, violence is often perpetuated. Since the 1990s there has been continuous violence in an effort to give local communities control of the oil in the delta. These acts of violence include the kidnapping of foreign oil workers and holding them for ransom, vandalization, and even

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1404-526: A small group of army officers consisting mostly of southeastern Igbos , staged a successful coup d'état against the civilian government. The federal military government which assumed power under General Aguiyi-Ironsi was unable to quiet ethnic tensions or produce a constitution acceptable to all sections of the country. In fact, its efforts to abolish the federal structure exacerbated the growing unrest and led to another coup, led by largely northern officers in July of

1521-710: A storage capacity of 3.6 million barrels (570,000 m ). Agip operates the Brass Terminal in Brass, a town 113 kilometres (70 miles) southwest of Port Harcourt and has a storage capacity of 3,558,000 barrels (565,700 m ). Texaco operates the Pennington Terminal. As of 2005, oil companies in Africa investigated offshore production as an alternative area of production. Deepwater production mainly involved underwater drilling that exists 400 metres (1,300 ft) or more below

1638-419: A strong tendency to 'look after their own' by financially rewarding their political supporters. At the state or community level this means that interest groups in power will reward and protect their own; this is typically based on ethnic/tribal or religious affiliation of the interest group. The heavy patronage based on tribal affiliation has fueled ethnic unrest and violence throughout Nigeria, but particularly in

1755-597: A support base in Belfast for the new mission, but soon left Belfast to join Bill in Nigeria. The Qua Iboe Mission Council was formed in 1891 by representatives of the leading Belfast churches, of various denominations, to support Samuel Bill's work. Missionaries were drawn from Presbyterian, Baptist, Quaker and other backgrounds. The Mission Council continues its oversight of the Mission up to

1872-621: A target to grow gross production to 50,000 barrels (7,900 m ) of oil per day within four years. Oil revenue allocation has been the subject of much contention well before Nigeria gained its independence. Allocations have varied from as much as 50%, owing to the First Republic's high degree of regional autonomy, and as low as 10% during the military dictatorships. * State allocations are based on 5 criteria: equality (equal shares per state), population, social development, land mass, and revenue generation. **The derivation formula refers to

1989-503: Is 450,000 barrels (72,000 m ) per day, however, only 240,000 barrels (38,000 m ) per day was allotted during the 1990s. Subsequently, crude oil production for refineries was reduced further to as little as 75,000 barrels (11,900 m ) per day, during the regime of Sanni Abacha . There are four major oil refineries: the Warri Refinery and Petrochemical Plant, which can process 125,000 barrels (19,900 m ) of crude per day,

2106-471: Is expected that the industry will continue to be profitable based on an average benchmark oil price of $ 85-$ 90 per barrel. Nearly all of the country's primary reserves are concentrated in around the delta of the Niger River , but offshore rigs are also prominent in the well-endowed coastal region . Nigeria is one of the few major oil-producing nations still capable of increasing its oil output. Unlike most of

2223-684: Is multi-faceted and extends beyond health problems. Fishing and agriculture are central to the livelihoods of many Niger Delta communities. Oil spills contaminate water sources and farmlands, severely affecting fish stocks and crops. This disruption can lead to food shortages and economic hardship for those dependent on these activities. Another facet of the people's livelihoods is their culture. The Niger Delta's people have strong spiritual and cultural ties to their environment. The harm inflicted on their land and waterways caused by oil spills deeply disrupts sacred sites and interferes with their cultural practices. The loss of these cultural elements contributes to

2340-481: Is operated jointly by several companies and the states. It began exploration and production in 1999. In 2008, the government prepared a Gas Master Plan that was intended to promote natural gas production and encourage the supply of natural gas to domestic power stations so as to help alleviate the country's electricity shortages. There is also an export gas pipeline known as the West African Gas Pipeline in

2457-650: Is the delta of the Niger River sitting directly on the Gulf of Guinea on the Atlantic Ocean in Nigeria . It is located within nine coastal southern Nigerian states, which include: all six states from the South South geopolitical zone, one state ( Ondo ) from South West geopolitical zone and two states ( Abia and Imo ) from South East geopolitical zone. The Niger Delta is a very densely populated region sometimes called

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2574-492: Is the Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria Ltd, a joint venture that is majority-owned by the Nigerian government. In Nigeria, "...despite regulations introduced 20 years ago to outlaw the practice, most associated gas is flared, causing local pollution and contributing to climate change." The environmental devastation associated with the industry and the lack of distribution of oil wealth have been

2691-520: The Department of Petroleum Resources . The most productive region of the nation is the coastal Niger Delta Basin in the Niger Delta or " South-south " region, which encompasses 78 of the 159 oil fields. Most of Nigeria's oil fields are small and scattered, and in 1990, these small unproductive fields accounted for 62.1% of all Nigerian production. This contrasts with the sixteen largest fields, which produced 37.9% of Nigeria's petroleum at that time. As

2808-448: The Efik people ( Annang / Efik / Ibibio who are all related with a common language and ancestors who were all referred to as Efik or Calabar people in early Nigerian history). Their capital city of Calabar , located at the coastal southeast of Nigeria (eastern Niger Delta) served as the major trading and shipping center during the pre-colonial and colonial period. Calabar also served as

