The Tawantinsuyu ( Quechua : "land of the four quarters") or Inca Empire was a centralized bureaucracy . It drew upon the administrative forms and practices of previous Andean civilizations such as the Wari Empire and Tiwanaku , and had in common certain practices with its contemporary rivals, notably the Chimor . These institutions and practices were understood, articulated, and elaborated through Andean cosmology and thought. Following the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire , certain aspects of these institutions and practices were continued.
97-477: Inca ideology was founded on Andean cosmology . This cosmology was hierarchical and dualistic , with a variety of opposing forces jostling in position through on-going action. Their worldview was animistic , and their amauta or amawt’a (teachers or sages) taught that the world was suffused with kamaq , meaning "breath" or "life-force". Change was understood as occurring through asymmetries in power between those forces, while pacha , an equilibrium or balance,
194-603: A fischblütige Bourgeoisdoktrinär (a "fish-blooded bourgeois doctrinaire"). The term has since dropped some of its pejorative sting ( euphemism treadmill ), and has become a neutral term in the analysis of differing political opinions and views of social groups . While Marx situated the term within class struggle and domination, others believed it was a necessary part of institutional functioning and social integration . There are many different kinds of ideologies, including political , social , epistemological , and ethical . Recent analysis tends to posit that ideology
291-503: A descriptive sense to refer to political belief systems . The term ideology originates from French idéologie , itself deriving from combining Greek : idéā ( ἰδέα , 'notion, pattern'; close to the Lockean sense of idea ) and -logíā ( -λογῐ́ᾱ , 'the study of'). The term ideology and the system of ideas associated with it was coined in 1796 by Antoine Destutt de Tracy while in prison pending trial during
388-404: A liberal philosophy that would defend individual liberty , property , free markets , and constitutional limits on state power. He argues that, among these aspects, ideology is the most generic term because the 'science of ideas' also contains the study of their expression and deduction. The coup d'état that overthrew Maximilien Robespierre allowed Tracy to pursue his work. Tracy reacted to
485-484: A mallki could not attend an event, his huaoque , or royal statuette, would. Through blood ties, ample estates with yanakuna (servants or retainers) providing labor, and the possession of totemic and deified mallki , a panaqa was able to wield considerable political power, having influence over the selection of future Sapa Incas. Beneath the Cuzco-based top-level of government were the suyu , or quarters. Each suyu
582-662: A reactionary stance, influenced the Italian, Spanish and Russian thinkers who had begun to describe themselves as liberals and who attempted to reignite revolutionary activity in the early 1820s, including the Carbonari societies in France and Italy and the Decembrists in Russia . Karl Marx adopted Napoleon's negative sense of the term, using it in his writings, in which he once described Tracy as
679-824: A social movement , institution , class , or large group that explains how society should work, offering some political and cultural blueprint for a certain social order . Political ideologies are concerned with many different aspects of a society, including but not limited to: the economy , the government , the environment , education , health care , labor law , criminal law , the justice system , social security and welfare , public policy and administration , foreign policy , rights , freedoms and duties , citizenship , immigration , culture and national identity , military administration, and religion . Political ideologies have two dimensions: A political ideology largely concerns itself with how to allocate power and to what ends power should be used. Some parties follow
776-543: A toqrikoq were to maintain state infrastructure, organize the census, and mobilize labor or military resources when called upon. Typically, these governors, be they apu or tuqrikuq , were ethnic Inca, but some provincial groups did manage to ascend to the lower level. Apu , on the other hands, were typically close relatives of the Sapa Inca. The yanakuna formed a unique estate within Inca society and government. To become part of
873-400: A "critical reflection of the ideology concept". In his work, he strove to bring the concept of ideology into the foreground, as well as the closely connected concerns of epistemology and history, defining ideology in terms of a system of presentations that explicitly or implicitly lay claim to absolute truth. Marx's analysis sees ideology as a system of false consciousness that arises from
970-448: A Sapa Inca died, his heir assumed the throne while the rest of his descendants formed a panaqa , or royal lineage charged with maintaining the deceased king (in the form of his mummy) and his estates, in line with the practice of split inheritance . The deceased king himself, or rather his mallki (mummy), was believed to continue to communicate with the living and so was involved in the affairs of state, be they political or ceremonial. If
1067-408: A central government with the Inca at its head and four quarters, or suyu : Chinchay Suyu (northwest), Antisuyu (northeast), Kuntisuyu (southwest), and Qullasuyu (southeast). The four corners of these quarters met at the center, Cuzco. These suyu were likely created around 1460 during the reign of Pachacuti before the empire assumed it largest territorial extent. It is probably the case that at
