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80-539: A ship of Q-Max size is 345 metres (1,132 ft) long and measures 53.8 metres (177 ft) wide and 34.7 metres (114 ft) high, with a draft of approximately 12 metres (39 ft). It has an LNG capacity of 266,000 cubic metres (9,400,000 cu ft), equal to 161,994,000 cubic metres (5.7208 × 10 cu ft) of natural gas. It is propelled by two slow speed diesel engines burning HFO , which are claimed to be more efficient and environmentally friendly than traditional steam turbines. In case of engine failure,

160-596: A 'tipping point' than the 0 °C boundary that separates frozen from liquid water—the bright, reflective snow and ice from the dark, heat-absorbing ocean." Black carbon emissions from northern Eurasia, North America, and Asia have the greatest absolute impact on Arctic warming. However, black carbon emissions actually occurring within the Arctic have a disproportionately larger impact per particle on Arctic warming than emissions originating elsewhere. As Arctic ice melts and shipping activity increases, emissions originating within

240-448: A better nutrient retention capacity than surrounding infertile soils. In this context, the slash and burn agricultural practice used in tropical regions does not only enhance productivity by releasing nutrients from the burned vegetation but also by adding black carbon to the soil. Nonetheless, for sustainable management, a slash-and-char practice would be better to prevent high emissions of CO 2 and volatile black carbon. Furthermore,

320-665: A combination of transmittance and reflectance is measured. Aethalometers are frequently used devices that optically detect the changing absorption of light transmitted through a filter ticket. The USEPA Environmental Technology Verification program evaluated both the aethalometer and also the Sunset Laboratory thermal-optical analyzer. A multiangle absorption photometer takes into account both transmitted and reflected light. Alternative methods rely on satellite based measurements of optical depth for large areas or more recently on spectral noise analysis for very local concentrations. In

400-484: A direct effect on the lung function of adults and an inflammatory effect on the respiratory system of children. A recent study found no effect of black carbon on blood pressure when combined with physical activity . The public health benefits of reduction in the amount of soot and other particulate matter has been recognized for years. However, high concentrations persist in industrializing areas in Asia and in urban areas in

480-433: A drastic reduction of fossil fuel related BC" throughout the world. Given black carbon's relatively short lifespan, reducing black carbon emissions would reduce warming within weeks. Because black carbon remains in the atmosphere only for a few weeks, reducing black carbon emissions may be the fastest means of slowing climate change in the near term. Control of black carbon, particularly from fossil-fuel and biofuel sources,

560-401: A given use. As a result of the wide compositional spectrum, HFO is defined by processing, physical and final use characteristics. Being the final remnant of the cracking process, HFO also contains mixtures of the following compounds to various degrees: "paraffins, cycloparaffins, aromatics, olefins, and asphaltenes as well as molecules containing sulfur, oxygen, nitrogen and/or organometals". HFO

640-492: A glacier saddle of Mt. Everest (Qomolangma) in 2003 showed industrially induced sulfate from South Asia may cross over the highly elevated Himalaya. This indicated BC in South Asia could also have the same transport mode. And such kind of signal might have been detected in at a black carbon monitoring site in the hinterland of Tibet. Snow sampling and measurement suggested black carbon deposited in some Himalayan glaciers may reduce

720-448: A global scale then one would expect a heating effect over surfaces with a high surface albedo like snow or ice. Furthermore, if these particles are deposited in the snow an additional heating effect would occur due to reductions in the surface albedo. Levels of black carbon are most often determined based on the modification of the optical properties of a fiber filter by deposited particles. Either filter transmittance, filter reflectance or

800-449: A large forcing because of a positive feedback: Reduced snow albedo would increase surface temperature. The increased surface temperature would decrease the snow cover and further decrease surface albedo. Indirect effect Black carbon may also indirectly cause changes in the absorption or reflection of solar radiation through changes in the properties and behavior of clouds. Research scheduled for publication in 2013 shows black carbon plays

