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91-494: Ratliff (2021) estimates that the split between Hmongic and Mienic had occurred before 2500 BP, since the Old Chinese words 鐵 tiě ‘iron’ and 下 xià ‘descend’ were both borrowed separately by Proto-Hmongic and Proto-Mienic. In earlier studies, the date of proto-Hmong-Mien has been estimated to be about 2500 BP by Sagart, Blench, and Sanchez-Mazas (2004), as well as by Ratliff (2021:247). It has been estimated to about 4243 BP by

182-466: A consequence, several thousand Hmong participated in the fighting against the Pathet Lao Communists , while almost as many were enrolled in the communist Lao People's Revolutionary Army . In Laos, numerous Hmong genuinely tried to avoid getting involved in the conflict in spite of the extremely difficult material conditions under which they lived during wartime. In the early 1960s, partially as

273-645: A factionalized guerrilla resistance movement called ChaoFa ( RPA : Cob Fab, Pahawh Hmong : 𖬒𖬯 𖬖𖬜𖬵 [REDACTED] ). These events led to the yellow rain controversy when the United States accused the Soviet Union of supplying and using chemical weapons in this conflict. Small groups of Hmong people, many second or third generation descendants of former CIA soldiers, remain internally displaced in remote parts of Laos, in fear of government reprisals. Faced with continuing military operations against them by

364-611: A key role in raising awareness in the U.S. Congress and policy-making circles in Washington, D.C. about the plight of the Hmong and Laotian refugees in Thailand and Laos. The CPPA, backed by a bipartisan coalition of members of the U.S. Congress and human rights organizations, conducted numerous research missions to the Hmong and Laotian refugee camps along the Mekong River in Thailand, as well as

455-600: A location on the Yangtze River . Recent Y-DNA phylogeny evidence supports the theory that people who speak the Hmong–Mien languages are descended from a population that is distantly related to those who now speak the Mon-Khmer languages. The time of Proto-Hmong-Mien has been estimated to be about 2500 BP (500 BC) by Sagart, Blench, and Sanchez-Mazas using traditional methods employing many lines of evidence, and about 4243 BP by

546-730: A result of the North Vietnamese invasion of Laos , the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) Special Activities Division began to recruit, train and lead the indigenous Hmong people in Laos to fight against North Vietnamese Army divisions that were invading Laos during the Vietnam War . This "Secret Army" was organized into various mobile regiments and divisions, including Special Guerrilla Units, all of whom were led by General Vang Pao . An estimated sixty-percent (60%) of Hmong men in Laos joined up. While there were Hmong soldiers who fought with

637-560: A script historically. Around 1905, Samuel Pollard introduced the Pollard script , for the A-Hmao language , an abugida inspired by Canadian Aboriginal syllabics , by his own admission. Several other syllabic alphabets were designed as well, the most notable being Shong Lue Yang 's Pahawh Hmong script, which originated in Laos for the purpose of writing Hmong Daw , Hmong Njua , and other dialects of

728-585: A separate written standard. Wu and Yang (2010) believe that standards should be developed for each of the six other primary varieties of Chuangqiandian as well, although the position of romanization in the scope of Hmong language preservation remains a debate. Romanization remains common in China and the United States, while versions of the Lao and Thai scripts remain common in Thailand and Laos. Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong script

819-501: A slight change in accent, the word "Meo" in Lao and Thai can be pronounced to mean "cat". The term Maew and Meo derived from the term Miao. A DNA study in 2005 in Thailand found that Hmong paternal lineage is quite different from lu Mien and other Southeast Asian tribes. The Hmong-Mien and Sino-Tibetan speaking people are known as hill tribes in Thailand; they were the subject of the first studies to show an impact of patrilocality vs. matrilocality on patterns of mitochondrial (mt) DNA vs.

910-500: A valued leader of U.S. and foreign-based Hmong. Calls to Californian Republican governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and President George W. Bush to pardon the defendants went unanswered pending a conclusion to the large, ongoing federal investigation. On 18 September 2009, the US federal government dropped all charges against Vang Pao, announcing that the federal government was permitted to consider "the probable sentence or other consequences if

1001-560: Is exclusively used by the White Hmong to refer to themselves, and many dictionaries use only the White Hmong dialect. In the Romanized Popular Alphabet , developed in the 1950s in Laos, these terms are written Hmoob Dawb (White Hmong) and Hmoob Leeg (Green Hmong). The final consonants indicate with which of the eight lexical tones the word is pronounced. White Hmong and Green Hmong speak mutually intelligible dialects of

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1092-539: Is known about the native Hmong name as it is not mentioned in Chinese historical records, since the Han identified the Hmong as Miao. The meaning of it is debatable and no one is sure of its origin, although it can be traced back to several provinces in China. However, Hmong Americans and Hmong Laotians often associate it with "Free" and/or "Hmoov" (Fate); it serves as a reminder to them of their history of fighting oppression. Before

