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83-620: Hallet's father was André Hallet , a Belgian painter of African scenes. He lived on the shore of Lake Kivu , in modern Rwanda . Jean-Pierre, born in Africa, spent his early childhood there. He was then sent to Belgium with relatives for his "formal" education, which included the study of agronomy and sociology at the University of Brussels (1945–1946) and at the Sorbonne (1947–1948). During 1948 he returned to Central Africa to work as an agronomist with

166-535: A Reader's Digest version of Congo Kitabu was also released. The word kitabu means bible, or book, in Swahili. Congo Kitabu is an auto-biographical book about Hallet's travels through central Africa from 1948 through 1960. In it he documents interactions with multiple isolated cultures throughout the Belgian Congo, Rwanda and Burundi regions. His accounts provide a unique anthropological source of information of

249-612: A bottleneck (i.e. a founder effect ). The group that crossed the Red Sea travelled along the coastal route around Arabia and Persia until reaching India. Haplogroup M is found in high frequencies along the southern coastal regions of Pakistan and India and it has the greatest diversity in India, indicating that it is here where the mutation may have occurred. Sixty percent of the Indian population belong to Haplogroup M . The indigenous people of

332-777: A "rapid single dispersal of all non-Africans less than 55,000 years ago". By 45,000 years ago, modern humans are known to have reached northwestern Europe. The first lineage to branch off from Mitochondrial Eve was L0 . This haplogroup is found in high proportions among the San of Southern Africa and the Sandawe of East Africa. It is also found among the Mbuti people. These groups branched off early in human history and have remained relatively genetically isolated since then. Haplogroups L1 , L2 , and L3 are descendants of L1–L6, and are largely confined to Africa. The macro haplogroups M and N , which are

415-951: A basal African strain of JCV has become extinct or that the original infection with JCV post-dates the migration from Africa. Evidence for archaic human species (descended from Homo heidelbergensis ) having interbred with modern humans outside of Africa, was discovered in the 2010s. This concerns primarily Neanderthal admixture in all modern populations except for Sub-Saharan Africans but evidence has also been presented for Denisova hominin admixture in Australasia (i.e. in Melanesians , Aboriginal Australians and some Negritos ). The rate of Neanderthal admixture to European and Asian populations as of 2017 has been estimated at between about 2–3%. Archaic admixture in some Sub-Saharan African populations hunter-gatherer groups ( Biaka Pygmies and San ), derived from archaic hominins that broke away from

498-504: A distinct Stone Age technocomplex in southern Arabia, around the earlier part of the Marine Isotope Stage 5 . According to Kuhlwilm and his co-authors, Neanderthals contributed genetically to modern humans then living outside of Africa around 100,000 years ago: humans which had already split off from other modern humans around 200,000 years ago, and this early wave of modern humans outside Africa also contributed genetically to

581-540: A distinct southern Himalayan route, and expanded through multiple migration waves southwards and northwards respectively. Genetic studies concluded that Native Americans descended from a single founding population that initially split from a Basal-East Asian source population in Mainland Southeast Asia around 36,000 years ago, at the same time at which the proper Jōmon people split from Basal-East Asians, either together with Ancestral Native Americans or during

664-471: A lesser extent also descended from regional variants of archaic humans. "Recent African origin", or Out of Africa II , refers to the migration of anatomically modern humans ( Homo sapiens ) out of Africa after their emergence at c. 300,000 to 200,000 years ago, in contrast to " Out of Africa I ", which refers to the migration of archaic humans from Africa to Eurasia from before 1.8 and up to 0.5 million years ago. Omo-Kibish I (Omo I) from southern Ethiopia

747-590: A philanthropic concern for the oldest civilizations still living in the Congo, and to the International Foundation Jacques Brel for cancer research. Recent African origin of modern humans In paleoanthropology , the recent African origin of modern humans or the " Out of Africa " theory ( OOA ) is the mainstream academic model of the geographic origin and early migration of anatomically modern humans ( Homo sapiens ). It follows