880-800: A light beam or derived from noise measurements. The disastrous effects of coal pollution on human health and mortality in the early 1950s in London led to the UK Clean Air Act 1956 . This act led to dramatic reductions of soot concentrations in the United Kingdom which were followed by similar reductions in US cities like Pittsburgh and St. Louis. These reductions were largely achieved by the decreased use of soft coal for domestic heating by switching either to "smokeless" coals or other forms of fuel, such as fuel oil and natural gas. The steady reduction of smoke pollution in

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960-530: A research study published in June 2022, atmospheric scientist Christopher Maloney and his colleagues noted that rocket launches release tiny particles called aerosols in the stratosphere and increase ozone layer loss. They used a climate model to determine the impact of the black carbon coming out of the rocket's engine nozzle. Using various scenarios of growing number of rocket launches, they found that each year, rocket launches could expel 1–10 gigagrams of black carbon at

1040-423: A result of this feedback process, "BC on snow warms the planet about three times more than an equal forcing of CO 2 ." When black carbon concentrations in the Arctic increase during the winter and spring due to Arctic Haze , surface temperatures increase by 0.5 °C. Black carbon emissions also significantly contribute to Arctic ice-melt, which is critical because "nothing in climate is more aptly described as

1120-428: A role second only to carbon dioxide in climate change. Effects are complex, resulting from a variety of factors, but due to the short life of black carbon in the atmosphere, about a week as compared to carbon dioxide which last centuries, control of black carbon offers possible opportunities for slowing, or even reversing, climate warming. Estimates of black carbon's globally averaged direct radiative forcing vary from

1200-415: A significant opportunity to reduce black carbon's global warming impact. Biomass burning emits greater amounts of climate-cooling aerosols and particulate matter than black carbon, resulting in short-term cooling. However, over the long-term, biomass burning may cause a net warming when CO 2 emissions and deforestation are considered. Reducing biomass emissions would therefore reduce global warming in

1280-628: A significant positive radiative forcing". The IPCC also notes that emissions from biomass burning, which usually have a negative forcing, have a positive forcing over snow fields in areas such as the Himalayas. A 2013 study quantified that gas flares contributed over 40% of the black carbon deposited in the Arctic. According to Charles Zender, black carbon is a significant contributor to Arctic ice-melt, and reducing such emissions may be "the most efficient way to mitigate Arctic warming that we know of". The "climate forcing due to snow/ice albedo change

1360-800: A specialized arm of the United Nations , adopted into force on 1 January 2017 the International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters or Polar Code. The requirements of the Polar Code are mandatory under both the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) and the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) . The two broad categories covered by

1440-598: Is "as much as 55% of the CO 2 forcing and is larger than the forcing due to the other greenhouse gasses (GHGs) such as CH 4 , CFCs, N 2 O, or tropospheric ozone." Table 1: Estimates of Black Carbon Radiative Forcing, by Effect 0.8 ± 0.4 (2001) 1.0 ± 0.5 (2002) »0.7 ± 0.2 (2003) 0.8 (2005) 1.0 arctic Table 2: Estimated Climate Forcings (W/m ) According to the IPCC , "the presence of black carbon over highly reflective surfaces, such as snow and ice, or clouds, may cause

1520-647: Is a climate forcing agent contributing to global warming . Black carbon warms the Earth by absorbing sunlight and heating the atmosphere and by reducing albedo when deposited on snow and ice (direct effects) and indirectly by interaction with clouds, with the total forcing of 1.1 W/m . Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks. In contrast, potent greenhouse gases have longer lifecycles. For example, carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) has an atmospheric lifetime of more than 100 years. The IPCC and other climate researchers have posited that reducing black carbon

1600-476: Is characterized by a maximum density of 1010 kg/m at 15°C, and a maximum viscosity of 700 mm /s (cSt) at 50°C according to ISO 8217. Given HFO's elevated sulfur contamination (maximum of 5% by mass), the combustion reaction results in the formation of sulfur dioxide SO 2 . Since the middle of the 20th century, HFO has been used primarily by the shipping industry due to its low cost compared with all other fuel oils, being up to 30% less expensive, as well as