1183-879: Is reconstructed as *hmʉŋ in Proto-Hmongic by Ratliff (2010), while Mien is reconstructed as *mjæn in Proto-Mienic. In comparison, William H. Baxter and Laurent Sagart (2014) reconstruct the Old Chinese name of the Mán 蠻 ( Nanman 南蠻, or southern foreigners) as 蠻 *mˤro[n]; additionally, Sidwell & Rau (2015) reconstruct the Proto-Austroasiatic word for 'person' as *mraʔ. Proto-Hmong–Mien shares many lexical similarities with neighboring language families, including Austroasiatic, Kra-Dai (Tai-Kadai), Austronesian, and Tibeto-Burman (Ratliff 2010). Martha Ratliff (2010:233-237) lists

1274-525: Is spoken by ethnic She people . Miao ( 苗 ) is the Chinese name and the one used by Miao in China. However, Hmong is more familiar in the West, due to Hmong emigration. Hmong is the biggest subgroup within the Hmongic peoples. Many overseas Hmong prefer the name Hmong , and claim that Meo (a Southeast Asian language change from Miao) is both inaccurate and pejorative, though it is generally considered neutral by

1365-492: The Automated Similarity Judgment Program (ASJP), however, ASJP is not widely accepted among historical linguists as a sufficiently rigorous method to establish or evaluate relationships between language families, since it only makes use of 40 basic vocabulary items. Reconstructions of Proto-Hmong–Mien include the following. In China, the first comprehensive reconstruction of Proto-Hmongic (Proto-Miao)

1456-516: The Hmong language , with some differences in pronunciation and vocabulary. One of the most characteristic differences is the use of the voiceless /m̥/ in White Hmong, indicated by a preceding "H" in Romanized Popular Alphabet . Voiceless nasals are not found in the Green Hmong dialect. Hmong groups are often named after the dominant colors or patterns of their traditional clothing, style of head-dress , or

1547-609: The Hmu , Kho (Qho) Xiong, and A-Hmao . The Hmong or Miao began to migrate to Tonkin (Northern Vietnam) in 19th century, where they struggled to establish their community on the high mountains. They recognized the Tai-speaking overlords of valleys, who were vassals of the Vietnamese court in Hue. The Hue court of Tu Duc at the time was facing crisis after crisis, unable to retake control of Tonkin and

1638-572: The Miao languages into Eastern, Northern, Central, and Western subgroups. Strecker's classification is as follows: In a follow-up to that paper in the same publication, Strecker tentatively removed Pa-Hng, Wunai, Jiongnai, and Yunuo, positing that they may be independent branches of Miao–Yao, with the possibility that Yao was the first of these to branch off. Effectively, this means that Miao/Hmongic would consist of six branches: She (Ho-Nte), Pa-Hng, Wunai, Jiongnai, Yunuo, and everything else. In addition,

1729-445: The Qing dynasty government. Arthur A. Hansen wrote: "In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, while the Hmong lived in south-western China, their Manchu overlords had labeled them ' Miao ' and targeted them for genocide ." Since 1949, the Miao people ( Chinese : 苗族 ; pinyin : miáo zú ) has been an official term for one of the 56 official minority groups recognized by

1820-587: The "U.S. Secret Army" in Laos during the Vietnam War. For many years, the Neo Hom political movement played a key role in resistance to the Vietnam People's Army in Laos following the U.S. withdrawal in 1975; Vang Pao played a significant role in this movement. Additionally, a spiritual leader, Zong Zoua Her , as well as other Hmong leaders, including Pa Kao Her or Pa Khao Her, rallied some of their followers in

1911-493: The 'everything else' would include nine distinct but unclassified branches, which were not addressed by either Matisoff or Ratliff (see West Hmongic#Strecker ). Matisoff followed the basic outline of Strecker (1987), apart from consolidating the Bunu languages and leaving She unclassified: Wang & Deng (2003) is one of the few Chinese sources which integrate the Bunu languages into Hmongic on purely linguistic grounds. They find

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2002-692: The 1300s and early 1900s that are still chanted by guides in most Hmong funerals today when guiding the spirits of the deceased individuals to their origins so they can reincarnate. The term Miao was more of a stereotype such as uncivilized, uncooperative, uncultivated, harmful, and inhumane than a name of an ethnic group and was used in daily conversations as an expression for ugliness and primitivity. In Southeast Asia, Hmong people are referred to by other names, including: Vietnamese Mèo , Mông or H'Mông ; Lao Maew ( ແມ້ວ ) or Mong ( ມົ້ງ ); Thai Maew ( แม้ว ) or Mong ( ม้ง ); and Burmese mun lu-myo ( မုံလူမျိုး ). With

2093-507: The 18th century under repressive economic and cultural reforms imposed by the Qing dynasty . This led to armed conflict and large-scale migrations well into the late 19th century, the period during which many Hmong people emigrated to Southeast Asia. However, the migration process had begun as early as the late 17th century, before the time of major social unrest, when small groups went in search of better agricultural opportunities. The Hmong people were subjected to persecution and genocide by