2925-544: The Heads of the Federal Military Government of Nigeria , who ruled amidst the oil boom of the 1970s that the political economy of petroleum in Nigeria truly became characterised by endemic patronage and corruption by the political elites , which plagues the nation to this day. At both state and federal government levels, power and therefore wealth has typically been monopolised by select lobby groups who maintain

3042-688: The Ijaw (including the Nembe-Brass, Ogbia, Kalabari people , Ibani of Opobo & Bonny, Abua, Okrika , Engenni and Andoni clans), the Ogoni people (Khana, Gokana, Tai and Eleme), the Etche, Egbema, Omuma, Ogba, Ikwerre, Ndoni, Ekpeye and Ndoki in Rivers State. Eastern Niger Delta consists of Cross River State and Akwa Ibom State. It has the homogeneous Annang , Efik and Ibibio people. Nigeria has become West Africa 's biggest producer of petroleum. Some 2 million barrels (320,000 m ) per day are extracted in

3159-551: The Ijaw people in the Kaiama Declaration in 1998, the Nigerian government sent troops to occupy the Bayelsa and Delta states. Soldiers opened fire with rifles, machine guns, and tear gas, killing at least three protesters and arresting twenty-five more. Since then, local indigenous activity against commercial oil refineries and pipelines in the region has increased in frequency and militancy. Recently foreign employees of Shell ,

3276-526: The Niger Delta states, where the stakes for control of the immense oil resources are very high. At the federal level, political elites have utilised patronage to consolidate power for the ruling government, not only by rewarding their political friends in the federal government, but also by paying off major interest groups at the state or tribal level in order to elicit their cooperation. Inevitably these financial favours are distributed unequally and inefficiently, resulting in concentration of wealth and power in

3393-640: The Oil Rivers because it was once a major producer of palm oil . The area was the British Oil Rivers Protectorate from 1885 until 1893, when it was expanded and became the Niger Coast Protectorate . The delta is a petroleum-rich region and has been the center of international concern over extensive pollution which is often used as an example of ecocide . The principal cause is major oil spills by multinational corporations of

3510-580: The United States Energy Information Administration (EIA) at between 16 and 22 billion barrels (2.5 × 10 and 3.5 × 10  m ), but other sources claim that there could be as much as 35.3 billion barrels (5.61 × 10  m ). Its reserves make Nigeria the tenth most petroleum-rich nation and by far, the most affluent in Africa. In mid-2001, its crude oil production was averaging around 2,200,000 barrels (350,000 m ) per day. It

3627-530: The Yoruba and the Efik grew extremely prominent in the region before the arrival of foreigners, dictated British colonial policies, and dominate national politics in Nigeria to this day. The modern Hausa and Fulani societies in northern Nigeria are the cultural successors of the Sokoto Caliphate , a theocratic state founded by Muslim reformer empire-maker Uthman dan Fodio in 1817. Geographically isolated in

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3744-475: The natural gas extracted in oil wells in the delta is immediately burned, or flared , into the air at a rate of approximately 70 million m per day. This is equivalent to 41% of African natural gas consumption and forms the largest single source of greenhouse gas emissions on the planet. In 2003, about 99% of excess gas was flared in the Niger Delta, although this value has fallen to 11% in 2010. (See also gas flaring volumes ). The biggest gas flaring company

3861-422: The petroleum industry. The Niger Delta, as now defined officially by the Nigerian government, extends over 70,000 km (27,000 sq mi) and makes up 7.5% of Nigeria's land mass. Historically and cartographically, it consists of present-day Bayelsa , Delta , and Rivers States . In 2000, however, Obasanjo's regime included Abia , Akwa-Ibom , Cross River State , Edo , Imo and Ondo States in

3978-469: The slave trade prior to its international banning (the region came to be known as the Slave Coast as a result). The Niger Delta region, which is roughly synonymous with the Niger Delta province in location and the contemporary heart of the petroleum industry, is and was a zone of dense cultural diversity and is currently inhabited by roughly forty ethnic groups speaking an estimated 250 dialects. Some of

4095-669: The Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria by the military forces of the British Empire in 1914, the territory of Nigeria was a loose collection of autonomous states, villages, and ethnic communities. Many of these established themselves as pillars of art, trade, and politics in West Africa as late as the 19th century; four of these cultural entities, the Hausa-Fulani , the Igbo (sometimes spelled Ibo ),

4212-577: The Eastern region and Gowon's federal government, on 4–5 January 1967, in compliance with Ojukwu's desire to meet for talks only on neutral soil, a summit attended by Gowon, Ojukwu and other members of the Supreme Military Council was held at Aburi in Ghana, the stated purpose of which was to resolve all outstanding conflicts and establish Nigeria as a confederation of regions. The outcome of this summit

4329-543: The National Convention of Nigerian Citizens, after western Cameroon decided to separate from Nigeria. The ruling party of eastern Nigeria did not seek to preclude the separation and even encouraged it. The then Eastern Region had the third, fourth and fifth largest indigenous ethnic groups in the country, which are the Igbo , Ibibio and Ijaw . In 1953, the Old Eastern region had a major crisis when professor Eyo Ita