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#17330863080751164-405: A certain ideology very closely, while others may take broad inspiration from a group of related ideologies without specifically embracing any one of them. Each political ideology contains certain ideas on what it considers the best form of government (e.g., democracy , demagogy , theocracy , caliphate etc.), scope of government (e.g. authoritarianism , libertarianism , federalism , etc.) and
1261-470: A district and the four suyu as administrative regions were grouped into upper hanan and lower hurin divisions. As the Inca did not have written records, it is impossible to exhaustively list the constituent wamani . However, records created during the Spanish colonial period allow us to reconstruct a partial list. There were likely more than 86 wamani , with more than 48 in the highlands and more than 38 on
1358-504: A garrison colony to help maintain order in a newly conquered province, or, alternatively, be seen as questionably loyal and therefore settled among more loyal populations. In certain cases, colonizing mitmaq groups were used to exploit ecozones not seen as efficiently or productively used by native groups. Despite moving perhaps hundreds of miles to new homes, mitmas were still considered members of their original, native group and land for census and mit'a purposes. The mitmaqkuna were not
1455-526: A high value on imperial blood; by the end of the empire, it was common to wed brother and sister. He was "son of the Sun", and his people the intip churin , or "children of the sun," and both his right to rule and mission to conquer derived from his holy ancestor. The Sapa Inca also presided over ideologically-important festivals, notably during the Inti Raymi , attended by soldiers, mummified rulers, nobles, clerics, and
1552-424: A number of other propositions, which are. In this way, the essence of the lacunar discourse is what is not told but is suggested. For example, the statement "All are equal before the law ", which is a theoretical groundwork of current legal systems, suggests that all people may be of equal worth or have equal opportunities. This is not true, according to Althusser, for the concept of private property and power over
1649-511: A society and politically confuses the alienated groups of society via false consciousness . Some explanations have been presented. Antonio Gramsci uses cultural hegemony to explain why the working-class have a false ideological conception of what their best interests are. Marx argued: "The class which has the means of material production at its disposal has control at the same time over the means of mental production." The Marxist formulation of "ideology as an instrument of social reproduction"
1746-484: A sole explanation of ideology is that it does not explain the differences between ideologies. Terror management theory posits that ideology is used as a defence mechanism against threats to their worldview which in turn protect and individuals sense of self-esteem and reduce their awareness of mortality. Evidence shows that priming individuals with an awareness of mortality does not cause individuals to respond in ways underpinned by any particular ideology, but rather
1843-405: A tradition going back to Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels , more recent use treats the term as mainly condemnatory. The term was coined by Antoine Destutt de Tracy , a French Enlightenment aristocrat and philosopher , who conceived it in 1796 as the "science of ideas" to develop a rational system of ideas to oppose the irrational impulses of the mob. In political science , the term is used in
1940-476: A unified and decentralized government in which Cuzco acted as the articulating axis of the different regions or suyu . They appointed highly trusted governors. At the economic level, they decided how much each province should pay according to its resources. They knew how to win over the curacas to ensure control of the communities. These were the intermediaries through whom they collected taxes. Traditionally, every time an emperor died or resigned, his successor
2037-797: A viceroy Attendant yanakuna retainers Attendant yanakuna retainers Kamayuq , non-hereditary bureaucratic officials Willaq Umu , the High Priest of the Sun Michuq , assisting officers Mit’ayuq tax-payers Council of the Realm, consisting of: Khipu kamayuq , record keepers Tukuy rikuq , inspectors reporting to the Sapa Inca Chaski , messengers Mallki , royal mummies Apukuna , military Generals The Inca state had no separate judiciary or codified set of laws . While customs, expectations, and traditional local power holders did much in
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#17330863080752134-473: Is a 'coherent system of ideas' that rely on a few basic assumptions about reality that may or may not have any factual basis. Through this system, ideas become coherent, repeated patterns through the subjective ongoing choices that people make. These ideas serve as the seed around which further thought grows. The belief in an ideology can range from passive acceptance up to fervent advocacy. Definitions, such as by Manfred Steger and Paul James , emphasize both
2231-401: Is apt to succeed his father. The Sapa Inca was the absolute ruler of the empire and accumulated in his power the political, social, military, and economic direction of the state. He ordered and directed the construction of great engineering works, such as Sacsayhuamán , a fortress that took 50 years to complete; or the urban plan of the cities. However, among their most notable works, was