1680-456: Is developed and delivered by Cryostar, and approved and certified by Lloyds Register . The first Q-Max LNG carrier was floated out of dry-dock in November 2007. The naming ceremony was held on 11 July 2008 at Samsung Heavy Industries ' shipyard on Geoje Island , South Korea . Known before its naming ceremony as Hull 1675, the ship was named Mozah by Sheikha Mozah Nasser al-Misnad . Mozah

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1760-482: Is emitted from burning biofuels, 40% from fossil fuels , and 40% from open biomass burning. Similar estimates of the sources of black carbon emissions are as follows: Black carbon sources vary by region. For example, the majority of soot emissions in South Asia are due to biomass cooking, whereas in East Asia, coal combustion for residential and industrial uses plays a larger role. In Western Europe, traffic seems to be

1840-619: Is estimated that Q-Max carriers have about 40% lower energy requirements and carbon emissions than conventional LNG carriers. The quoted estimates do however ignore the additional fuel used to re-liquify boil off gas rather than burn the gas for fuel. The ships run on Heavy fuel oil (HFO) , but the Rasheeda was retrofitted with gas-burning ability in 2015. The Q-Max LNG carriers were ordered in 2005. They were built by Samsung Heavy Industries and Daewoo Shipbuilding & Marine Engineering . The installed Boil Off Gas re-liquefaction system (Ecorel)

1920-518: Is inhaled in traffic and at other locations as at the home address. Despite the fact that a large portion of the exposure occurs as short peaks of high concentrations, it is unclear how to define peaks and determine their frequency and health impact. High peak concentrations are encountered during car driving. High in-vehicle concentrations of black carbon have been associated with driving during rush hours, on highways and in dense traffic. Even relatively low exposure concentrations of black carbon have

2000-579: Is of the order of 1.0 W/m at middle- and high-latitude land areas in the Northern Hemisphere and over the Arctic Ocean." The "soot effect on snow albedo may be responsible for a quarter of observed global warming". "Soot deposition increases surface melt on ice masses, and the meltwater spurs multiple radiative and dynamical feedback processes that accelerate ice disintegration," according to NASA scientists James Hansen and Larissa Nazarenko. As

2080-538: Is one of the easiest ways to slow down short term global warming. The term black carbon is also used in soil science and geology , referring to deposited atmospheric black carbon or directly incorporated black carbon from vegetation fires. Especially in the tropics, black carbon in soils significantly contributes to fertility as it can absorb important plant nutrients. In climatology, biochar carbon removal sequesters atmospheric carbon as black carbon to slow global warming. Michael Faraday recognized that soot

2160-568: Is the result or remnant from the distillation and cracking process of petroleum . For this reason, HFO is contaminated with several different compounds including aromatics , sulfur , and nitrogen , making emissions upon combustion more polluting compared to other fuel oils. HFO is predominantly used as a fuel source for marine vessel propulsion using marine diesel engines due to its relatively low cost compared to cleaner fuel sources such as distillates . The use and carriage of HFO on-board vessels presents several environmental concerns, namely

2240-432: Is therefore particularly harmful. It is estimated that from 640,000 to 4,900,000 premature human deaths could be prevented every year by using available mitigation measures to reduce black carbon in the atmosphere. Humans are exposed to black carbon by inhalation of air in the immediate vicinity of local sources. Important indoor sources include candles and biomass burning whereas traffic and occasionally forest fires are

2320-492: The IPCC 's estimate of + 0.34 watts per square meter (W/m ) ± 0.25, to a more recent estimate by V. Ramanathan and G. Carmichael of 0.9 W/m . The IPCC also estimated the globally averaged snow albedo effect of black carbon at +0.1 ± 0.1 W/m . Based on the IPCC estimate, it would be reasonable to conclude that the combined direct and indirect snow albedo effects for black carbon rank it as