4446-643: The New Port Harcourt Refinery, which can produce 150,000 barrels (24,000 m ) per day (there is also an 'Old' Port Harcourt Refinery with negligible production), as well as the now defunct Kaduna Refinery. The Port Harcourt and Warri Refineries both operate at only 30% capacity. The Dangote Refinery , expected to open during the fourth quarter of 2022 will have a daily refining capacity of 650,000 barrels (103,000 m ), increasing Nigeria's refining capacity to over 1,000,000 barrels (160,000 m ) per day. Prior to its official amalgamation into

4563-517: The Niger Delta against both, pipelines and oil-production facilities, and the Nigerian soldiers that protect them. Both MEND and the Nigerian Government claim to have inflicted heavy casualties on one another. In August 2009, the Nigerian government granted amnesty to the militants; many militants subsequently surrendered their weapons in exchange for a presidential pardon, rehabilitation programme, and education. Western Niger Delta consists of

4680-478: The Niger Delta, with an estimated 38 billion barrels of reserves. The first oil operations in the region began in the 1950s and were undertaken by multinational corporations, which provided Nigeria with necessary technological and financial resources to extract oil. Since 1975, the region has accounted for more than 75% of Nigeria's export earnings. Together oil and natural gas extraction comprise "97 per cent of Nigeria's foreign exchange revenues". More than 70% of

4797-446: The Nigerian federal government had only limited involvement in the oil industry , and the government confined its financial involvement in the oil industry to taxes and royalties on the oil companies. The companies were subsequently able to set their own price on the petroleum they extracted, and dominated petroleum to such a point that laws governing the oil sector were having a negative effect on Nigerian interests. However, even during

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4914-496: The Nigerian people which would lead to important consequences in the future. Originally this was done primarily through the government-owned Royal Niger Company . The company was crucial in securing most of Nigeria's major ports and monopolised coastal trade; this resulted in the severing of the ties which had linked the area to the flourishing West African regional trade network, in favour of the exportation of cheap natural resources and cash crops to industrialising nations. Most of

5031-467: The Scientific Committee on Health, Environmental and Emerging Risks, more than 1300 different chemicals can be put into the environment as a result of oil and gas exploration. Then, humans come in contact with these harmful substances through eating contaminated food as well as breathing in the air pollution. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are especially concerning because of their persistence in

5148-457: The United States' oil imports and ranked as the fifth-largest source for oil imports in the U.S. However, Nigeria ceased exports to the U.S. in July 2014 due to increasing competition from U.S. domestic oil production, itself the result of the massive growth of the oil shale industry . India is the largest consumer of Nigerian oil as of 2021. There are six petroleum exportation terminals in

5265-597: The Western Niger was controlled by Kings of the four primary ethnic groups the Urhobo, Isoko, Ijaw, and, Itsekiri with whom the British government had to sign separate "Treaties of Protection" in their formation of "Protectorates" that later became southern Nigeria. Central Niger Delta consists of the central section of coastal South-South Nigeria which includes Bayelsa, Rivers, Abia and Imo States. The Central Niger Delta region has

5382-623: The area that has been contaminated by oil/gas pollution. This population is especially vulnerable to chronic illnesses because of their pre-existing low life expectancy and large ratio of young people. Additionally, a 2006 report done by the United Nations Development Programme says “The Niger Delta is a region suffering from administrative neglect, crumbling social infrastructure and services, high unemployment, social deprivation, abject poverty, filth and squalor, and endemic conflict,". These factors make it increasingly harder for

5499-573: The black gold extracted from their land could be heard at this time. Overall, petroleum accounted for 96% of all government external revenue but a mere 27% of the nation's GDP. However, the advent of democracy did not improve the situation. A 1982 Revenue Act implemented by the Shagari government would eventually be modified by yet another military regime in 1984 via Decree 36 which reduced the government share of oil revenue from 80% to 55%. States got 32.5% and 10% went to local governments. The remaining 1.5%

5616-477: The blowing up of oil installations. 05°19′34″N 06°28′15″E  /  5.32611°N 6.47083°E  / 5.32611; 6.47083 Petroleum industry in Nigeria Nigeria is the second largest oil and gas producer in Africa (after Angola ). Crude oil from the Niger Delta basin comes in two types: light , and comparatively heavy – the lighter has around 36 of API gravity while

5733-526: The college's trainees, Samuel Bill (1864–1942) from Belfast, responded energetically. In 1887, he set sail, without financial backing. The Calabar Mission could not afford him, and he started work alone at the mouth of the Qua Iboe River in December 1887, designing and constructing for himself a house, and the church at Upenekang. Bill's lifelong friend, Archibald Bailie commenced initial efforts at establishing

5850-408: The colonial Calabar division, and colonial Ogoja division. Rivers State was also created. Southeastern State and River State became two states for the minorities of the old eastern region, and the majority Igbo of the old eastern region had a state called East Central State. Southeastern State was renamed Cross River State and was later split into Cross River State and Akwa Ibom State. Rivers State