2328-441: Is conceptually important to the sociology of knowledge , viz. Karl Mannheim , Daniel Bell , and Jürgen Habermas et al. Moreover, Mannheim has developed and progressed from the "total" but "special" Marxist conception of ideology to a "general" and "total" ideological conception acknowledging that all ideology (including Marxism ) resulted from social life, an idea developed by the sociologist Pierre Bourdieu . Slavoj Žižek and
2425-554: Is concerned with the causes, consequences and content of ideology, with humans being dubbed the "ideological animal" by Althusser. Many theories have tried to explain the existence of ideology in human societies. Jost, Ledgerwood, and Hardin (2008) propose that ideologies may function as prepackaged units of interpretation that spread because of basic human motives to understand the world, avoid existential threat , and maintain valued interpersonal relationships . The authors conclude that such motives may lead disproportionately to
2522-523: Is difficult, however, due to cultural relativity in definitions. For example, "what Americans now call conservatism much of the world calls liberalism or neoliberalism "; a conservatism in Finland would be labeled socialism in the United States . Philosopher Michael Oakeshott defines single-issue ideologies as "the formalized abridgment of the supposed sub-stratum of the rational truth contained in
2619-430: Is ecology, which studies the relationships among living things on Earth. Perceptual psychologist James J. Gibson believed that human perception of ecological relationships was the basis of self-awareness and cognition itself. Linguist George Lakoff has proposed a cognitive science of mathematics wherein even the most fundamental ideas of arithmetic would be seen as consequences or products of human perception—which
2716-543: Is itself necessarily evolved within an ecology. Deep ecology and the modern ecology movement (and, to a lesser degree, Green parties ) appear to have adopted ecological sciences as a positive ideology. Some notable economically based ideologies include neoliberalism , monetarism , mercantilism , mixed economy , social Darwinism , communism , laissez-faire economics, and free trade . There are also current theories of safe trade and fair trade that can be seen as ideologies. A large amount of research in psychology
2813-733: Is often associated with Francis Fukuyama 's writings on the end of history . Contrastly, Nienhueser (2011) sees research (in the field of human resource management ) as ongoingly "generating ideology". There are many proposed methods for the classification of political ideologies. Ideologies can identify themselves by their position on the political spectrum (e.g. left , center , or right ). They may also be distinguished by single issues around which they may be built (e.g. civil libertarianism , support or opposition to European integration , legalization of marijuana ). They may also be distinguished by political strategies (e.g. populism , personalism ). The classification of political ideology
2910-556: Is reiterated by J. William Fulbright , while a similar form occurs in Eric Hoffer 's The True Believer . The revolution thus becomes established as an ideocracy , though its rise is likely to be checked by a 'political midlife crisis.' Even when the challenging of existing beliefs is encouraged, as in scientific theories, the dominant paradigm or mindset can prevent certain challenges, theories, or experiments from being advanced. A special case of science that has inspired ideology
3007-553: Is too confined to verbal systems. ' Worldview ' is too metaphysical , ' propaganda ' too loaded. Despite or because of its contradictions, 'ideology' still plays a key role in semiotics oriented to social, political life. Authors such as Michael Freeden have also recently incorporated a semantic analysis to the study of ideologies. Sociologists define ideology as "cultural beliefs that justify particular social arrangements, including patterns of inequality". Dominant groups use these sets of cultural beliefs and practices to justify
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3104-507: Is ultimately ideological for Althusser are not the subjective beliefs held in the conscious "minds" of human individuals, but rather discourses that produce these beliefs, the material institutions and rituals that individuals take part in without submitting it to conscious examination and so much more critical thinking . The French Marxist theorist Guy Debord , founding member of the Situationist International , argued that when
3201-477: The Reign of Terror , where he read the works of Locke and Étienne Bonnot de Condillac . Hoping to form a secure foundation for the moral and political sciences , Tracy devised the term for a "science of ideas", basing such upon two things: (1) the sensations that people experience as they interact with the material world; and (2) the ideas that form in their minds due to those sensations. Tracy conceived ideology as
3298-613: The Socratic method , though without extending the vocabulary beyond what the general reader already possessed, and without the examples from observation that practical science would require. Taine identifies it not just with Tracy but also with his milieu , and includes Condillac as one of its precursors. Napoleon Bonaparte came to view ideology as a term of abuse, which he often hurled against his liberal foes in Tracy's Institut national . According to Karl Mannheim 's historical reconstruction of
3395-572: The hanan and hurin divisions of the empire, both within Cuzco and within the Quarters ( hanan suyukuna and hurin suyukuna ). Most of the upper tier of Inca administration were Inca by class, if not blood relatives of the Sapa Inca. Besides the Qoya/Coya (the principal wife or queen), royal wives, children and various attaches to the royal family, the royal panakas lineages held great influence. Every time