2184-663: The 1970s, the term Miao or Meo (i.e. barbarians, wild, seedlings, and even "Sons of the Soil") was used in reference to the Hmong. In the 1970s, Dr. Yang Dao, a Hmong American scholar, who at the time was the head of the Human Resource Department of the Ministry of Planning in the Royal Lao Government of Laos, advocated for the term "Hmong" with the support of clan leaders and General Vang Pao . Yang Dao had insisted that

2275-482: The 19th century on. Initially, the Siamese paid little attention to them. But in the early 1950s, the state suddenly took a number of initiatives aimed at establishing links. Decolonization and nationalism were gaining momentum in the peninsula and wars of independence were raging. Armed opposition to the state in northern Thailand, triggered by outside influence, started in 1967 while again many Hmong refused to take sides in

2366-483: The 2003–2004 season. Introduced by Doua Vu and Assembly Member Sarah Reyes , District 31 (Fresno), the bill encouraged changes in secondary education curriculum to include information about the Secret War and the role of Hmong people in the war. Furthermore, the bill called for the use of oral histories and first-hand accounts by Hmong people who had participated in the war and were caught up in its aftermath. Originally,

2457-466: The 20th century. Even ethnographers studying the Hmong people in Southeast Asia often referred to them as Meo, a corruption of Miao applied by Thai and Lao people to the Hmong. Although "Meo" was an official term, it was often used as an insult against the Hmong people, and it is considered to be derogatory. The issue came to a head during the passage of California State Assembly Bill (AB) 78, in

2548-407: The 9 arrested, one was an American, Harrison Jack, a 1968 West Point graduate and retired Army infantry officer who allegedly attempted to recruit Special Operations veterans to act as mercenaries . To obtain the weapons, Jack allegedly met unknowingly with undercover U.S. federal agents posing as weapons dealers, prompting the warrants, part of a long-running investigation into the activities of

2639-556: The Automated Similarity Judgment Program (ASJP), an experimental algorithm for automatic generation of phonologically based phylogenies. Hmong traditions and legends indicate that they originated near the Yellow River region of northern China , but this is not substantiated by any scientific evidence. According to linguist Martha Ratliff , there is linguistic evidence to suggest that they have occupied some of

2730-666: The Buddhist temple of Wat Tham Krabok . Amnesty International , the Lao Veterans of America , Inc., the United League for Democracy in Laos , Inc., Lao Human Rights Council , Inc. (led by Dr. Pobzeb Vang Vang Pobzeb , and later Vaughn Vang) and other non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and human rights organizations joined the opposition to forced repatriation. Although some accusations of forced repatriation were denied, thousands of Hmong people refused to return to Laos. In 1996, as

2821-546: The Chinese government as Miao . Hmongic is one of the primary branches of the Hmong–Mien language family , with the other being Mienic . Hmongic is a diverse group of perhaps twenty languages, based on mutual intelligibility, but several of these are dialectically quite diverse in phonology and vocabulary, and are not considered to be single languages by their speakers. There are probably over thirty languages taking this into account. Four classifications are outlined below, though

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2912-547: The Flower Hmong or the Variegated Hmong ( Hmong Lenh or Hmong Hoa ), so named because of their bright, colorful embroidery work (called pa ndau or paj ntaub , literally "flower cloth"). When Western authors first came in contact with Hmong people in the 18th century, they referred to them by writing ethnonyms which were previously assigned to them by the Chinese (i.e., Miao, or variants). This practice continued into

3003-667: The French. After the Viet Minh victory, numerous pro-French Hmong had to fall back to Laos and South Vietnam . After decades of distant relations with the Lao kingdoms, closer relations between the French military and some Hmong on the Xieng Khouang plateau arose after World War II . There, a rivalry between members of the Lo and Ly clans developed into open enmity, also affecting those connected with them by kinship. Clan leaders took opposite sides; as

3094-696: The Hebrew alphabets, although the characters themselves are different. Due to intensive language contact , there are several language varieties in China which are thought to be mixed Miao–Chinese languages or Sinicized Miao. These include: In southwestern Hunan , divergent Sinitic language varieties spoken by Miao and Yao peoples include: Hmong people The Hmong people ( RPA : Hmoob , Nyiakeng Puachue : 𞄀𞄩𞄰 , Pahawh Hmong : 𖬌𖬣𖬵 , IPA: [m̥ɔ̃́] , Chinese : 苗族蒙人 ) are an indigenous group in East Asia and Southeast Asia. In China,

3185-575: The Hmong people are classified as a sub-group of the Miao people . The modern Hmong reside mainly in Southwestern China and Mainland Southeast Asian countries such as Vietnam , Laos , Thailand , and Myanmar . There are also diaspora communities in the United States , Australia , and South America . The term Hmong is the English pronunciation of the Hmong's native name. It is a singular and plural noun (e.g., Japanese, French, etc.). Very little