5967-409: The conflict with Biafra would force changes to the relationship between federal government and the petroleum industry. Gowon's military government instituted the 1969 Petroleum Decree which dismantled the existing revenue allocation system that had divided revenue from oil taxes equally between federal and state government, instead favouring an allocation formula in which the federal government controlled

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6084-508: The country virtually ceased". For these reasons, seizure of power by General Muhammadu Buhari a short time after the NPN government was fraudulently re-elected was initially perceived as a positive development by civilians. Buhari charged out of the gate in December 1983, declaring himself Head of the Supreme Military Council of Nigeria , he condemned the civilian government's blatant corruption and instituted programs supposedly designed to eliminate

6201-573: The country. In the pursuit of commercially available petroleum, Shell-BP found oil in Oloibiri , Nigeria, in 1956. Other important oil wells discovered during the period were Afam and Bomu in Ogoni territory. Production of crude oil began in 1957, and in 1960, a total of 847,000 tonnes of crude oil was exported. Towards the end of the 1950s, non-British firms were granted license to explore for oil: Mobil in 1955, Tenneco in 1960, Gulf Oil , later Chevron in 1961, Agip in 1962, and Elf in 1962. Prior to

6318-691: The country. Shell owns two, while Mobil , Chevron, Texaco, and Agip own one each. Shell also owns the Forcados Terminal, which is capable of storing 13 million barrels (2,100,000 m ) of crude oil in conjunction with the nearby Bonny Terminal. Mobil operates primarily out of the Qua Iboe Terminal in Akwa Ibom State , while Chevron owns the Escravos Terminal located in Delta State and has

6435-675: The creation of the COR state continued and was a major issue concerning the status of minorities in Nigeria during debates in Europe on Nigerian independence. As a result of this crisis, Professor Eyo Ita left the NCNC to form a new political party called the National Independence Party which was one of the five Nigerian political parties represented at the conferences on Nigerian Constitution and Independence. In 1961, another major crisis occurred when

6552-399: The delicate balance of the region's ecosystems. They impact both the environment and the livelihoods of the communities that depend on its resources. Two spills in 2008 and 2009 have been the largest and most harmful by far, collectively lasting for almost 150 days and causing flora death over a span of 393 km2. The extensive network of tidal rivers and mangrove swamps makes it even easier for

6669-487: The demands of the civilian population, and in 1979 military head of state Olusegun Obasanjo handed over power to elected National Party of Nigeria (NPN) candidate Shehu Shagari . This event coincided with the declaration of Nigeria's Second Republic. At this juncture, the oil producing states of the Niger Delta were accounting for 82% of all federal government revenue but the population of these areas received very little compensation and demands for adequate reimbursement for

6786-413: The discovery of oil, Nigeria (like many other African countries) strongly relied on agricultural exports to supply its economy. But after nearly 50 years searching for oil in the country, Shell-BP discovered oil at Oloibiri in the Niger Delta . The first oil field began production in 1958. After that, the economy of Nigeria might have been expected to experience strong growth. However, competition for

6903-497: The disease of corruption. However, these measures were largely transparent and the looting of federal coffers by Nigeria's rulers continued largely unabated, "as Shagari's officers  – both within party and government – left the country, came in and out as they pleased, while Buhari's tribunal sentence opposition figures to spells of between a hundred and three hundred years in prison for every dubious kind of crime". The Buhari government neglected to punish even Shagari himself,

7020-503: The dispensation of revenues to the states. After the loss of over 2,000,000 lives, the war concluded in 1970 and resulted in a victory for the Nigerian state, as the withdrawing regions were subsequently brought back into the Nigerian fold. In May 1971 the Nigerian federal government, then under the control of General Yakubu Gowon , nationalised the oil industry by creating the Nigerian National Oil Corporation via

7137-546: The early 1960s Mobil , Texaco , and Gulf had purchased concessions. In October 1960, Nigeria gained full independence from Britain with the British monarch continuing to preside as Head of State , but the country quickly altered its relationship with its former colonizers by declaring Nigeria a republic of three federated states (the Eastern, Western and Northern Regions). But the flaring of ethnic tensions assured that this new republic would be short-lived, as on 15 January 1966,

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7254-458: The east to fear that oil revenues would be used to benefit areas in the north and west rather than their own. The desire to accrue profits from oil revenues combined with ethnic tensions acted as a catalyst for the Igbo-spearheaded secession. Additionally, despite his denials in later years, it appears that Ojukwu's insistence on secession at the time was heavily influenced by his knowledge of

7371-452: The ecological damage. The exact impact of spills like these is hard to know due to the fact that traditional field studies are nearly impossible in this region. However, techniques such as the normalized difference vegetation index have been successful in measuring the impact of oil spills on the river's plant health. Additionally, independently collected field samples have confirmed the presence of hydrocarbon pollutants in high concentrations in

7488-602: The environment. Even in low amounts, prolonged exposure can cause serious health issues such as cancer and other chronic illnesses. In general, the harmful pollutants emitted from oil spills and other pollution include cancer, metabolic syndrome, miscarriages, stillbirths, and infertility. Less deadly, but still serious, health problems include headache, watery eyes, sore throat, respiratory problems, itchy skin, rashes on face and neck, sneezing, coughing, nausea, dizziness, chest pain, and diarrhea are common issues caused from oil spills. Collectively, more than 1 million people live in