830-417: A pre-Toba dispersal but the source of the tools is disputed. An indication for post-Toba is haplo-group L3, that originated before the dispersal of humans out of Africa and can be dated to 60,000–70,000 years ago, "suggesting that humanity left Africa a few thousand years after Toba". Some research showing slower than expected genetic mutations in human DNA was published in 2012, indicating a revised dating for

913-467: A relationship with the Tutsi king Mwambi Matura III (of Ruanda-Burundi) and painted a series of detailed portraits of the king’s family and court. Prior to his African period, he painted scenes of southern France , Naples , Capri , and Sicily , when he traveled through these areas as a young man. This was known as his European period. His paintings have been sold at auction houses for record prices. He

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996-757: A separate expansion wave. They also show that the basal northern and southern Native American branches, to which all other Indigenous peoples belong, diverged around 16,000 years ago. An indigenous American sample from 16,000BC in Idaho , which is craniometrically similar to modern Native Americans as well as Paleosiberias , was found to have largely East-Eurasian ancestry and showed high affinity with contemporary East Asians, as well as Jōmon period samples of Japan, confirming that Ancestral Native Americans split from an East-Eurasian source population in Eastern Siberia. According to Macaulay et al. (2005) , an early offshoot from

1079-460: A view of "recent origin" combined with archaic admixture . Stringer (2014) distinguishes the original or "classic" Multiregional model as having existed from 1984 (its formulation) until 2003, to a "weak" post-2003 variant that has "shifted close to that of the Assimilation Model". In the 1980s, Allan Wilson together with Rebecca L. Cann and Mark Stoneking worked on genetic dating of

1162-449: Is an archaism. Endicott et al. (2003) suggest convergent evolution . A 2014 study by Gurdasani et al. indicates that the higher genetic diversity in Africa was further increased in some regions by relatively recent Eurasian migrations affecting parts of Africa. Another promising route towards reconstructing human genetic genealogy is via the JC virus (JCV), a type of human polyomavirus which

1245-476: Is carried by 70–90 percent of humans and which is usually transmitted vertically, from parents to offspring, suggesting codivergence with human populations. For this reason, JCV has been used as a genetic marker for human evolution and migration. This method does not appear to be reliable for the migration out of Africa; in contrast to human genetics, JCV strains associated with African populations are not basal. From this Shackelton et al. (2006) conclude that either

1328-440: Is genetically much less diverse than chimpanzee mtDNA, Wilson concluded that modern human populations had diverged recently from a single population while older human species such as Neanderthals and Homo erectus had become extinct. With the advent of archaeogenetics in the 1990s, the dating of mitochondrial and Y-chromosomal haplogroups became possible with some confidence. By 1999, estimates ranged around 150,000 years for

1411-408: Is largely a subset of that among Africans, supporting the out of Africa model. A large study by Coop et al . (2009) found evidence for natural selection in autosomal DNA outside of Africa. The study distinguishes non-African sweeps (notably KITLG variants associated with skin color ), West-Eurasian sweeps ( SLC24A5 ) and East-Asian sweeps ( MC1R , relevant to skin color). Based on this evidence,

1494-531: Is related "to many present-day Asians and Native Americans ". Tianyuan is similar in morphology to Liujiang man, and some Jōmon period modern humans found in Japan, as well as modern East and Southeast Asians. A 2021 study about the population history of Eastern Eurasia, concluded that distinctive Basal-East Asian (East-Eurasian) ancestry originated in Mainland Southeast Asia at ~50,000BC from

1577-544: Is specific to African populations, it is inferred to have been derived from interbreeding between African modern and archaic humans. A study published in 2020 found that the Yoruba and Mende populations of West Africa derive between 2% and 19% of their genome from an as-yet unidentified archaic hominin population that likely diverged before the split of modern humans and the ancestors of Neanderthals and Denisovans. In addition to genetic analysis, Petraglia et al. also examines

1660-654: Is the father of Jean-Pierre Hallet , an internationally recognized human-rights activist (on the behalf of the Efe pygmies in the Ituri forest of the Congo) who also lived in the Congo and Rwanda and was also an avid art collector. His paintings have been donated by the André Hallet Foundation for charitable causes, such as to "Medicins sans Frontiere" to aid Cambodian orphans in 1992, and to Association des Anciens du Congo (A.F.A.C),