3492-430: The means of production results in some people being able to own more than others. This power disparity contradicts the claim that all share both practical worth and future opportunity equally; for example, the rich can afford better legal representation, which practically privileges them before the law. Althusser proffered the concept of the ideological state apparatus to explain his theory of ideology. His first thesis
3589-429: The yanakuna meant severing traditional ayllu ties and obligations, serving the nobility rather than their lineage. For many, it was a way to advance in the social and political hierarchy; being inheritable, it meant a more privileged position for their descendants as well. Their labor was attached to important people or institutions such as the Sapa Inca, a panaqa , the nobility, or to temple lands. The kurakas on
3686-656: The "priest who recounts", who was the High Priest of the Sun. However, it has been noted that beneath the Sapa Inca also sat the Inkap rantin , who was at the very least a confidant and assistant to the Sapa Inca, perhaps along the lines of a prime minister or viceroy . From the time of Topa Inca Yupanqui on, there existed a "Council of the Realm" composed of sixteen nobles: two from hanan Cuzco; two from hurin Cuzco; four from Chinchaysuyu; two from Contisuyu; four from Collasuyu; and two from Antisuyu. This weighting of representation balanced
3783-571: The Huari empire. The colonial-era sources are not entirely clear or in agreement about the nature of the structure of the Inca government. However, its basic structure can be spoken of broadly, even if the exact duties and functions of government positions cannot be told. At the top of the chain of administration sat the Sapa Inca. Next to the Sapa Inca in terms of power may have been the Willaq Umu , literally
3880-656: The Hurin moiety and their rule did not extend beyond the Kingdom of Cusco . Their origins are tied to the mythical establishment of Cusco and are shrouded in the later foundation myth . The dynasty was supposedly founded by Manco Cápac , who is considered the son of the Sun god Inti in Inca mythology . As a rough guide to the later reputation of the early Sapa Incas, in later years capac meant warlord and sinchi meant leader. The second dynasty
3977-420: The Inca bureaucracy, and traditional tribal areas of settlement integrated as provinces, their pre-conquest boundaries typically intact. The continuation of provincial dress was encouraged, serving the function of a social marker . Forcibly resettled populations were likewise not encouraged to assimilate into neighboring, indigenous populations. Many of these administrative techniques seem to have been adopted from
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4074-477: The Inca, the elevation of the god Inti to a preeminent position was therefore nothing radical. Likewise, cults of the dead were very ancient in the Andes, and so the worship of deceased, mummified Incas attended to by their descendant panaqa groups was not revolutionary. However, as Conrad and Demerest argue, the "simplification" of these beliefs and rituals, "stressing the solar aspects of the ancient divine complex" in
4171-513: The Middle East, people prefer traditional beliefs and are less tolerant of liberal values. Protestant Europe , at the other extreme, adheres more to secular beliefs and liberal values. Alone among high-income countries, the United States is exceptional in its adherence to traditional beliefs, in this case Christianity. In political science , a political ideology is a certain ethical set of ideals , principles , doctrines , myths , or symbols of
4268-631: The Spectacle . The American philosopher Eric Hoffer identified several elements that unify followers of a particular ideology: Ronald Inglehart of the University of Michigan is author of the World Values Survey , which, since 1980, has mapped social attitudes in 100 countries representing 90% of global population. Results indicate that where people live is likely to closely correlate with their ideological beliefs. In much of Africa, South Asia and
4365-440: The Sun", the position eventually became hereditary , with son succeeding father . The principal wife of the Inca was known as the coya or quya . The Sapa Inca was at the top of the social hierarchy, and played a dominant role in the political and spiritual realm. Manco Capac , the first Inca monarch, adopted the title capac or qhapaq (roughly translated as " king "). Inca Roca , the sixth Inca monarch,
4462-467: The adoption of system-justifying worldviews . Psychologists generally agree that personality traits , individual difference variables, needs, and ideological beliefs seem to have something in common. Just-world theory posits that people want to believe in a fair world for a sense of control and security and generate ideologies in order to maintain this belief, for example by justifiying inequality or unfortunate events. A critique of just world theory as
4559-434: The best economic system (e.g. capitalism , socialism , etc.). Sometimes the same word is used to identify both an ideology and one of its main ideas. For instance, socialism may refer to an economic system, or it may refer to an ideology that supports that economic system. Post 1991, many commentators claim that we are living in a post-ideological age, in which redemptive, all-encompassing ideologies have failed. This view
4656-461: The coast. The most populous suyu , Chinchaysuyu encompassed the former lands of the Chimú Empire and much of the northern Andes. At its largest extent, the suyu extended through much of modern Ecuador and just into modern Colombia. The second smallest of the suyu , Antisuyu was located northeast of Cuzco in high Andes. Indeed, it is the root of the word "Andes." Collasuyu or Qollasuyu