7605-427: The establishment of permanent British control, but the majority followed traditional indigenous religions, worshipping myriad deities with vast domains spanning both cosmic and terrestrial spheres. Coastal Nigerians established thriving trade both regionally and abroad, fashioning the coast into a hub for products like palm oil , a good sought after by rapidly industrialising Europe, while also serving as key source for

7722-499: The exploration of commercial oil in the country. Thereafter, licenses were given to D'Arcy Exploration Company and Whitehall Petroleum, but neither company found oil of commercial value and they returned their licenses in 1923. A new license covering 920,000 square kilometres (357,000 square miles) was given to Shell D'arcy Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria, a consortium of Shell and BP (then known as Anglo-Iranian ). The company began exploratory work in 1937. The association

7839-528: The extent of the area's oil reserves. Recent evidence has suggested a tax battle waged by American oil companies contributed to the regional and ethnic tensions that would lead to the outbreak of war. It was also during this period that, again thanks to the Americans, the opacity and concomitant corruption of Nigerian oil began to crystallise. However, evidence from leaked US State Department documents have proven that Britain, through Shell-Mex & BP , still held

7956-533: The federal government becoming strained, with the government at one point accusing the oil company Safrap (now TotalFinaElf , but Elf until 1974) of favouring Biafra and enlisting the aid of France for the Biafran cause. Shell, the other major holder of concessions in the southeast, was concerned but placated and limited politically by Britain's staunch support of the Nigerian government in the war effort. Despite oil's prominent role in national affairs, up to this time,

8073-483: The federal government created the Land Use Act which vested control over state lands in military governors appointed by the federal military regime, and eventually led to Section 40(3) of the 1979 constitution which declared all minerals, oil, natural gas, and natural resources found within the bounds of Nigeria to be legal property of the Nigerian federal government. 1979: In an effort to establish further control over

8190-524: The first capital of Nigeria and the point of entry of Western religion and Western education into southeastern Nigeria. The combined population of the Ibibio , Annang , and Efik people is the fourth largest language group in Nigeria. Even before the combination of British control over all of present-day Nigeria's borders in 1914 from the protectorates of Southern and Northern Nigeria , British forces had begun imposing drastic political and economic policies on

8307-540: The hands of a small minority. Nigeria is ranked by the Corruption Perceptions Index 136st out of 180 countries total (for comparison, this is the same as Russia). Following the NNOC's genesis, the Nigerian government continued to garner control over oil revenues. In 1972 it declared that all property not currently owned by a foreign entity was legally the property of the government, which gained jurisdiction over

8424-556: The heavier has 20–25 of API gravity. Both types are paraffinic and low in Sulphur . Nigeria's economy and budget have been largely supported from income and revenues generated from the petroleum industry since 1960. Statistics as at February 2021 shows that the Nigerian oil sector contributes to about 9% of the GDP of the nation. The need for holistic reforms in the petroleum industry, ease of doing business, and encouragement of local content in

8541-449: The impacted areas. Oil and gas pollution/spills greatly increase the possibility of human exposure to dangerous chemicals. Many components of crude oil are particularly concerning due to their link to the health problems caused by exposure. This includes organic contaminants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene, as well as heavy metals such as lead, vanadium and cadmium. In fact, according to

8658-640: The industry birthed the Petroleum Industry Bill by the Goodluck Jonathan administration on 18 July 2008. The history of oil exploration in Nigeria goes back to 1903, when the Nigerian Bitumen Corporation conducted exploratory work in the country. At the onset of World War I , the firm's operations were stopped. Due to lack of technological and financial resources of small oil companies, large and strong other oil companies took over

8775-579: The industry, the government merges and restructures the NNOC and the Ministry of Petroleum to form the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation , an entity which would exert more power over the allocation and sale of concessions than the NNOC. By 1979, the NNPC had also gained 60% participation in the oil industry. Despite the vast revenues accrued by Gowon and his heirs, the junta succumbed to

8892-567: The inhabitants of the political Niger Delta, speaking about 250 different dialects. Language groups spoken in the Niger Delta include the Igbo languages , Ijaw languages , Ibibio-Efik languages , Urhobo language , Isoko language , Edoid languages . The area was the British Oil Rivers Protectorate from 1885 until 1893 when it was expanded and became the Niger Coast Protectorate. The core Niger Delta later became

9009-456: The local communities to deal with the negative effects caused by foreign oil exploration. The people affected by oil spills in the Niger Delta are diverse communities residing in the region. Their lives are intricately connected to the natural environment. These communities, often made up of indigenous groups, rely on the Niger Delta's resources for their food, water, livelihoods, and cultural practices. The impact of oil spills on these communities

9126-620: The mission is entrusted to the Chief Executive. Mission Africa is a member of Global Connections, the UK wide missions alliance, and Northern Ireland's mission facilitation organisation, Mission Agencies Partnership. The organisation's missionary efforts today are focused on theological education, cross-cultural training, church planting, medical work, responding to HIV/Aids, literature evangelism, and youth ministry. Its work, in various spheres of mission, includes: Niger Delta The Niger Delta