2400-687: The NOAA AGASP program, the first measurements of such distributions in the Arctic atmosphere were obtained with an aethalometer which had the capability of measuring black carbon on a real-time basis. These measurements showed substantial concentrations of black carbon found throughout the western Arctic troposphere including the North Pole. The vertical profiles showed either a strongly layered structure or an almost uniform distribution up to eight kilometers with concentrations within layers as large as those found at ground level in typical mid-latitude urban areas in

2480-421: The radiative forcing of black carbon, combinations of ground and satellite observations suggest a global solar absorption of 0.9W·m , making it the second most important climate forcer after CO 2. Black carbon affects the climate system by: decreasing the snow/ice albedo through dark soot deposits and increasing snowmelt timing, reducing the planetary albedo through absorption of solar radiation reflected by

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2560-610: The total organic carbon stored in soils is contributed by black carbon. Especially for tropical soils black carbon serves as a reservoir for nutrients. Experiments showed that soils without high amounts of black carbon are significantly less fertile than soils that contain black carbon. An example of this increased soil fertility is the Terra preta soils of central Amazonia, presumably human-made by pre-Columbian native populations. Terra preta soils have, on average, three times higher soil organic matter (SOM) content, higher nutrient levels, and

2640-558: The Arctic are expected to rise. In some regions, such as the Himalayas, the impact of black carbon on melting snowpack and glaciers may be equal to that of CO 2 . Warmer air resulting from the presence of black carbon in South and East Asia over the Himalayas contributes to a warming of approximately 0.6 °C. An "analysis of temperature trends on the Tibetan side of the Himalayas reveals warming in excess of 1 °C." A summer aerosol sampling on

2720-543: The Arctic as the greatest threat to the local marine environment. Being the remnant of the distillation and cracking processes, HFO is characterized by an elevated overall toxicity compared to all other fuels. Its viscosity prevents breakdown into the environment, a property exacerbated by the cold temperatures in the Arctic resulting in the formation of tar-lumps, and an increase in volume through emulsification. Its density, tendency to persist and emulsify can result in HFO polluting both

2800-442: The IPCC's report estimate that emissions from black carbon are the second-largest contributor to global warming after carbon dioxide emissions, and that reducing these emissions may be the fastest strategy for slowing climate change. Since 1950, many countries have significantly reduced black carbon emissions, especially from fossil fuel sources, primarily to improve public health from improved air quality, and "technology exists for

2880-596: The Polar Code include safety and pollution prevention related to navigation in both Arctic and Antarctic polar waters. The carriage and use of HFO in the Arctic is discouraged by the Polar Code while being banned completely from the Antarctic under MARPOL Annex I regulation 43. The ban of HFO use and carriage in the Antarctic precedes the adoption of the Polar Code. At its 60th session (26 March 2010), The Marine Environmental Protection Committee (MEPC) adopted Resolution 189(60) which went into effect in 2011 and prohibits fuels of

2960-471: The United States and Europe which led to improved controls of these emissions. In the less-developed regions of the world where there were limited or no controls on soot emissions the air quality continued to degrade as the population increased. It was not generally realized until many years later that from the perspective of global effects the emissions from these regions were extremely important. Most of

3040-483: The United States. The absorption optical depths associated with these vertical profiles were large as evidenced by a vertical profile over the Norwegian arctic where absorption optical depths of 0.023 to 0.052 were calculated respectively for external and internal mixtures of black carbon with the other aerosol components. Optical depths of these magnitudes lead to a substantial change in the solar radiation balance over

3120-524: The West such as Chicago . The WHO estimates that air pollution causes nearly two million premature deaths per year. By reducing black carbon, a primary component of fine particulate matter, the health risks from air pollution will decline. In fact, public health concerns have given rise to leading to many efforts to reduce such emissions, for example, from diesel vehicles and cooking stoves. Direct effect Black carbon particles directly absorb sunlight and reduce