3276-567: The Hmong-Mien languages must also address the position of Xong. Yoshihisa Taguchi's (2012, 2013) computational phylogenetic study classifies the Hmongic languages as follows. Hsiu's (2015, 2018) computational phylogenetic study classifies the Hmongic languages as follows, based primarily on lexical data from Chen (2013). The Hmongic languages have been written with at least a dozen different scripts, none of which has been universally accepted among Hmong people as standard. Tradition has it that

3367-799: The Hmong-Mien numerals from 4-9 and various culture-related vocabulary have been borrowed from Tibeto-Burman. The Proto-Tibeto-Burman (abbreviated as PTB) forms provided below are from James Matisoff (2003). Additionally, Paul K. Benedict (1987) notes that Proto-Hmong–Mien contains loanwords from an unknown Tibeto-Burman language or branch, which Benedict refers to as Donor Miao-Yao . Benedict (1987:20) believes that these Tibeto-Burman loanwords predate Hmong-Mien's contact with Old Chinese. Some numerals that Benedict (1987) reconstructed for Proto-Donor Miao-Yao are given below. Guillaume Jacques (2021) notes that there are Tibeto-Burman parallels for various Hmong-Mien words that are found specifically in rGyalrongic and neighboring Qiangic languages . These include

3458-534: The Miao community in China. Of the core Hmongic languages spoken by ethnic Miao, there are a number of overlapping names. The three branches are as follows, as named by Purnell (in English and Chinese), Ratliff, and scholars in China, as well as the descriptive names based on the patterns and colors of traditional dress: The Hunan Province Gazetteer (1997) gives the following autonyms for various peoples in Hunan classified by

3549-654: The Mien. The most likely homeland of the Hmong–Mien languages is in Southern China between the Yangtze and Mekong rivers. Migration of people speaking these languages from South China to Southeast Asia took place ca. 1600–1700 CE. Ancient DNA evidence suggests that the ancestors of the speakers of the Hmong–Mien languages were a population genetically distinct from that of the Tai–Kadai and Austronesian language populations at

3640-501: The Proto-Hmong-Mien rime was open or closed. Both also retain the second part of Proto-Hmong-Mien diphthongs, which is lost in most other Hmongic languages, since they tend to preserve only the first part of Proto-Hmong-Mien diphthongs. Ratliff notes that the position of Xong ( North Hmongic ) is still quite uncertain. Since Xong preserves many archaic features not found in most other Hmongic languages, any future attempts at classifying

3731-626: The Proto-Tai forms also have close parallels with Proto-Austronesian . Kosaka (2002) lists many lexical resemblances between Kra-Dai and Hmong-Mien languages, and proposes that they form part of a larger Miao-Dai language family. Many lexical resemblances are found between the Hmong-Mien and Austronesian language families, some of which are also shared with Kra-Dai and Austroasiatic (Ratliff 2010). Proto-Austronesian (abbreviated here as PAN) and Proto-Malayo-Polynesian (abbreviated here as PMP) reconstructions are from Blust (n.d.). Ratliff notes that

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3822-561: The U.S., fled the camp to live elsewhere within Thailand where a sizable Hmong population has been present since the 19th century. In 2004 and 2005, thousands of Hmong fled from the jungles of Laos to a temporary refugee camp in the Thai province of Phetchabun . The European Union , UNHCHR , and international groups have since spoken out about the forced repatriation. On 4 June 2007, as part of an investigation labeled Operation Tarnished Eagle , U.S. federal courts ordered warrants issued for

3913-471: The U.S.-based Hmong leadership and its supporters. On 15 June, the defendants were indicted by a grand jury ; a warrant was also issued for the arrest of an 11th man allegedly involved in the plot. Simultaneous raids of the defendants' homes and work locations, involving over 200 federal, state and local law enforcement officials, were conducted in approximately 15 cities in Central and Southern California in

4004-505: The US. Multiple protest rallies in support of the suspects, designed to raise awareness of the treatment of Hmong peoples in the jungles of Laos, took place in California , Minnesota , Wisconsin , Alaska . Several of Vang Pao 's high-level supporters in the U.S. criticized the California court that issued the arrest warrants, arguing that Vang was a historically important American ally and

4095-525: The United States after the Vietnam War . Beginning in December 1975, the first Hmong refugees arrived in the U.S., mainly from refugee camps in Thailand; however, only 3,466 were granted asylum at that time under the Indochina Migration and Refugee Assistance Act of 1975 . In May 1976, another 11,000 were allowed to enter the United States, and by 1978 some 30,000 Hmong people had emigrated. This first wave

4186-641: The United States, resources are disproportionately allocated to the Hmong Der community. This not only includes scholarly research, but also the translation of materials, including the curriculum proposed by the bill. Despite these arguments, "Mong" was not added to the bill. In the version of the bill that was passed by the assembly, "Hmong" was replaced by "Southeast Asians," a broader and more inclusive term. Dr. Paoze Thao and some others strongly feel that "Hmong" can only be used in reference to Hmong Der people because it does not include "Mong" Leng people. He feels that