4753-587: The commitment to an existing one. Zizek calls this "a post-modernist trap". Peter Sloterdijk advanced the same idea already in 1988. Studies have shown that political ideology is somewhat genetically heritable . When a political ideology becomes a dominantly pervasive component within a government, one can speak of an ideocracy . Different forms of government use ideology in various ways, not always restricted to politics and society. Certain ideas and schools of thought become favored, or rejected, over others, depending on their compatibility with or use for
4850-427: The commodity becomes the "essential category" of society, i.e. when the process of commodification has been consummated to its fullest extent, the image of society propagated by the commodity (as it describes all of life as constituted by notions and objects deriving their value only as commodities tradeable in terms of exchange value ), colonizes all of life and reduces society to a mere representation, The Society of
4947-538: The creation of a wamani , the Inca would establish an administrative center known as a hatoñ . The naming of these centers was formulaic; the center of the Colla wamani was hatoñ qolla , while that of the Sora wamani was hatoñ sora , et cetera. Wamani were then further subdivided into saya , reflecting the largely moietal structure of Andean society. The number of saya per wamani varied between two and three, typically
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#17330863080755044-427: The culture and control, while simultaneously ensuring the preservation of that network. At the religious level, they were symbolic of the sun and promoted the worship of Inti, who was regarded as their ancestral father, and organized the calendar. At the political level, they sent inspectors to oversee the loyalty and efficiency of civil servants and collect tribute from the subjugated peoples. The emperors promoted
5141-437: The earlier Frankfurt School added to the "general theory" of ideology a psychoanalytic insight that ideologies do not include only conscious but also unconscious ideas. French Marxist philosopher Louis Althusser proposed that ideology is "the imagined existence (or idea) of things as it relates to the real conditions of existence" and makes use of a lacunar discourse. A number of propositions, which are never untrue, suggest
5238-494: The economic relationships, reflecting and perpetuating the interests of the dominant class. In the Marxist base and superstructure model of society, base denotes the relations of production and modes of production , and superstructure denotes the dominant ideology (i.e. religious, legal, political systems). The economic base of production determines the political superstructure of a society. Ruling class-interests determine
5335-486: The family, education, and religion. As societies changed throughout history, so did the ideologies that justified systems of inequality. Sociological examples of ideologies include racism , sexism , heterosexism , ableism , and ethnocentrism . Sapa Inca The Sapa Inca (from Quechua sapa inka ; lit. ' the only emperor ' ) was the monarch of the Inca Empire ( Tawantinsuyu "the region of
5432-412: The form of Inti as a patron deity of the empire during the reign of Pachacuti. Furthermore, the inclusion of mummified rulers not just into rituals but festivals and state councils elaborated upon the preexisting Andean practice. "Pachacuti" is an appellation created from pacha , equilibrium, and kuti , an act of overturning; Pachacuti was, therefore, someone whose dynamism and power changed the balance in
5529-473: The form of labor ( mitʼa ) and taxes. The Sapa Inca also played a major role in caring for the poor and hungry, hence his other title huacchacoya or waqcha khuyaq "lover and benefactor of the poor". The Sapa was responsible for organizing food redistribution in times of environmental disaster, allocated work via state-sponsored projects, and most notably promoted major state-sponsored religious feasts that followed each successful harvest season. The Inca
5626-526: The former. These saya were of differential status, with one being higher (the hanan saya ) and one lower (the hurin saya ). Ideally each saya would contain roughly 10,000 taxpayers. Therefore, three saya were typically only established in those wamani with around 30,000 taxpayers. Following the saya subdivision, the empire was subdivided into ayllu lineage groups, which were then again divided into upper hanan and lower hurin moieties, and then into individual family units. The capital area, Cusco,
5723-443: The four [provinces]"), as well as ruler of the earlier Kingdom of Cuzco and the later Neo-Inca State . While the origins of the position are mythical and originate from the legendary foundation of the city of Cuzco , it seems to have come into being historically around 1100 AD. Although the Inca believed the sapa Inca to be the son of Inti (the Sun god) and often referred to him as Inti churi "solar son" or Intip churin "son of
5820-467: The general population of Cuzco beginning on the auspicious June solstice and culminating nine days later with the ritual breaking of the earth using a foot plow by the Inca himself. Moreover, Cuzco itself was considered cosmologically central, loaded as it was with huacas and radiating ceque lines, and geographic center of the Four Quarters; Inca Garcilaso de la Vega himself called it "the navel of