9243-507: The money from the economy. Many citizens of Nigeria believe that they have not been able to experience the economic benefits derived from oil extraction in Nigeria. In large part due to Nigerian government officials remaining majority shareholders in the profits created by the production of Nigerian oil, leading to government capturing of nearly all oil production, and citizens not seeing socio-economic benefits. The president of Nigeria as of 2023, Bola Tinubu , has taken steps to privatize

9360-726: The more relevant ethnic groups in the western part of the Niger Delta region include the Ijaw , Itsekiri , and Ogoni . The Ijaw (sometimes spelled Ijo ), the fourth most populous tribe in Nigeria and by far the largest in the Delta region, lived during late medieval times in small fishing villages within the inlets of the delta; however by the 16th century, as the slave trade grew in importance, Ijaw port cities like Bonny and Brass developed into major trading states which served as major exporters of fish and other goods regionally. Other states such as those of Itsekiri domain of Warri sprang up at this time as well. The eastern Niger Delta region has

9477-584: The most influence over the Nigerian oil industry at the time the war broke out. The United States declared neutrality, with US Secretary of State Dean Rusk stating that "America is not in a position to take action as Nigeria is an area under British influence". On top of scores of deaths, the war had a largely negative impact on the oil industry. Strife caused production of crude to drop significantly, particularly in Biafra. Total crude output decreased from 420,000 barrels per day (67,000 cubic metres per day) in 1966 at

9594-598: The north, the Caliphate was governed by Islamic laws as prescribed by dan Fodio's Kitab al-Farq and maintained greater links commercially and culturally to North Africa and the Arab states than to West Africa and the Atlantic. By contrast, the Yoruba , the Igbo and the Efik in the south had regularly experienced contact with Europeans since at least the 16th century. A minority of southerners converted to Christianity even prior to

9711-770: The oil and gas industry in Nigeria. Decades of government ownership and control of the industry left the people at large impoverished and unable to experience any of the economic gain related to oil and gas exploration and extraction, Tinubu hopes that privatization and free markets will allow for greater equity in the space that has been rife with corruption since the 1950s in Nigeria when petroleum products were first discovered. As of 2000, oil and gas exports accounted for more than 98% of export earnings and about 83% of federal government revenue, as well as generating more than 14% of its GDP. It also provides 95% of foreign exchange earnings , and about 65% of government budgetary revenues . Nigeria's proven oil reserves are estimated by

9828-507: The oil from the Niger Delta , with less exposure to conflict versus the operations on land. As of 2014, an open-air market for illegal crude oil operates off the Niger Delta, called the Togo Triangle . As of 2021, Angola and Nigeria were the largest oil producers in Africa. In Nigeria, the deepwater sector still has a large avenue to expand and develop. The Agbami oilfields hit full production in 2005, at 250,000 barrels (40,000 m )

9945-527: The oil is largely free of sulfur . Nigeria is the largest producer of sweet oil in OPEC. This sweet oil is similar in composition to the petroleum extracted from the North Sea . This crude oil is known as "Bonny light". Names of other Nigerian crudes, all of which are named according to export terminal, are Qua Ibo, Escravos blend, Brass River , Forcados , and Pennington Anfan. In 2010, Nigeria provided about 10% of

10062-435: The oil to spread quickly, and the delta becomes a sink, trapping the oil that is not removed. The spills came from a pipeline operated by Shell Petroleum Development Company. In addition to smaller spills that took place over the years 2006–2019, it is estimated that a total of 92,479,170 liters (or 24430412.139 gallons) of crude oil were released into the studied area. Since then, following spills have continued to exacerbate

10179-402: The other OPEC countries. The reason for Nigeria's relative unproductivity is primarily OPEC 's regulations on production, to regulate prices at the international market. More recently, production has been disrupted intermittently by the protests of the Niger Delta's inhabitants, who feel they are being exploited. Nigeria has a total of 159 oil fields and 1481 wells in operation according to

10296-557: The percentage of the revenue oil-producing states retain from taxes on oil and other natural resources produced in the state. World Bank Report The documentary film Sweet Crude , which premiered April 2009 at the Full Frame Documentary Film Festival, tells the story of Nigeria's Niger Delta. The Niger Delta is a region of unparalleled ecological richness, characterized by its intricate network of waterways, lush mangrove forests, and diverse ecosystems. However,

10413-443: The population eventually abandoned food production for such market-dependent crops (peanuts and cotton in the north, palm oil in the east, and cocoa in the west). From the beginning, divide and rule tactics were employed by both traders and administrators, highlighting ethno-religious differences and playing groups against one another. After 1914, the north was permitted a system of indirect rule under authoritarian leaders, while in

10530-551: The present day. The Qua Iboe Church (now the QIC-United Evangelical Church of Nigeria) had by 2000 founded three colleges of theology, including the Samuel Bill Theological College at Ikot Ekang, Abak (started in the 1940s), three post-primary teaching institutions including Etinan Institute (started 1915), two hospitals (at Ekpene Obom and Ochadamu, the latter known as Holley Memorial Hospital) and