4277-516: The Wat Tham Krabok Hmong refused to leave and the Lao government refused to accept them, claiming they were involved in the illegal drug trade and were of non-Lao origin. In 2003, following threats of forcible removal by the Thai government, the U.S., in a significant victory for the Hmong, agreed to accept 15,000 of the refugees. Several thousand Hmong people, fearing forced repatriation to Laos if they were not accepted for resettlement in

4368-584: The ancestors of the Hmong, the Nanman , had a written language with a few pieces of significant literature. When the Han-era Chinese began to expand southward into the land of the Hmong, whom they considered barbarians, the script of the Hmong was lost, according to many stories. Allegedly, the script was preserved in the clothing. Attempts at revival were made by the creation of a script in the Qing Dynasty, but this

4459-519: The ancient ancestors of the Hmong, the San-Miao people. In 2011, Hmong DNA was sampled and found to contain 7.84% D-M15 and 6%N(Tat) DNA. The research found a common ancestry between Hmong-Mien peoples and Mon-Khmer groups dating to the Last Glacial Maximum , approximately 15,000 to 18,000 years ago. Conflict between the Hmong of southern China and newly arrived Han settlers increased during

4550-484: The arrest of Vang Pao and nine others for plotting to overthrow the government of Laos in violation of federal Neutrality Acts and for multiple weapons charges. The federal charges alleged that members of the group inspected weapons, including AK-47s , smoke grenades , and Stinger missiles , in order to buy and smuggle into Thailand in June 2007, where they were intended to be used by Hmong resistance forces in Laos. Out of

4641-587: The border regions. The Taiping rebellion and other Chinese rebels spilled over into Vietnam and had caused anarchy; the Hmong communities thrived on either sides of the Red River, harmonizing with other ethnic groups, and were largely ignored by all factions. During the colonization of ' Tonkin ' ( North Vietnam ) between 1883 and 1954, a number of Hmong decided to join the Vietnamese Nationalists and Communists , while many Christianized Hmong sided with

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4732-1134: The breakup of Proto-Mienic. Neighboring languages with vowel length include Yue Chinese and Zhuang . Ostapirat (2016) revises various reconstructed Proto-Hmong–Mien consonant initials proposed by Ratliff (2010). He suggests that many proto-initials are in fact sesquisyllables , in line with Baxter & Sagart's (2014) Old Chinese reconstruction and Pittayaporn's (2009) Proto-Tai reconstruction. Examples include reconstructing *m.l- and *m.r- where Ratliff (2010) reconstructs *mbl- and *mbr-, respectively. Hmong-Mien presyllables are further discussed in Strecker (2021). Ostapirat (2016) also reconstructs velarized initial consonants (*Cˠ-) where Ratliff (2010) reconstructs -j- or -w-. Similarly, Norquest (2020) also reconstructs velarized initial consonants for Proto-Kra–Dai . Additionally, Ostapirat revises Ratliff's uvulars (*q-, etc.) as velars (*k-, etc.), and her palatals as either alveolars or palatals. Below are some reconstructions from Ostapirat (2016) compared with those of Ratliff (2010). Taguchi (2023) discusses several revisions in

4823-696: The communist Pathet Lao and the North Vietnamese, others were recognized for serving in combat against the NVA and the Pathet Lao , helping block Hanoi's Ho Chi Minh trail inside Laos and rescuing downed American pilots. Though their role was generally kept secret in the early stages of the conflict, they made great sacrifices to help the U.S. Thousands of economic and political refugees have resettled in Western countries in two separate waves. The first wave resettled in

4914-429: The conflict. Communist guerrilla warfare stopped by 1982 as a result of an international concurrence of events that rendered it pointless. Priority has since been given by the Thai state to sedentarizing the mountain population, introducing commercially viable agricultural techniques and national education, with the aim of integrating these non-Tai animists within the national identity. Many Hmong refugees resettled in

5005-461: The deadline for the closure of Thai refugee camps approached, under mounting political pressure, the U.S. agreed to resettle Hmong refugees who passed a new screening process. Around 5,000 Hmong people who were not resettled at the time of the camp closures sought asylum at Wat Tham Krabok , a Buddhist monastery in central Thailand where more than 10,000 Hmong refugees were already living. The Thai government attempted to repatriate these refugees, but

5096-468: The details of the West Hmongic branch are left for that article. Mo Piu , first documented in 2009, was reported by Geneviève Caelen-Haumont (2011) to be a divergent Hmongic language, and was later determined to be a dialect of Guiyang Miao . Similarly, Ná-Meo is not addressed in the classifications below, but is believed by Nguyen (2007) to be closest to Hmu (Qiandong Miao). Purnell (1970) divided