5917-759: The head of one of the nine groups at a lower level, so that one pachaka kuraka might also be a waranqa kuraka , in effect directly responsible for one unit of 100 tax-payers and less directly responsible for nine other such units. While the Inca state exacted taxes in kind—e.g., textiles, grain, wares, etc.—it also drew upon corvée labor as an important supply of power. The mit'a was a labor tax performed by male heads of households. These taxpayers were drafted to build massive public works projects, such as aqueducts , bridges , roads , as well as tampu warehouses. A mit’ayuq , "one who carried out mit’a duties", also performed agricultural , extractive (e.g., mining), and artisanal (e.g., working ceramics and metals) labor for
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#17330863080756014-419: The highest authorities: provincial governors, the apu of the four suyu , and the Sapa Inca himself. The Incas did not have prisons. Instead capital punishment was used for offenses including murder, blasphemy, adultery, theft, laziness, second offenses in drunkenness and rebellion. Punishment for lesser crimes included blinding and cutting off limbs. The Inca Empire was a federalist system which consisted of
6111-406: The highlands towards Cuzco. Ideology An ideology is a set of beliefs or philosophies attributed to a person or group of persons, especially those held for reasons that are not purely about belief in certain knowledge , in which "practical elements are as prominent as theoretical ones". Formerly applied primarily to economic , political , or religious theories and policies, in
6208-643: The ideology that they are currently aware of. System justification theory posits that people tend to defend existing society, even at times against their interest, which in turn causes people to create ideological explanations to justify the status quo. Jost, Fitzimmons and Kay argue that the motivation to protect a preexisting system is due to a desire for cognitive consistency (being able to think in similar ways over time), reducing uncertainty and reducing effort, illusion of control and fear of equality. According to system justification theory, ideologies reflect ( unconscious ) motivational processes , as opposed to
6305-431: The issue of patterning and contingent claims to truth. They wrote: "Ideologies are patterned clusters of normatively imbued ideas and concepts, including particular representations of power relations. These conceptual maps help people navigate the complexity of their political universe and carry claims to social truth." Studies of the concept of ideology itself (rather than specific ideologies) have been carried out under
6402-460: The latitude of behavior granted to them rose as well; punishments for acts by commoners against nobles were far more severe than for those by nobles against commoners. And yet there were also legal protections for commoners, despite their unequal legal standing. Soldiers who stole food could face capital punishment, as could their captains. Abusive or negligent officials likewise faced punishment. The sentencing of an individual to death rested only among
6499-587: The name of systematic ideology in the works of George Walford and Harold Walsby, who attempt to explore the relationships between ideology and social systems . David W. Minar describes six different ways the word ideology has been used: For Willard A. Mullins, an ideology should be contrasted with the related (but different) issues of utopia and historical myth . An ideology is composed of four basic characteristics: Terry Eagleton outlines (more or less in no particular order) some definitions of ideology: German philosopher Christian Duncker called for
6596-495: The napa, covered with a red blanket and adorned with gold earrings. With textiles representing a form of status and wealth, it has been speculated that the Sapa Inca never wore the same clothes twice. The community even revered the Sapa after his death, mummifying him and frequently visiting his tomb to "consult" him on pressing affairs. Little is known of the rulers of the first dynasty of Sapa Incas. Evidently, they were affiliated with
6693-447: The network of roads that crossed the entire empire and allowed a rapid journey for the administrators, messengers, and armies provided with hanging bridges and tambos . They made sure to always be supplied and well cared for, as is reflected in the construction of storehouses scattered throughout the empire and vast food and resource redistribution systems. The commander and chief of the standing army founded military colonies to expand
6790-460: The only people resettled in the Inca empire, as the state had innumerable communities relocated to less defensible, more productive land in order to both make agricultural production more efficient and reduce the possibility of revolt. Sapa Inka , the supreme ruler Apu , the Governor of a suyu Tuqrikuq , the Governor of a wamani Kuraka , hereditary bureaucratic officials Inkap Rantin ,
6887-657: The other hand, were the rank-and-file of the provincial bureaucracy. They were typically provincial nobility who maintained their social status after Inca conquest. Like the yanakuna , they were exempt from taxation and held hereditary status. Unlike the yanakuna , they served administrative, military, and judicial functions, though it is worth mentioning that one could be both a kuraka and a yana . Hurin Cuzco or Rurin Qusqu : The "dynasty" of Lower Cuzco Hanan Cuzco or Hanan Qusqu : The "dynasty" of Upper Cuzco Post-Conquest dynasty : Ruling from Cuzco or Vilcabamba While there
6984-513: The physical and moral aptitudes of the pretender were tested. These trials were accompanied by a complex spiritual ritual through which the Sun god, Inti nominated the one who should assume the Inca position. Eventually, with the passage of time, Incas named their favorite son as co-governor with the intention of securing his succession, for example, Huiracocha Inca associated Inca Urco to the throne. The coya, or sapa Inca's primary wife, had significant influence upon making this decision of which son