3200-1078: The adoption of pending International Maritime Organization (IMO) regulations. Existing regulations also could be expanded to increase the use of clean diesel and clean coal technologies and to develop second-generation technologies. Today, the majority of black carbon emissions are from developing countries and this trend is expected to increase. The largest sources of black carbon are Asia, Latin America, and Africa. China and India together account for 25–35% of global black carbon emissions. Black carbon emissions from China doubled from 2000 to 2006. Existing and well-tested technologies used by developed countries, such as clean diesel and clean coal, could be transferred to developing countries to reduce their emissions. Black carbon emissions are highest in and around major source regions. This results in regional hotspots of atmospheric solar heating due to black carbon. Hotspot areas include: Approximately three billion people live in these hotspots. Approximately 20% of black carbon

3280-531: The air causes premature human mortality and disability. In addition, atmospheric black carbon changes the radiative energy balance of the climate system in a way that raises air and surface temperatures, causing a variety of detrimental environmental impacts on humans, on agriculture, and on plant and animal ecosystems. Particulate matter is the most harmful to public health of all air pollutants in Europe. Black carbon particulate matter contains very fine carcinogens and

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3360-427: The altitudes over 5500 m above sea level. In its 2007 report, the IPCC estimated for the first time the direct radiative forcing of black carbon from fossil fuel emissions at + 0.2 W/m , and the radiative forcing of black carbon through its effect on the surface albedo of snow and ice at an additional + 0.1 W/m . More recent studies and public testimony by many of the same scientists cited in

3440-473: The area. The two main environmental concerns for HFO in the Arctic are the risk of spill or accidental discharge and the emission of black carbon as a result of HFO consumption. Due to its very high viscosity and elevated density, HFO released into the environment is a greater threat to flora and fauna compared to distillate or other residual fuels. In 2009, the Arctic Council identified the spill of oil in

3520-516: The ban is anticipated for 2021, with widespread implementation by 2023. The Clean Arctic Alliance was the first IMO delegate nonprofit organization to campaign against the use of HFO in Arctic waters. However, the phase-out and ban of HFO in the Arctic was formally proposed to MEPC by eight countries in 2018: Finland, Germany, Iceland, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Sweden and the United States. Although these member states continue to support

3600-482: The ban. Black carbon Black carbon ( BC ) is the light-absorbing refractory form of elemental carbon remaining after pyrolysis (e.g., charcoal ) or produced by incomplete combustion (e.g., soot ). Tihomir Novakov originated the term black carbon in the 1970s, after identifying black carbon as fine particulate matter (PM ≤ 2.5  μm aerodynamic diameter ) in aerosols. Aerosol black carbon occurs in several linked forms. Formed through

3680-435: The cloud systems, earth surface and atmosphere, as well as directly decreasing cloud albedo with black carbon contamination of water and ice found therein. The greatest increase in Arctic surface temperature per unit of black carbon emissions results from the decrease in snow/ice albedo which makes Arctic specific black carbon release more detrimental than emissions elsewhere. The International Maritime Organization (IMO),

3760-463: The construction of 14 Q-Max vessels. Fourteen sister vessels are in service named: Mozah, Al Mayeda, Mekaines, Al Mafyar, Umm Slal, Bu Samra, Al Ghuwairiya, Lijmiliya, Al Samriya, Al Dafna, Shagra, Zarga, Aamira, and Rasheeda. All 14 Q-Max ships were delivered in 2008 through 2010. Heavy fuel oil Heavy fuel oil (HFO) is a category of fuel oils of a tar -like consistency. Also known as bunker fuel , or residual fuel oil , HFO

3840-415: The contemporary atmospheric research community. Soot is composed of a complex mixture of organic compounds which are weakly absorbing in the visible spectral region and a highly absorbing black component which is variously called "elemental", "graphitic" or "black carbon". The term elemental carbon has been used in conjunction with thermal and wet chemical determinations and the term graphitic carbon suggests

3920-474: The developments mentioned above relate to air quality in urban atmospheres. The first indications of the role of black carbon in a larger, global context came from studies of the Arctic Haze phenomena. Black carbon was identified in the Arctic haze aerosols and in the Arctic snow. In general, aerosol particles can affect the radiation balance leading to a cooling or heating effect with the magnitude and sign of