5187-469: The development of a global Hmong identity that includes linguistically and culturally related minorities in China with no previous ethnic affiliation. Scholarly and commercial exchanges, increasingly made over the internet, have also resulted in an exchange of terminology, including some Hmong people accepting the designation "Miao" after visiting China and some nationalist non-Hmong Miao peoples identifying as Hmong. Such realignments of identity, while largely

5278-416: The following 23 criterion Hmong-Mien languages. Martha Ratliff 's 2010 reconstruction contains the following phonemic inventory. The full set of Proto-Hmong–Mien initial consonants is (Ratliff 2010: 31): The 3 medial consonants are *-j-, *-l-, and *-r-. The 6 final stop consonants are *-p, *-t, *-k, *-m, *-n, and *-ŋ. The Proto-Hmong–Mien vowels are (11 total) (Ratliff 2010: 108): Proto-Hmong–Mien has

5369-536: The following basic vocabulary items in Hmong-Mien and Austroasiatic. Proto-Palaungic as reconstructed by Sidwell (2015) has also been reconstructed. Further lexical resemblances between Hmong-Mien and Austroasiatic are listed in Hsiu (2017). Many lexical resemblances are found between the Hmong-Mien and Kra-Dai language families, although the tones often do not correspond (Ratliff 2010). Proto-Tai (abbreviated here as PT) reconstructions are from Pittayaporn (2009). Many of

5460-565: The following lexical resemblances between Proto-Hmong–Mien (abbreviated below as PHM) and other language families. Proto-Hmongic and Proto-Mienic are provided if the Proto-Hmong–Mien form is not reconstructed. Many lexical resemblances are found between the Hmong-Mien and Austroasiatic language families (Ratliff 2010), some of which had earlier been proposed by Haudricourt (1951). Proto-Austroasiatic (PAA) reconstructions are from Sidwell (2024). Other Austroasiatic parallels listed by Kosaka (2002:94) are: Ostapirat (2018:116-117) lists compares

5551-628: The following pattern in the statistics of core Swadesh vocabulary: Matisoff (2006) outlined the following. Not all varieties are listed. Matisoff also indicates Hmongic influence on Gelao in his outline. The Hmongic classification below is from Martha Ratliff (2010:3). Ratliff (2010) notes that Pa-Hng , Jiongnai , and Xong ( North Hmongic ) are phonologically conservative, as they retain many Proto-Hmongic features that have been lost in most other daughter languages. For instance, both Pa-Hng and Xong have vowel quality distinctions (and also tone distinctions in Xong) depending on whether or not

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5642-414: The following syllable structure (Ratliff 2010:10):   (C) C  [j/w/l] [i̯/u̯]  (V) V C (C) Ratliff (2010) does not reconstruct vowel length for either Proto-Mienic or Proto-Hmong–Mien; in contrast, Li (2018) reconstructs vowel length for both. Even though Mienic languages usually have vowel length, Ratliff ascribes this to areal features that were borrowed after

5733-433: The government and a scarcity of food, some groups have begun coming out of hiding, while others have sought asylum in Thailand and other countries. Hmong in Laos, in particular, developed a stronger and deeper anti-Vietnamese sentiment than their Vietnamese Hmong cousins, due to historic persecution perpetrated by the Vietnamese against them. In June 1991, after talks with the UNHCR and the Thai government, Laos agreed to

5824-463: The government of the People's Republic of China . The Miao live mainly in southern China, in the provinces of Guizhou , Hunan , Yunnan , Sichuan , Guangxi , Hainan , Guangdong , and Hubei . According to the 2000 census, the number of 'Miao' in China was estimated to be about 9.6 million. The Miao nationality includes Hmong people as well as other culturally and linguistically related ethnic groups who do not call themselves Hmong. These include

5915-461: The inclusion of Mong Leng people is understandable. Some argue that such distinctions create unnecessary divisions within the global community, arguing that the use of these distinctions will only confuse non-Hmong and Mong people who are both trying to learn more about Hmong and Mong history and culture. As a compromise alternative, multiple iterations of "Hmong" have been proposed. A Hmong theologian, Rev. Dr. Paul Joseph T. Khamdy Yang has proposed

6006-409: The language of the bill mentioned only "Hmong" people, intending to include the entire community. Several Mong Leng activists, led by Dr. Paoze Thao (Professor of Linguistics and Education at California State University, Monterey Bay ), drew attention to the problems associated with omitting "Mong" from the language of the bill. They noted that despite nearly equal numbers of Hmong Der and Mong Leng in

6097-427: The late 1970s, mostly in the United States after the North Vietnamese and Pathet Lao takeovers of the pro-US governments in South Vietnam and Laos respectively. The Lao Veterans of America , and Lao Veterans of America Institute, helped to assist in the resettlement of many Laotian and Hmong refugees and asylum seekers in the United States, especially former Hmong veterans and their family members who served in