1743-494: Is the oldest anatomically modern Homo sapiens skeleton currently known (around 233,000 years old). There are even older Homo sapiens fossils from Jebel Irhoud in Morocco which exhibit a mixture of modern and archaic features at around 315,000 years old. Since the beginning of the 21st century, the picture of "recent single-origin" migrations has become significantly more complex, due to the discovery of modern-archaic admixture and

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1826-511: The Andaman Islands also belong to the M lineage. The Andamanese are thought to be offshoots of some of the earliest inhabitants in Asia because of their long isolation from the mainland. They are evidence of the coastal route of early settlers that extends from India to Thailand and Indonesia all the way to eastern New Guinea . Since M is found in high frequencies in highlanders from New Guinea and

1909-728: The Horn of Africa between 300,000 and 200,000 years ago, although an alternative hypothesis argues that diverse morphological features of H. sapiens appeared locally in different parts of Africa and converged due to gene flow between different populations within the same period. The "recent African origin" model proposes that all modern non-African populations are substantially descended from populations of H. sapiens that left Africa after that time. There were at least several "out-of-Africa" dispersals of modern humans, possibly beginning as early as 270,000 years ago, including 215,000 years ago to at least Greece, and certainly via northern Africa and

1992-521: The M and N haplogroup lineages, are found in very low frequencies in Africa (although haplogroup M1 populations are very ancient and diversified in North and North-east Africa ) and appear to be more recent arrivals. A possible explanation is that these mutations occurred in East Africa shortly before the exodus and became the dominant haplogroups thereafter by means of the founder effect . Alternatively,

2075-582: The Manot 1 fossil from Manot Cave in Israel, dated to 54,700 years ago, though the dating was questioned by Groucutt et al. (2015) . The lack of fossils and stone tool industries that can be safely associated with modern humans in the Levant has been taken to suggest that modern humans were outcompeted by Neanderthals until around 55,000 years ago, who would have placed a barrier on modern human dispersal out of Africa through

2158-528: The Red Sea is about 20 kilometres (12 mi) wide, but 50,000 years ago sea levels were 70 m (230 ft) lower (owing to glaciation) and the water channel was much narrower. Though the straits were never completely closed, they were narrow enough to have enabled crossing using simple rafts, and there may have been islands in between. Shell middens 125,000 years old have been found in Eritrea , indicating that

2241-634: The Sahul region. According to one study, Papuans could have either formed from a mixture between an East Eurasian lineage and lineage basal to West and East Asians, or as a sister lineage of East Asians with or without a minor basal OoA or xOoA contribution. A Holocene hunter-gatherer sample (Leang_Panninge) from South Sulawesi was found to be genetically in between East-Eurasians and Australo-Papuans. The sample could be modeled as ~50% Papuan-related and ~50% Basal-East Asian-related (Andamanese Onge or Tianyuan). The authors concluded that Basal-East Asian ancestry

2324-491: The early expansions of hominins out of Africa , accomplished by Homo erectus and then Homo neanderthalensis . The model proposes a " single origin " of Homo sapiens in the taxonomic sense, precluding parallel evolution in other regions of traits considered anatomically modern , but not precluding multiple admixture between H. sapiens and archaic humans in Europe and Asia. H. sapiens most likely developed in

2407-439: The mt-MRCA and 60,000 to 70,000 years for the migration out of Africa. From 2000 to 2003, there was controversy about the mitochondrial DNA of " Mungo Man 3 " (LM3) and its possible bearing on the multiregional hypothesis . LM3 was found to have more than the expected number of sequence differences when compared to modern human DNA ( CRS ). Comparison of the mitochondrial DNA with that of ancient and modern aborigines , led to

2490-698: The paleontological fossil as an isolated early offshoot that retracted back to Africa. The discovery of stone tools in the United Arab Emirates in 2011 at the Faya-1 site in Mleiha , Sharjah , indicated the presence of modern humans at least 125,000 years ago, leading to a resurgence of the "long-neglected" North African route. This new understanding of the role of the Arabian dispersal began to change following results from archaeological and genetic studies stressing