4000-415: The emission of black carbon is the ship load size, with emission factors of black carbon increasing up to six times given low engine loads. Black carbon is the product of incomplete combustion and a component of soot and fine particulate matter (<2.5 μg). It has a short atmospheric lifetime of a few days to a week and is typically removed upon precipitation events. Although there has been debate concerning

4080-448: The failed engine can be de-coupled allowing the ship to maintain a speed of 14 knots. LNG is stored at around -162°C. Q-Max vessels are equipped with an on-board re-liquefaction system to handle the boil-off gas, liquefy it and return the LNG to the cargo tanks. The on-board re-liquefaction system allows a reduction of LNG losses, which produces economic and environmental benefits. Overall, it

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4160-503: The following characteristics: IMO's Marine Environmental Protection Committee (MEPC) tasked the Pollution Prevention Response Sub-Committee (PPR) to enact a ban on the use and carriage of heavy fuel in Arctic waters at its 72nd and 73rd sessions. This task is also accompanied by a requirement to properly define HFO taking into account its current definition under MARPOL Annex I regulation 43. The adoption of

4240-701: The highly reflecting Arctic snow surface during the March–April time frame of these measurements modeled the Arctic aerosol for an absorption optical depth of 0.021 (which is close to the average of an internal and external mixtures for the AGASP flights), under cloud-free conditions. These heating effects were viewed at the time as potentially one of the major causes of Arctic warming trends as described in Archives of Dept. of Energy, Basic Energy Sciences Accomplishments. Typically, black carbon accounts for 1 to 6%, and up to 60% of

4320-518: The historically lax regulatory requirements for emissions of nitrogen oxides (NO x ) and sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) by the IMO. For these two reasons, HFO is the single most widely used engine fuel oil on-board ships. Data available until 2007 for global consumption of HFO at the international marine sector reports total fuel oil usages of 200 million tonnes, with HFO consumption accounting for 174 million tonnes. Data available until 2011 for fuel oil sales to

4400-441: The incomplete combustion of fossil fuels , biofuel , and biomass , black carbon is one of the main types of soot particle in both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot . As soot, black carbon causes disease and premature death. Because of these human health impacts, many countries have worked to reduce their emissions, making it an easy pollutant to abate in anthropogenic sources. In climatology , aerosol black carbon

4480-440: The industrial cities of Europe and United States caused a shift in research emphasis away from soot emissions and the almost complete neglect of black carbon as a significant aerosol constituent, at least in the United States. In the 1970s, however, a series of studies substantially changed this picture and demonstrated that black carbon as well as the organic soot components continued to be a large component in urban aerosols across

4560-461: The initiative, several countries have been vocal about their resistance to an HFO ban on such a short time scale. The Russian Federation has expressed concern for impacts to the maritime shipping industry and trade given the relatively low cost of HFO. Russia instead suggested the development and implementation of mitigation measures for the use and carriage of HFO in Arctic waters. Canada and Marshall Islands have presented similar arguments, highlighting

4640-683: The international marine shipping sector reports 207.5 million tonnes total fuel oil sales with HFO accounting for 177.9 million tonnes. Marine vessels can use a variety of different fuels for the purpose of propulsion, which are divided into two broad categories: residual oils or distillates. In contrast to HFOs, distillates are the petroleum products created through refining crude oil and include diesel, kerosene, naphtha and gas. Residual oils are often combined to various degrees with distillates to achieve desired properties for operational and/or environmental performance. Table 1 lists commonly used categories of marine fuel oil and mixtures; all mixtures including

4720-422: The late 1970s and early 1980s surprisingly large ground level concentrations of black carbon were observed throughout the western Arctic. Modeling studies indicated that they could lead to heating over polar ice. One of the major uncertainties in modeling the effects of the Arctic haze on the solar radiation balance was limited knowledge of the vertical distributions of black carbon. During 1983 and 1984 as part of

4800-480: The long-term and provide co-benefits of reduced air pollution, CO 2 emissions, and deforestation. It has been estimated that by switching to slash-and-char from slash-and-burn agriculture, which turns biomass into ash using open fires that release black carbon and GHGs, 12% of anthropogenic carbon emissions caused by land use change could be reduced annually, which is approximately 0.66 Gt CO 2 -eq. per year, or 2% of all annual global CO 2 -eq emissions. In