6188-517: The male-specific portion of the Y chromosome (MSY) variation. According to linguist Martha Ratliff , there is linguistic evidence to suggest that they have occupied some of the same areas of southern China for over 8,000 years. Evidence from mitochondrial DNA in Hmong–Mien –speaking populations supports the existence of southern origins of maternal lineages even further back in time, although it has been shown that Hmong-speaking populations had comparatively more contact with northern East Asians than had

6279-406: The middle reaches of the Yangtze River , indicating that the Daxi people might be the ancestors of modern Hmong-Mien populations, which show only small traces of O3d today. Chi You is the Hmong ancestral God of War. Today, a statue of Chi You has been erected in the town named Zhuolu . The author of Guoyu , written in the 4th to 5th century, considered Chi You's Jiu Li tribe to be related to

6370-433: The people it referenced historically, since the Han used it loosely to identify non-Han in Southern China until the Tang Dynasty when evidence of its association with the Hmong became more apparent. Its origin can be dated before the Qin dynasty (221 BCE). Thereafter it was perceived as barbaric, and resurfaced more often in Chinese historical records during the Miao's rebellions against the Ming and Qing dynasties between

6461-408: The person is convicted." On 10 January 2011, after Vang Pao's death, the federal government dropped all charges against the remaining defendants saying, "Based on the totality of the circumstances in the case, the government believes, as a discretionary matter, that continued prosecution of defendants is no longer warranted." The presence of Hmong settlements in Thailand is documented from the end of

6552-494: The phonological reconstruction of Proto-Hmong–Mien and suggests a classification based on lexical evidence rather than phonological sound changes. Rimes are simplified, while nasal codas in open rimes in Proto-Hmongic are posited to have derived from historical nasal initial consonants. Taguchi (2023) also suggests that Ratliff's (2010) Proto-Hmongic *k- and *q- are in fact secondary developments from Proto-Hmong–Mien *kr- and *k-, respectively. Below are some words roughly belonging to

6643-444: The proper term to identify the Hmong people internationally. Soon after, there was a political push from Hmong American politicians and activists to replace the term Miao with the term Hmong in China with little to no success. To date, China is the only country that does not recognize the term Hmong. Rather, they are still categorized under the umbrella term Miáo (苗) along with three other indigenous groups of people. Historically,

6734-665: The provinces from which they come. The Hmong groups in Vietnam and Laos, from the 18th century to the present day, are known as Black Hmong ( Hmoob Dub ), Striped Hmong ( Hmoob Txaij ), White Hmong ( Hmoob Dawb ), Hmong Leng ( Hmoob Leeg ) and Green Hmong ( Hmoob Ntsuab ). In other places in Asia, groups are also known as Black Hmong ( Hmoob Dub or Hmong Dou ), Striped Hmong ( Hmoob Txaij or Hmoob Quas Npab ), Hmong Shi, Hmong Pe, Hmong Pua, and Hmong Xau, Hmong Xanh (Green Hmong), Hmong Do (Red Hmong), Na Mieo and various other subgroups. These include

6825-428: The repatriation of over 60,000 Lao refugees living in Thailand, including tens of thousands of Hmong people. Very few of the Lao refugees, however, were willing to return voluntarily. Pressure to resettle the refugees grew as the Thai government worked to close its remaining refugee camps. While some Hmong people returned to Laos voluntarily, with development assistance from UNHCR, coercive measures and forced repatriation

6916-445: The same areas of southern China for over 8,000 years. Evidence from mitochondrial DNA in Hmong–Mien –speaking populations supports the southern origins of maternal lineages even farther back in time, although it has been shown that Hmong-speaking populations had comparatively more contact with northern East Asians than had the Mien. A rare haplogroup, O3d, was found at the Daxi culture in

7007-544: The semantic domains of agriculture and subsistence from Ratliff (2004), with the Proto-Hmong-Mien and Proto-Hmongic reconstructions from Ratliff (2010), and Old Chinese reconstructions from Baxter & Sagart (2014) for comparison (note that the Old Chinese forms are not necessarily cognate with the Hmong–Mien forms). Terms for domesticated animals and non-rice crops are usually shared with Chinese, while vocabulary relating to hunting, rice crops, and local plants and animals are usually not shared with Chinese. The ethnonym Hmong

7098-449: The standard Hmong language . In the 1950s, pinyin-based Latin alphabets were devised by the Chinese government for three varieties of Miao: Xong , Hmu , and Chuangqiandian (Hmong) , as well as a Latin alphabet for A-Hmao to replace the Pollard script (now known as "Old Miao"), though Pollard remains popular. This meant that each of the branches of Miao in the classification of the time had

7189-402: The struggle for political recognition after 1949, it was members of these ethnic minorities who campaigned for identification under the umbrella term "Miao" – taking advantage of its familiarity and associations of historical political oppression. Contemporary transnational interactions between Hmong in the West and Miao groups in China, following the 1975 Hmong emigration, led to