2573-475: The 20th century. The "Recent African origin" of modern humans means "single origin" (monogenism) and has been used in various contexts as an antonym to polygenism. The debate in anthropology had swung in favour of monogenism by the mid-20th century. Isolated proponents of polygenism held forth in the mid-20th century, such as Carleton Coon , who thought as late as 1962 that H. sapiens arose five times from H. erectus in five places. The historical alternative to

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2656-586: The Altai Neanderthals. They found that "the ancestors of Neanderthals from the Altai Mountains and early modern humans met and interbred, possibly in the Near East, many thousands of years earlier than previously thought". According to co-author Ilan Gronau, "This actually complements archaeological evidence of the presence of early modern humans out of Africa around and before 100,000 years ago by providing

2739-524: The Andamanese and New Guineans have dark skin and Afro-textured hair , some scientists think they are all part of the same wave of migrants who departed across the Red Sea ~60,000 years ago in the Great Coastal Migration . The proportion of haplogroup M increases eastwards from Arabia to India; in eastern India, M outnumbers N by a ratio of 3:1. Crossing into Southeast Asia, haplogroup N (mostly in

2822-469: The Arabian Peninsula about 130,000 to 115,000 years ago. There is evidence that modern humans had reached China around 80,000 years ago. Practically all of these early waves seem to have gone extinct or retreated back, and present-day humans outside Africa descend mainly from a single expansion about 70,000–50,000 years ago, via the so-called " Southern Route ". These humans spread rapidly along

2905-709: The Balamba (near Zambia), the Bahutu (Rwanda), Bahunde , the Bambuba, the Batalinga, and the pygmoid Batwa of Rwanda. Hallet's accounts include those of extensive personal participation with cultural activities of the region, including secretive and forbidden (by the Belgian colonial government) practices. In several chapters of the book are described some of his first encounters with the Efe pygmies of

2988-521: The Belgian Ministry of Colonies. It was in this capacity that he initially traveled throughout central Africa, interacting with various cultures and tribes. Both the art works of André Hallet and many pieces from Jean-Pierre Hallet's African art collections have been sold at international art auctions. Hallet donated much of his Central African art collection to the UCLA African Art exhibit of

3071-409: The Ituri forest. Hallet was an avid collector of art and lover of animals as well, and the book is documented liberally with photographs from the period. The collection of art that he collected during the described journeys in the book eventually became a large portion of the UCLA African Art premier exhibit in 1963–1965, when Hallet donated much of it to the university. This collection is now part of

3154-650: The Madjedbebe fossils at about 50,000 years ago at the oldest. Phylogenetic data suggests that an early Eastern Eurasian (Eastern non-African) meta-population trifurcated somewhere in eastern South Asia , and gave rise to the Australo-Papuans, the Ancient Ancestral South Indians (AASI), as well as East/Southeast Asians, although Papuans may have also received some gene flow from an earlier group (xOoA), around 2%, next to additional archaic admixture in

3237-710: The Museum of Cultural History (later renamed the Fowler Museum ), which was part of the rationale for the museum's creation. Hallet and his family owned one of the largest authentic Central African art shops in the United States—at the Third Street Promenade in Santa Monica, California , near Los Angeles—until the late 1990s. The shop was managed by Hallet with his wife Liane Hallet, and two of his stepchildren. Some of

3320-567: The Northern Route. Climate reconstructions also support a Southern Route dispersal of modern humans as the Bab-el-Mandeb strait experienced a climate more conductive to human migration than the northern landbridge to the Levant during the major human dispersal out of Africa. A 2023 study proposed that Eurasians and Africans genetically diverged ~100,000 years ago. Main Eurasians then lived in

3403-456: The Red Sea. The group that crossed the Red Sea travelled along the coastal route around Arabia and the Persian Plateau to India, which appears to have been the first major settling point. Wells (2003) argued for the route along the southern coastline of Asia, across about 250 kilometres (155 mi), reaching Australia by around 50,000 years ago. Today at the Bab-el-Mandeb straits ,