4880-417: The low sulfur marine fuel oil are still considered HFO. The use and carriage of HFO in the Arctic is a commonplace marine industry practice. In 2015, over 200 ships entered Arctic waters carrying a total of 1.1 million tonnes of fuel with 57% of fuel consumed during Arctic voyages being HFO. In the same year, trends in carriage of HFO were reported to be 830,000 tonnes, representing a significant growth from

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4960-433: The lower end to 30–100 gigagrams at the extreme end in next few decades. In another study published in June 2022, researchers used a 3D model to study the impact of rocket launches and reentry. They determined that the black carbon particles emitted by the rockets results in an enhanced warming effect of almost 500 times more than other sources. Black carbon is a form of ultrafine particulate matter , which when released in

5040-471: The major outdoor sources of black carbon exposure. Concentrations of black carbon decrease sharply with increasing distance from (traffic) sources which makes it an atypical component of particulate matter . This makes it difficult to estimate exposure of populations. For particulate matter, epidemiological studies have traditionally relied on single fixed site measurements or inferred residential concentrations. Recent studies have shown that as much black carbon

5120-423: The mid-Himalaya glaciers revealed by MODIS data since 2000 could be partially attributed to black carbon and light absorbing impurities like dust in the springtime, which was later extended to the whole Hindu Kush-Kararoram-Himalaya glaciers research finding a widespread darkening trend of -0.001 yr over the period of 2000–2011. The most rapid decrease in albedo (more negative than -0.0015 yr ) occurred in

5200-572: The most important source since high concentrations coincide with proximity to major roads or participation to (motorized) traffic. Fossil fuel and biomass soot have significantly greater amounts of black carbon than climate-cooling aerosols and particulate matter, making reductions of these sources particularly powerful mitigation strategies. For example, emissions from the diesel engines and marine vessels contain higher levels of black carbon compared to other sources. Regulating black carbon emissions from diesel engines and marine vessels therefore presents

5280-517: The planetary albedo when suspended in the atmosphere. Semi-direct effect Black carbon absorb incoming solar radiation, perturb the temperature structure of the atmosphere, and influence cloud cover. They may either increase or decrease cloud cover under different conditions. Snow/ice albedo effect When deposited on high albedo surfaces like ice and snow, black carbon particles reduce the total surface albedo available to reflect solar energy back into space. Small initial snow albedo reduction may have

5360-425: The positive effects of this type of agriculture are counteracted if used for large patches so that the vegetation does not prevent soil erosion. Soluble and colloidal black carbon retained on the landscape from wildfires can make its way to groundwater. On a global scale, the flow of black carbon into fresh and salt water bodies approximates the rate of wildfire black carbon production. Developed countries were once

5440-720: The potential impacts on Arctic communities (namely remote indigenous populations) and economies. To appease concerns and resistance, at its 6th session in February 2019, the PPR sub-committee working group developed a "draft methodology for analyzing impacts" of HFO to be finalized at PPR's 7th session in 2020. The purpose of the methodology being to evaluate the ban according to its economic and social impacts on Arctic indigenous communities and other local communities, to measure anticipated benefits to local ecosystems, and potentially consider other factors that could be positively or negatively affected by

5520-434: The presence of graphite -like micro-crystalline structures in soot as evidenced by Raman spectroscopy . The term black carbon is used to imply that this soot component is primarily responsible for the absorption of visible light. The term black carbon is sometimes used as a synonym for both the elemental and graphitic component of soot. It can be measured using different types of devices based on absorption or dispersion of

5600-466: The primary source of black carbon emissions, but this began to change in the 1950s with the adoption of pollution control technologies in those countries. Whereas the United States emits about 21% of the world's CO 2 , it emits 6.1% of the world's soot. The European Union and United States might further reduce their black carbon emissions by accelerating implementation of black carbon regulations that currently take effect in 2015 or 2020 and by supporting