10647-478: The primary corporation operating in the region, were taken hostage by local people. Such activities have also resulted in greater governmental intervention in the area and the mobilization of the Nigerian Army and State Security Service into the region, resulting in violence and human rights abuses. In April 2006, a bomb exploded near an oil refinery in the Niger Delta region, a warning against Chinese expansion in

10764-410: The profits from oil, coupled with the government keeping almost all of the profits for themselves, left little economic benefit for the people. In one interview with locals that were young at the time of oil discover, the blame was placed largely on the government and the greed of bureaucrats: I don't only blame the whites that came here, what about the government? People in the government get nearly all

10881-531: The region, despite all the oil wealth created. They also complained about environmental pollution and the destruction of their land and rivers by foreign oil companies. Ken Saro Wiwa and nine other oil activists from Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People (MOSOP) were arrested and killed under Sani Abacha in 1995. When long-held concerns about loss of control over resources to the oil companies were voiced by

10998-661: The region. The Niger Delta and the South-South geopolitical zone (which contains six of the states in the Niger Delta) are two different entities. The Niger Delta separates the Bight of Benin from the Bight of Bonny within the larger Gulf of Guinea . Some 31 million people of more than 40 ethnic groups including the Igbo , Ijaw , Ibibio , Urhobo , Annang , Oron , Efik , Ogoni , Abua , Bini , Esan , Isoko , Kalabari , Okrika , Epie-Atissa people and Obolo people , are among

11115-619: The region. The Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND) stated: "We wish to warn the Chinese government and its oil companies to steer well clear of the Niger Delta. The Chinese government, by investing in stolen crude, places its citizens in our line of fire." Government and private initiatives to develop the Niger Delta region have been introduced recently. These include the Niger Delta Development Commission,

11232-514: The sale and allocation of concessions to foreign investors. The military regime oversaw the implementation of a number of other important milestones related to oil: 1974: Participation in oil industry by government increases to 55%. 1975: Decree 6 increases federal government share in oil sector to 80%, with only 20% going to the states. 1976: First exploration and development venture by NNOC undertaken and drills to uncover commercial quantities of petroleum offshore. 1978: Perhaps most importantly,

11349-450: The same year. This second coup established the regime of Major General Yakubu Gowon . Subsequently, the massacre of thousands of Igbo in the north prompted hundreds of thousands to return to the southeast, where increasingly strong Igbo secessionist sentiment emerged under the leadership of the Igbo military governor Lieutenant Colonel Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu . With tensions stoked between

11466-456: The serene beauty of this landscape has been damaged by a persistent environmental menace, oil spills. Over the years, the Niger Delta has experienced a series of devastating oil spills, primarily caused by industrial activities related to the extraction and transportation of oil and gas. Due to this high amount of spills, the Niger Delta is considered one of the most polluted areas on Earth. These spills have inflicted severe and continuous damage on

11583-600: The source and/or key aggravating factors of numerous environmental movements and inter-ethnic conflicts in the region, including recent guerrilla activity by MEND. In September 2012 Eland Oil & Gas purchased a 45% interest in OML 40, with its partner Starcrest Energy Nigeria Limited, from the Shell Group. They intend to recommission the existing infrastructure and restart existing wells to re-commence production at an initial gross rate of 2,500 barrels (400 m ) of oil per day with

11700-465: The south the British exercised control directly . Interest in Nigerian oil originated in 1914 with an ordinance making any oil and mineral under Nigerian soil legal property of the Crown. By 1938 the colonial government had granted the state-sponsored company, Shell (then known as Shell D'Arcy) a monopoly over the exploration of all minerals and petroleum throughout the entire colony. Commercially viable oil

11817-426: The start of the war, to only 140,000 barrels per day (22,000 cubic metres per day) in 1968. Shell alone saw a drop from 367,000 barrels per day (58,300 cubic metres per day) in 1966, to 43,000 (6,800) in 1968. And in addition to concerns about production, oil companies began experiencing uncertainty as to the future of their investments depending on who prevailed in the war. This led to relations between oil companies and

11934-563: The surface of the water to expand the possible sources for finding new oil reserves. As of 2005, 50% more oil could be extracted through deep water drilling, than before. In 2003, the amount of oil extracted from Nigeria was expected to expand from 15,000 barrels per day (2,400 m /d) to 1.27 million barrels per day (202,000 m /d) in 2010. Deepwater oil production is less vulnerable to disturbance by local militant attacks and seizures, due to civil conflicts, and sabotage. These advancements offer more resources and alternatives to extract

12051-457: The then-eastern region of Nigeria allowed present-day southwestern Cameroon to separate from Nigeria (from the region of what is now Akwa Ibom and Cross River states) through a plebiscite while the leadership of the Northern Region took the necessary steps to keep northwestern Cameroon in Nigeria, in present-day Adamawa and Taraba states. The aftermath of the 1961 plebiscite has led to

12168-732: The western section of coastal South-South Nigeria which includes Delta, and the southernmost parts of Edo, and Ondo States. The western (or Northern) Niger Delta is a heterogeneous society with several ethnic groups including the Urhobo , Isoko , Ijaw (or Izon) and Ukwuani , Itsekiri the Bini , Esan , Auchi, Esako, oral, and Afenmai in Edo State; and the Ilaje Yoruba in Ondo State. Their livelihoods are primarily based on fishing and farming. History has it that