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3486-680: The San Francisco Zoologic Society). Produced by Jean-Pierre Hallet Productions (Belgium) during 1975 and distributed by the Encyclopædia Britannica Educational Corporation, The Pygmies of the Ituri Forest is the educational counterpart to the movie Pygmies . Hallet appeared in the third episode of this ABC 1989 documentary series of people who go to unexpected extremes in amazing circumstances. Andr%C3%A9 Hallet André Hallet (1890–1959)

3569-517: The Saudi Peninsula, genetically isolated from at least 85 kya, before expanding north 54 kya. For reference, Homo sapiens and Neanderthals diverged ~500 kya. It is thought that Australia was inhabited around 65,000–50,000 years ago. As of 2017, the earliest evidence of humans in Australia is at least 65,000 years old, while McChesney stated that ...genetic evidence suggests that a small band with

3652-598: The UCLA Fowler Museum. Hallet also sold additional artifacts that he collected during the travels described in the book (and during many subsequent return visits to the Congo) and used the profits to help protect the Efé. He describes the events related to multiple significant artifacts, giving the reader a vivid background to their origin. Pygmy Kitabu is based on the travels of Jean-Pierre Hallet through central Africa from 1948 through 1960 and his extensive interactions with

3735-524: The aid of sympathetic allies to help care for his extended "family." His amusing observations of animals (such as that of smartest cat—- the leopard) and man in Kenya and Uganda and some serendipitous nature photographs were published in magazines in Central Africa. During 1973, Hallet filmed a documentary named Pygmies that documents the customs of this disappearing culture. It was released simultaneously with

3818-547: The behaviour of African apes , one of which was displayed at the London Zoo . The anatomist Thomas Huxley had also supported the hypothesis and suggested that African apes have a close evolutionary relationship with humans. These views were opposed by the German biologist Ernst Haeckel , who was a proponent of the Out of Asia theory . Haeckel argued that humans were more closely related to

3901-700: The book Pygmy Kitabu . Filmed during 1972 on location, the movie was originally titled Pygmies—- An Epic of the Golden Age and previewed at the Academy Award Theater in Los Angeles. However, the movie was rejected by major distributors for lack of commercial appeal and was limited to a small run by a local theater circuit in San Francisco, California (sponsored by the California Academy of Sciences and

3984-654: The book. The Efé Pygmies have been shown to be one of the oldest intact cultures on Earth by dNA studies, and this book is an in-depth work detailing their extraordinary culture. The book Pygmy Kitabu was reviewed by another expert on Mbuti pygmy culture, Colin Turnbull , and its contribution to knowledge of the pygmy culture acknowledged. It has also been used as a reference in a linguistics textbook. It has been cited in scholarly books, journals, and symposia. Hallet raised multiple animals while living in Ruanda-Urundi , near

4067-500: The border of the Congo. He trained a lion, played ball with a rhino, and watched the courtship of his rhino and elephant. His extensive menagerie allowed him an insight into animal behaviour that is further explored in Animal Kitabu. During 1960, due to the increasing ethnic conflicts in the area, he was forced to take drastic measures on behalf of his beloved animals when he escaped to Kenya. There he faced new challenges and enlisted

4150-403: The coast of Asia and reached Australia by around 65,000–50,000 years ago, (though some researchers question the earlier Australian dates and place the arrival of humans there at 50,000 years ago at earliest, while others have suggested that these first settlers of Australia may represent an older wave before the more significant out of Africa migration and thus not necessarily be ancestral to

4233-543: The conclusion that Mungo Man fell outside the range of genetic variation seen in Aboriginal Australians and was used to support the multiregional origin hypothesis. A reanalysis of LM3 and other ancient specimens from the area published in 2016, showed it to be akin to modern Aboriginal Australian sequences, inconsistent with the results of the earlier study. The Y chromosome , which is paternally inherited, does not go through much recombination and thus stays largely

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4316-517: The diet of early humans included seafood obtained by beachcombing . The dating of the Southern Dispersal is a matter of dispute. It may have happened either pre- or post-Toba, a catastrophic volcanic eruption that took place between 69,000 and 77,000 years ago at the site of present-day Lake Toba in Sumatra, Indonesia. Stone tools discovered below the layers of ash deposited in India may point to