7081-568: The reigning social order. In The Anatomy of Revolution , Crane Brinton said that new ideology spreads when there is discontent with an old regime. The may be repeated during revolutions itself; extremists such as Vladimir Lenin and Robespierre may thus overcome more moderate revolutionaries. This stage is soon followed by Thermidor , a reining back of revolutionary enthusiasm under pragmatists like Napoleon and Joseph Stalin , who bring " normalcy and equilibrium". Brinton's sequence ("men of ideas> fanatics >practical men of action")
7178-442: The shifts in the meaning of ideology , the modern meaning of the word was born when Napoleon used it to describe his opponents as "the ideologues". Tracy's major book, The Elements of Ideology , was soon translated into the major languages of Europe. In the century following Tracy, the term ideology moved back and forth between positive and negative connotations. During this next generation, when post-Napoleonic governments adopted
7275-424: The state. Mit'a was also the basis of military conscription; military units followed the same decimal system of administration as mit'a units. Periods of service varied; especially intensive service, such as mining, was kept short to avoid exhaustion. Mitmas , on the other hand, was the practice of moving certain ethnic groups around for strategic purposes. They could be seen as loyal, and therefore transplanted as
7372-405: The superstructure and the nature of the justifying ideology—actions feasible because the ruling class control the means of production . For example, in a feudal mode of production , religious ideology is the most prominent aspect of the superstructure, while in capitalist formations, ideologies such as liberalism and social democracy dominate. Hence the great importance of ideology justifies
7469-401: The systems of inequality that maintain their group's social power over non-dominant groups. Ideologies use a society's symbol system to organize social relations in a hierarchy , with some social identities being superior to other social identities, which are considered inferior. The dominant ideology in a society is passed along through the society's major social institutions, such as the media,
7566-613: The terroristic phase of the revolution (during the Napoleonic regime as part of the Napoleonic Wars ) by trying to work out a rational system of ideas to oppose the irrational mob impulses that had nearly destroyed him. A subsequent early source for the near-original meaning of ideology is Hippolyte Taine 's work on the Ancien Régime , Origins of Contemporary France I. He describes ideology as rather like teaching philosophy via
7663-593: The time the suyu were established they were roughly of equal size and only later changing their proportions as the empire expanded north and south along the Andes. Each suyu was further subdivided into wamani , or provinces. These wamani were districts that were roughly geographically coterminous with pre-conquest tribal groupings administered by a tokrikoq , or governor. However, the differential populations of these tribes were taken into account and if they were found to be too small to establish their own wamani , they were put together with other small tribes. Following
7760-499: The title. Other terms for sapa Inca include apu ("lord"), qhapaq Inka ("mighty Inca") or simply sapa ("the only one"). Chronicles identify the Inca as the highest ruler equivalent to European kings of the Middle Ages. However, the original access to that position was not linked to the inheritance of the eldest son, as is for a monarchy, but to the perceived selection of the gods by means of rigorous challenges, to which
7857-499: The tradition". Moreover, Charles Blattberg offers an account that distinguishes political ideologies from political philosophies . Slavoj Žižek argues how the very notion of post-ideology can enable the deepest, blindest form of ideology. A sort of false consciousness or false cynicism, engaged in for the purpose of lending one's point of view the respect of being objective, pretending neutral cynicism, without truly being so. Rather than help avoiding ideology, this lapse only deepens
7954-480: The universe." Land was conceptualized as ultimately belonging to the Inca, and distributed between the three estates of the empire—the imperial church, the commoners, and the state itself—for their benefit and care according to the principle of reciprocity. When a territory was conquered, its chief huaca was brought to Cuzco and installed in either the Coricancha or Temple of the Sun or to its own, special temple, and
8051-488: The view that political convictions always reflect independent and unbiased thinking. According to semiotician Bob Hodge : [Ideology] identifies a unitary object that incorporates complex sets of meanings with the social agents and processes that produced them. No other term captures this object as well as 'ideology'. Foucault 's ' episteme ' is too narrow and abstract, not social enough. His 'discourse', popular because it covers some of ideology's terrain with less baggage,
8148-434: The way of governing behavior, the state, too, had legal force, such as through tukuy rikuq (lit. "he who sees all"), or inspectors. The highest such inspector, typically a blood relation to the Sapa Inca, acted independently of the conventional hierarchy, providing a point of view for the Sapa Inca free of bureaucratic influence. Individuals could only be judged by those of higher rank. Moreover, ones as one's rank increased,
8245-595: The world. The Sapa Inca was conceptualized as divine and was effectively head of the state religion. Only the Willaq Umu (or Chief Priest) was second to the emperor. Local religious traditions were allowed to continue, and in some cases such as the Oracle at Pachacamac ( Pacha Kamaq , "vivifier of the world") on the Peruvian coast, were officially venerated. Following Pachacuti, the Sapa Inca claimed descent from Inti, which placed