12285-472: The works, but it has encountered numerous setbacks. The pipeline would allow for transportation of natural gas to Benin , Ghana , Togo , and Côte d'Ivoire . Much of Nigeria's natural gas is flared off . A decade from 1979 to 1989, motor spirit consumption in Nigeria increased from 2.3 million metric tons (MMT) to 4.4 MMT, an average annual increase of 7.5%. In 1989, motor spirit consumption grew by 12.8%. Nigeria's total petroleum refining capacity currently

12402-420: Was accomplished mainly through business deals on concessions of the foreign firms in operation. The creation of the NNOC made government participation in the industry legally binding. The federal government would continue to consolidate its oil involvement throughout the next several decades. However, it was during the years of Gowon and his successors Murtala Mohammed and Olusegun Obasanjo known officially as

12519-609: Was achieved largely through the bankrupting of the federal government's treasury. Another disturbing trend had also been gaining steam in Nigeria since the early 1970s: a steep drop in agricultural production correlating roughly with the rise in federal revenues from petroleum extraction. Whereas previously Nigeria had been the world's lead exporter of cocoa , production of this cash crop dropped by 43%, while productivity in other important income generators like rubber (29%), groundnuts (64%), and cotton (65%) plummeted as well between 1972 and 1983. The decline in agricultural production

12636-500: Was discovered by Shell in 1956 roughly 90 kilometres (56 mi) west of the soon-to-be oil capital of Port Harcourt at Oloibiri , now in Bayelsa State ; initially a 50–50 profit sharing system was implemented between the company and the government. Until the late 1950s concessions on production and exploration continued to be the exclusive domain of the company, then known as Shell - BP . However, other firms became interested and by

12753-483: Was earmarked as a special fund to new develop oil-producing areas, but during the Shagari regime the corruption in Nigerian governance reached its zenith and capital flight out of Nigeria peaked, while people in the oil-producing areas continued to receive little or none of the oil profits. Additionally, 1980 saw oil-generated revenues attain an all-time high of US$ 24.9 billion but Nigeria still managed an international debt of $ 9 billion. Shagari's NPN government

12870-478: Was expelled from office by the majority Igbo tribe of the Old Eastern region. Ita, an Efik man from Calabar , was one of the pioneer nationalists for Nigerian independence. The minorities in the region, the Ibibio , Annang , Efik , Ijaw and Ogoja , were situated along the southeastern coast and in the delta region and demanded a state of their own, the Calabar-Ogoja-Rivers (COR) state. The struggle for

12987-421: Was forced to implement a now notorious import license scheme which essentially involved Nigeria, for the first time in its history, importing basic food items. However, as Nigerian activist and Nobel Laureate Wole Soyinka asserts, "the import license scam that was used by the party as a reward and enticement for party loyalists and would-be supporters cost the nation billions of dollars...while food production in

13104-545: Was granted license to explore oil all over the territory of Nigeria but, the acreage allotted to the company in the original license was reduced in 1951 and then, between 1955 and 1957. Drilling activities started in 1951 with the first test well drilled in Owerri area. Oil was discovered in non-commercial quantities at Akata, near Eket in 1953. Prior to the Akata find, the company had spent around £ 6 million on exploratory activities in

13221-565: Was intended to convey the broader scope of the Mission, since it is no longer confined to one area of Nigeria. The official legal name of the mission is now Mission Africa (The Qua Iboe Fellowship). It is a registered company in Belfast (R611) and recognised by the British tax authorities (HMRC) as a charity, XN45493. Mission Africa is governed by a Home Council, drawn from the Christian Community in Northern Ireland. Everyday running of

13338-488: Was later divided into Rivers State and Bayelsa State. Niger Delta people suffered heavily with the great loss of lives and properties, hunger and starvation, and sustained many deaths during 1967–1970 Nigerian Civil War , also known as the Biafran War, in which the eastern region declared an independent state named Biafra that was eventually defeated. During this period, schools were shut down completely, and gunfire became

13455-415: Was not limited to cash crops amid the oil boom, and national output of staple foodstuffs also fell. This situation contrasts to Nigeria in 1960 just after independence, when despite British underdevelopment, the nation was more or less self-sufficient in terms of food supply, while crops made up 97% of all revenue from exports. The drop in production was so substantial that by the early 1980s the NPN government

13572-674: Was the Aburi Accord , the differing interpretations of which would soon cause Ojukwu to declare Biafran independence and plunge Nigeria into civil war . Igbo withdrawal arose in part from the pogroms in the North that were aimed at Eastern people, most specifically, the Igbo. However, since the southeast encompassed most of the petroleum-rich Niger Delta , the prospect emerged of the Eastern Region gaining self-sufficiency and increasing prosperity. The exclusion of easterners from power caused many in

13689-437: Was viewed by the majority of Nigerians as incorrigibly corrupt by the time the national elections of 1983 came about. Shagari and his subordinates steadily transformed Nigeria into a police state where Nigerian military and police forces were permitted to utilise force quite liberally in order to control the civilian population. Such repressive measures were employed to ensure victory in the forthcoming elections, and this outcome

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