4399-533: The dispersal through the Levant approximately 45,000 years ago. This hypothesis attempts to explain why haplogroup N is predominant in Europe and why haplogroup M is absent in Europe. Evidence of the coastal migration is thought to have been destroyed by the rise in sea levels during the Holocene epoch. Alternatively, a small European founder population that had expressed haplogroup M and N at first, could have lost haplogroup M through random genetic drift resulting from

4482-472: The first genetic evidence of such populations." Similar genetic admixture events have been noted in other regions as well. By some 50–70,000 years ago, a subset of the bearers of mitochondrial haplogroup L3 migrated from East Africa into the Near East . It has been estimated that from a population of 2,000 to 5,000 individuals in Africa, only a small group, possibly as few as 150 to 1,000 people, crossed

4565-543: The form of derivatives of its R subclade) reappears as the predominant lineage. M is predominant in East Asia, but amongst Indigenous Australians , N is the more common lineage. This haphazard distribution of Haplogroup N from Europe to Australia can be explained by founder effects and population bottlenecks . A 2002 study of African, European, and Asian populations, found greater genetic diversity among Africans than among Eurasians, and that genetic diversity among Eurasians

4648-569: The importance of southern Arabia as a corridor for human expansions out of Africa. In Oman , a site was discovered by Bien Joven in 2011 containing more than 100 surface scatters of stone tools belonging to the late Nubian Complex, known previously only from archaeological excavations in the Sudan . Two optically stimulated luminescence age estimates placed the Arabian Nubian Complex at approximately 106,000 years old. This provides evidence for

4731-435: The increasing evidence that the "recent out-of-Africa" migration took place in waves over a long time. As of 2010, there were two main accepted dispersal routes for the out-of-Africa migration of early anatomically modern humans, the "Northern Route" (via Nile Valley and Sinai) and the "Southern Route" via the Bab-el-Mandeb strait. Beginning 135,000 years ago, tropical Africa experienced megadroughts which drove humans from

4814-404: The isolated Efé Pygmies of the Congo. It was first published during 1973, and was cowritten by Alex Pelle. Unlike his prior book, Congo Kitabu , which chronicled his contacts and investigations into multiple groups in the Congo and nearby regions, Pygmy Kitabu is a detailed observational study primarily of the Efe Pygmies. Great detail and scientific observational method was used in the writing of

4897-536: The land and towards the sea shores, and forced them to cross over to other continents. Fossils of early Homo sapiens were found in Qafzeh and Es-Skhul Caves in Israel and have been dated to 80,000 to 120,000 years ago. These humans seem to have either become extinct or retreated back to Africa 70,000 to 80,000 years ago, possibly replaced by southbound Neanderthals escaping the colder regions of ice-age Europe. Hua Liu et al. analyzed autosomal microsatellite markers dating to about 56,000 years ago. They interpret

4980-534: The lineages of the rest of the world outside Africa, descend from L3. L3 is about 70,000 years old, while haplogroups M and N are about 65–55,000 years old. The relationship between such gene trees and demographic history is still debated when applied to dispersals. Of all the lineages present in Africa, the female descendants of only one lineage, mtDNA haplogroup L3 , are found outside Africa. If there had been several migrations, one would expect descendants of more than one lineage to be found. L3's female descendants,

5063-506: The marker M168 migrated out of Africa along the coasts of the Arabian Peninsula and India, through Indonesia, and reached Australia very early, between 60,000 and 50,000 years ago. This very early migration into Australia is also supported by Rasmussen et al. (2011). Fossils from Lake Mungo , Australia, have been dated to about 42,000 years ago. Other fossils from a site called Madjedbebe have been dated to at least 65,000 years ago, though some researchers doubt this early estimate and date

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5146-400: The matrilineal most recent common ancestor of modern human populations (dubbed " Mitochondrial Eve "). To identify informative genetic markers for tracking human evolutionary history, Wilson concentrated on mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), which is maternally inherited. This DNA material mutates quickly, making it easy to plot changes over relatively short times. With his discovery that human mtDNA