8342-438: Was " ideology has no history ": while individual ideolog ies have histories, interleaved with the general class struggle of society, the general form of ideology is external to history. For Althusser, beliefs and ideas are the products of social practices, not the reverse. His thesis that " ideas are material " is illustrated by the "scandalous advice" of Pascal toward unbelievers: "Kneel and pray, and then you will believe." What
8439-455: Was a great deal of variation in the form that Inca bureaucracy and government took at the provincial level, the basic (perhaps, ideal) form of organization was decimal. In this system of organization, taxpayers—male heads of household of a certain age range—were organized into corvée units (which often doubled as military units) that formed the muscle of the state as part of mit'a service. Each level of jurisdiction above one hundred tax-payers
8536-595: Was affiliated with the Hanan moiety and was founded under Inca Roca , the son of the last Hurin Sapa Inca, Cápac Yupanqui . After Cápac Yupanqui's death, another of his sons, Inca Roca's half-brother Quispe Yupanqui , was intended to succeed him. However, the Hanan revolted and installed Inca Roca instead. Ninan Cuyochi , who was Inca for only a few days in 1527, is sometimes left off the list of Sapa Incas because news of his death from smallpox arrived in Cusco very shortly after he
8633-447: Was disinherited from his father's inheritance and formed his own lineage royal clan or panaka , his father's lands, houses and servants were passed to his other children remaining on the previous panaka. The new Sapa Inca had to obtain land and spoils to bequeath to his own descendants. Each time they subdued a people, they demanded that the defeated leader surrender part of their land to continue in command, and whose people pay tribute in
8730-409: Was divinized both in their actions and their emblems. In public he carried the topayauri ("scepter"), ushno (golden throne), suntur páucar (feathered pike), and the mascapaicha (royal insignia) commonly carried in a llauto (headband), otherwise, the mascapaicha could also be carried on an amachana chuku (military helmet). In religious ceremonies he was accompanied by the sacred white flame,
8827-407: Was evidently the first to bear the title sapa Inca ("emperor") officially. There were two known dynasties , led by the Hurin and Hanan moieties respectively. The latter was in power at the time of Spanish conquest . The last effective Sapa Inca of Inca Empire was Atahualpa , who was executed by Francisco Pizarro and his conquistadors in 1533, but several successors later claimed
8924-502: Was headed by a kuraka , while those heading smaller units were kamayuq , a lower, non-hereditary status. However, while kuraka status was hereditary, one's actual position within the hierarchy (which was typically served for life) was subject to change based upon the privileges of those above them in the hierarchy; a pachaka kuraka (see below) could be appointed to their position by a waranqa kuraka . Furthermore, it has been suggested that one kuraka in each decimal level also served as
9021-403: Was led by a governor known as an apu , a title also given to generals and deified mountains. Beneath each suyu were wamani , or provinces, each of which were led by a governor known as a toqrikoq . These lower level governors administered the provinces with the assistance of michuq officers, khipu kamayuq record keepers, kuraka officials, and yanakuna retainers. The primary functions of
9118-561: Was likely not organized as a wamani . Rather, it was probably somewhat akin to a modern federal district , like Washington, D.C., or Mexico City. The city sat at the center of the four suyu and served as the preeminent center of politics and religion. While Cuzco was essentially governed by the Sapa Inca, his relatives, and the royal panaqa lineages, each suyu was governed by an Apu , a term of great esteem used for men of very high status and for venerated mountains. Just as with so much of Andean society and Inca administration, both Cuzco as
9215-640: Was maintained by priests from its home province. This old Andean practice performed two functions; first, as divine hostage holding to ensure loyalty; second, as a sign of piety on the part of Inca rulers. The operational aspect of Inca ideology rested upon the tools of assimilation of nobility and the perpetuation of parochial differences. The formal education in Cuzco of the children of noble families from recently acquired territories disseminated fluency in Quechua, imperial law, and bureaucratic practices. Families which previously held political position were integrated into
9312-560: Was named after the Aymara -speaking Qolla people and was the largest of the quarters in terms of area. This suyu encompassed the Bolivian Altiplano and much of the southern Andes, running down into Argentina and as far south as the Maule river near modern Santiago, Chile. Cuntisuyu or Kuntisuyu was the smallest suyu of all was located along the southern coast of modern Peru, extending into
9409-425: Was struck through ayni , a process of reciprocal exchange . The essential beliefs and divinities of the Inca pantheon were widely established in the Andes by the time the empire arose. Conrad and Demerest argue that these pre-established beliefs were key to the ideological effectiveness of later Inca reforms. While a belief in any number of "high gods", those preeminent aspects of a given pantheon, were common before
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