5680-443: The reflectivity of the underlying surface is sufficiently high. Early studies of the effects of aerosols on atmospheric radiative transfer on a global scale assumed a dominantly scattering aerosol with only a small absorbing component, since this appears to be a good representation of naturally occurring aerosols. However, as discussed above, urban aerosols have a large black carbon component and if these particles can be transported on

5760-497: The remnants or residual of petroleum sources once the hydrocarbons of higher quality are extracted via processes such as thermal and catalytic cracking . Thus, HFO is also commonly referred to as residual fuel oil. The chemical composition of HFO is highly variable due to the fact that HFO is often mixed or blended with cleaner fuels; blending streams can include carbon numbers from C 20 to greater than C 50 . HFOs are blended to achieve certain viscosity and flow characteristics for

5840-492: The reported 400,000 tonnes in 2012. A report in 2017 by Norwegian Type Approval body Det Norske Veritas (DNV GL) calculated the total fuel use of HFO by mass in the Arctic to be over 75% with larger vessels being the main consumers. In light of increased area traffic and given that the Arctic is considered to be a sensitive ecological area with a higher response intensity to climate change, the environmental risks posed by HFO present concern for environmentalists and governments in

5920-494: The risk of oil spill and the emission of toxic compounds and particulates including black carbon . The use of HFOs is banned as a fuel source for ships travelling in the Antarctic as part of the International Maritime Organization 's (IMO) International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters (Polar Code). For similar reasons, an HFO ban in Arctic waters is currently being considered. HFO consists of

6000-638: The surface albedo by 0.01–0.02. Black carbon record based on a shallow ice core drilled from the East Rongbuk glacier showed a dramatic increasing trend of black carbon concentrations in the ice stratigraphy since the 1990s, and simulated average radiative forcing caused by black carbon was nearly 2 W/m in 2002. This large warming trend is the proposed causal factor for the accelerating retreat of Himalayan glaciers, which threatens fresh water supplies and food security in China and India. A general darkening trend in

6080-403: The temperature change largely dependent on aerosol optical properties, aerosol concentrations, and the albedo of the underlying surface. A purely scattering aerosol will reflect energy that would normally be absorbed by the earth-atmosphere system back to space and leads to a cooling effect. As one adds an absorbing component to the aerosol, it can lead to a heating of the earth-atmosphere system if

6160-400: The third largest contributor to globally averaged positive radiative forcing since the pre-industrial period. In comparison, the more recent direct radiative forcing estimate by Ramanathan and Carmichael would lead one to conclude that black carbon has contributed the second largest globally averaged radiative forcing after carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), and that the radiative forcing of black carbon

6240-487: The water column and seabed. The following HFO specific spills have occurred since the year 2000. The information is organized according to year and ship name and includes amount released and the spill location: The combustion of HFO in ship engines results in the highest amount of black carbon emissions compared to all other fuels. The choice of marine fuel is the most important determinant of ship engine emission factors for black carbon. The second most important factor in

6320-404: Was composed of carbon and that it was produced by the incomplete combustion of carbon-containing fuels. The term black carbon was coined by Serbian physicist Tihomir Novakov , referred to as "the godfather of black carbon studies" by James Hansen , in the 1970s. Smoke or soot was the first pollutant to be recognized as having significant environmental impact yet one of the last to be studied by

6400-833: Was delivered on 29 September 2008. It is classed by Lloyd's Register . The first trip by a Q-Max tanker was completed by Mozah itself on 11 January 2009, when the tanker delivered 266,000 cubic metres of LNG to the Port of Bilbao BBG Terminal. Days before, the vessel had transited the Suez Canal for the first time. 4 Q-Max LNG carriers are operated by the STASCo (Shell International Trading and Shipping Company Ltd, London part of Shell International and 10 by NSQL (Nakilat Shipping Qatar Limited). They are owned by Qatar Gas Transport Company (Nakilat) and they are chartered to Qatar's LNG producers QatarEnergy LNG . In total, contracts were signed for

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