5229-401: The migration to between 90,000 and 130,000 years ago. Some more recent research suggests a migration out-of-Africa of around 50,000-65,000 years ago of the ancestors of modern non-African populations, similar to most previous estimates. Following the fossils dating 80,000 to 120,000 years ago from Qafzeh and Es-Skhul Caves in Israel there are no H. sapiens fossils in the Levant until

5312-443: The modern human lineage around 700,000 years ago, was discovered in 2011. The rate of admixture was estimated at 2%. Admixture from archaic hominins of still earlier divergence times, estimated at 1.2 to 1.3 million years ago, was found in Pygmies , Hadza and five Sandawe in 2012. From an analysis of Mucin 7 , a highly divergent haplotype that has an estimated coalescence time with other variants around 4.5 million years BP and

5395-486: The most widely accepted range of dates with 67,000 BP as a minimum, but do not rule out dates as old as 159,000 BP. Liu, Martinón-Torres et al. (2015) claim that modern human teeth have been found in China dating to at least 80,000 years ago. Tianyuan man from China has a probable date range between 38,000 and 42,000 years ago, while Liujiang man from the same region has a probable date range between 67,000 and 159,000 years ago. According to 2013 DNA tests, Tianyuan man

5478-576: The mutations may have arisen shortly afterwards. Results from mtDNA collected from aboriginal Malaysians called Orang Asli indicate that the haplogroups M and N share characteristics with original African groups from approximately 85,000 years ago, and share characteristics with sub-haplogroups found in coastal south-east Asian regions, such as Australasia, the Indian subcontinent and throughout continental Asia, which had dispersed and separated from their African progenitor approximately 65,000 years ago. This southern coastal dispersal would have occurred before

5561-404: The primates of South-east Asia and rejected Darwin's African hypothesis. In The Descent of Man , Darwin speculated that humans had descended from apes, which still had small brains but walked upright, freeing their hands for uses which favoured intelligence; he thought such apes were African: In each great region of the world the living mammals are closely related to the extinct species of

5644-408: The profit from these art sales was used to benefit the Efé pygmies. He returned to the Eastern Congo region to visit the Efé (and friends he had made during several decades) and to further his goals of securing land and protection for the Efé. In one instance he was captured by rebel forces in Eastern Congo during the First Congo War and detained until Congolese troops were able to free him. Hallet

5727-490: The recent origin model is the multiregional origin of modern humans , initially proposed by Milford Wolpoff in the 1980s. This view proposes that the derivation of anatomically modern human populations from H. erectus at the beginning of the Pleistocene 1.8 million years BP, has taken place within a continuous world population. The hypothesis necessarily rejects the assumption of an infertility barrier between ancient Eurasian and African populations of Homo . The hypothesis

5810-423: The region's later inhabitants ) while Europe was populated by an early offshoot which settled the Near East and Europe less than 55,000 years ago. In the 2010s, studies in population genetics uncovered evidence of interbreeding that occurred between H. sapiens and archaic humans in Eurasia, Oceania and Africa, indicating that modern population groups, while mostly derived from early H. sapiens , are to

5893-403: The same after inheritance. Similar to Mitochondrial Eve, this could be studied to track the male most recent common ancestor (" Y-chromosomal Adam " or Y-MRCA). The most basal lineages have been detected in West , Northwest and Central Africa , suggesting plausibility for the Y-MRCA living in the general region of "Central-Northwest Africa". A Stanford University School of Medicine study

5976-534: The same region. It is, therefore, probable that Africa was formerly inhabited by extinct apes closely allied to the gorilla and chimpanzee ; and as these two species are now man's nearest allies, it is somewhat more probable that our early progenitors lived on the African continent than elsewhere. But it is useless to speculate on this subject, for an ape nearly as large as a man, namely the Dryopithecus of Lartet, which

6059-496: The small stone tools ( microlithic materials) from the Indian subcontinent and explains the expansion of population based on the reconstruction of paleoenvironment. He proposed that the stone tools could be dated to 35 ka in South Asia, and the new technology might be influenced by environmental change and population pressure. The cladistic relationship of humans with the African apes was suggested by Charles Darwin after studying