7280-416: The term Miao carried strong pejorative connotations in both China and Southeast Asia. In modern times, however, it has lost such negative connotations in China and has since been officially recognized as an ethnicity, which includes the Hmong. The Hmong in China are often happy or proud to be known as Miao while most Hmong outside China find it offensive. Little is known about the origin of the Miao term and

7371-510: The terms "Meo" and "Miao" were both unacceptable as his people had always called themselves by the name "Hmong," which he defined as "free men." Surrounding countries began to use the term "Hmong" after the US Department of State used it during Immigration screening in Thailand's Ban Vinai Refugee Camp . In 1994, Pobzeb Vang registered the term "Hmong" with the United Nations , making it

7462-506: The terms for two of the largest groups in the United States and Southeast Asia. These subgroups are also known as the White Hmong, and Blue or Green Hmong, respectively. These names originate from the color and designs of women's dresses in each respective group, with the White Hmong distinguished by the white dresses women wear on special occasions, and the Blue/Green Hmong by the blue batiked dresses. The name and pronunciation "Hmong"

7553-455: The use of "Hmong" in reference to both groups perpetuates the marginalization of the Mong Leng language and culture. Thus, he advocates the use of "Hmong" and "Mong" in reference to the entire ethnic group. Other scholars, including anthropologist Dr. Gary Yia Lee (a Hmong Der person), suggests that for the past 30 years, "Hmong" has been used in reference to the entire community and as a result,

7644-484: The use of the term " HMong " in reference to the Hmong and the Mong communities by capitalizing the H and the M . The ethnologist Jacques Lemoine has also begun to use the term (H)mong in reference to the entirety of the Hmong and Mong communities. Some non-Chinese Hmong advocate for the term 'Hmong' to be used not only to designate their dialect group but also other Miao groups living in China. They generally claim that

7735-590: The word "Miao" or "Meo" is a derogatory term, with connotations of barbarism, that probably should not be used at all. The term was later adopted by Tai -speaking groups in Southeast Asia where it took on especially insulting associations for Hmong people despite its official status. In modern China, the term "Miao" does not carry these negative associations, and people of the various sub-groups that constitute this officially recognized nationality freely identify themselves as Miao or Chinese, typically reserving more specific ethnonyms for intra-ethnic communication. During

7826-543: The words for 'snow' (cf. Jiangdi Mien bwan), 'scold' (Proto-Hmongic *qe), 'walnut' (Proto-Hmongic *qlow), and 'bamboo' (Proto-Hmong-Mien *hləwX). Hmongic languages The Hmongic languages , also known as Miao languages ( Chinese : 苗语 ; pinyin : Miáoyǔ ), include the various languages spoken by the Miao people (such as Hmong , Hmu , and Xong ). Hmongic languages also include various languages spoken by non- Mienic -speaking Yao people , such as Pa-Hng , Bunu , Jiongnai , Younuo , and others, while She

7917-456: Was also brutally suppressed and no remnant literature has been found. Adaptations of Chinese characters have been found in Hunan, recently. However, this evidence and mythological understanding is disputed. For example, according to Professor S. Robert Ramsey, there was no writing system among the Miao until the missionaries created them. It is currently unknown for certain whether or not the Hmong had

8008-450: Was created by Reverend Chervang Kong Vang to be able to capture Hmong vocabulary clearly and also to remedy redundancies in the language as well as address semantic confusions that was lacking in other scripts. This was created in the 1980s and was mainly used by United Christians Liberty Evangelical Church, a church also founded by Vang. The script bears strong resemblance to the Lao alphabet in structure and form and characters inspired from

8099-809: Was made up predominantly of men directly associated with General Vang Pao 's secret army. It was not until the passage of the Refugee Act of 1980 that families were able to enter the U.S., becoming the second wave of Hmong immigrants. Hmong families were scattered across all 50 states but most found their way to each other, building large communities in California, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Washington State and Oregon. Smaller, but still sizeable communities also formed in Massachusetts ( Lowell ), Michigan ( Detroit ), Montana ( Missoula ) and Alaska ( Anchorage ). Hmong people have their own terms for their cultural divisions. Hmong Der (Hmoob Dawb), and Hmong Leng (Hmoob Leeg) are

8190-475: Was undertaken by Wang Fushi (1979). Wang's 1979 manuscript was subsequently revised and published as Wang (1994). Proto-Mienic (Proto-Mjuenic; reconstruction excludes Biao Min and Zao Min ) has been reconstructed by Luang-Thongkum (1993). A comprehensive reconstruction of Proto-Mienic has been published by Liu (2021). Martha Ratliff (2010) used 11 criterion languages for her reconstruction. Wang & Mao (1995) base their Proto-Hmong–Mien reconstruction on

8281-413: Was used to send thousands of Hmong back to the places they had fled. Of the Hmong who did return to Laos, some quickly escaped back to Thailand, describing discrimination and brutal treatment at the hands of Lao authorities. In the 1980s, 1990s and early 2000s, The Center for Public Policy Analysis , a non-governmental public policy research organization, and its executive director, Philip Smith, played

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