6142-583: The southern dispersal with haplogroup N followed the Nile from East Africa, heading northwards and crossing into Asia through the Sinai . This group then branched, some moving into Europe and others heading east into Asia. This hypothesis is supported by the relatively late date of the arrival of modern humans in Europe as well as by archaeological and DNA evidence. Based on an analysis of 55 human mitochondrial genomes (mtDNAs) of hunter-gatherers, Posth et al. (2016) argue for

6225-488: The study concluded that human populations encountered novel selective pressures as they expanded out of Africa. MC1R and its relation to skin color had already been discussed by Harding et al. (2000) , p. 1355. According to this study, Papua New Guineans continued to be exposed to selection for dark skin color so that, although these groups are distinct from Africans in other places, the allele for dark skin color shared by contemporary Africans, Andamanese and New Guineans

6308-877: The valley of the River Congo during that period. He wrote about in detail of his encounters with the Luba people , the Kuba Kingdom , the Balega (in the historically cannibalistic areas of Maniema, including the Bwame secret society), the Efe Pygmies of the Ituri forest and the neighboring Balese, the Tutsi of Rwanda, the Maasai people of Kenya, the Bagoma people, and the pygmoid Bamosso of Burundi. He also had encounters with multiple other cultures, including

6391-652: Was a Belgian post-impressionist painter whose paintings have been exhibited at more than 60 museums worldwide, including the Louvre in Paris, France. His most well-known paintings are those of the Congo and around Lake Kivu (in modern-day Rwanda). He was initially sent to the Congo by the Belgian government in 1934 and then settled in Kisenyi (modern-day Rwanda), on the shores of Lake Kivu , in 1947, where he died in 1959. In 1934 he forged

6474-558: Was a featured speaker internationally, including at the Explorer's Club. He met with Dwight D. Eisenhower, and for his humanitarian efforts has been described as the "Abe Lincoln of the Congo". Hallet was nominated for the Nobel Peace prize for his work with the Pygmies. Congo Kitabu , Pygmy Kitabu , and Animal Kitabu have been translated into 21 languages, including Chinese and Russian, and

6557-748: Was awarded the National Order of the Leopard in Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo) for his efforts on behalf of the Efé. In 1987, Jean-Pierre Hallet won the US Presidential End Hunger Award, and by 1994 the Pygmy Fund had reached 46% of their goal of securing 500 acres (2.0 km) of good farming land for the pygmies in the Congo. He received more than 100 awards and honors and

6640-669: Was closely allied to the anthropomorphous Hylobates , existed in Europe during the Upper Miocene period; and since so remote a period the earth has certainly undergone many great revolutions, and there has been ample time for migration on the largest scale. In 1871, there were hardly any human fossils of ancient hominins available. Almost fifty years later, Darwin's speculation was supported when anthropologists began finding fossils of ancient small-brained hominins in several areas of Africa ( list of hominina fossils ). The hypothesis of recent (as opposed to archaic ) African origin developed in

6723-406: Was controversially debated during the late 1980s and the 1990s. The now-current terminology of "recent-origin" and "Out of Africa" became current in the context of this debate in the 1990s. Originally seen as an antithetical alternative to the recent origin model, the multiregional hypothesis in its original "strong" form is obsolete, while its various modified weaker variants have become variants of

6806-590: Was done by comparing Y-chromosome sequences and mtDNA in 69 men from different geographic regions and constructing a family tree. It was found that the Y-MRCA lived between 120,000 and 156,000, and the Mitochondrial Eve lived between 99,000 and 148,000 years ago, which not only predates some proposed waves of migration, but also meant that both lived in the African continent around the same time period. Another study finds

6889-516: Was far more widespread and the peopling of Insular Southeast Asia and Oceania was more complex than previously anticipated. In China, the Liujiang man ( Chinese : 柳江人 ) is among the earliest modern humans found in East Asia . The date most commonly attributed to the remains is 67,000 years ago. High rates of variability yielded by various dating techniques carried out by different researchers place

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