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127-523: PMT is one model that explains why people engage in unhealthy practices and offers suggestions for changing those behaviors. Primary prevention involves taking measures to combat the risk of developing a health problem (e.g., controlling weight to prevent high blood pressure ). Secondary prevention involves taking steps to prevent a condition from becoming worse (e.g., remembering to take daily medication to control blood pressure). Another psychological model that describes self-preservation and processing of fear

254-412: A western diet and lifestyle, and the risk of becoming hypertensive in later life is substantial in most such societies. Several environmental or lifestyle factors influence blood pressure. Reducing dietary salt intake lowers blood pressure; as does weight loss, exercise training, vegetarian diets, increased dietary potassium intake and high dietary calcium supplementation. Increasing alcohol intake

381-608: A 24-hour period appears more accurate than office-based blood pressure measurement . Lifestyle changes and medications can lower blood pressure and decrease the risk of health complications. Lifestyle changes include weight loss , physical exercise , decreased salt intake , reducing alcohol intake , and a healthy diet . If lifestyle changes are not sufficient, blood pressure medications are used. Up to three medications taken concurrently can control blood pressure in 90% of people. The treatment of moderately high arterial blood pressure (defined as >160/100 mmHg) with medications

508-468: A Norwegian twin study, the heritability of self-efficacy in adolescents was estimated at 75 percent. The remaining variance, 25 percent, was due to environmental influences not shared between family members. The shared family environment did not contribute to individual differences in self-efficacy. The twins reared-together design may overestimate the effect of genetic influences and underestimate shared environmental influences because variables measured on

635-436: A cage in which escape from the shocks was not possible. Low self-efficacy can lead to this state in which it is believed that no amount of effort will make a difference in the success of the task at hand. Self-efficacy theory has been embraced by management scholars and practitioners because of its applicability in the workplace. Overall, self-efficacy is positively and strongly related to work-related performance as measured by

762-511: A complex interaction of genes and environmental factors. More than 2000 common genetic variants with small effects on blood pressure have been identified in association with high blood pressure, as well as some rare genetic variants with large effects on blood pressure. There is also evidence that DNA methylation at multiple nearby CpG sites may link some sequence variation to blood pressure, possibly via effects on vascular or renal function. Blood pressure rises with aging in societies with

889-925: A decrease in SBP by 5-15mmHg, versus resistance training showing a decrease of only 3-5mmHg. Aerobic exercises such as jogging, rowing, dancing, or hiking can decrease SBP the greatest. The decrease in SBP can regulate the effect of hypertension ensuring the baby will not be harmed. Resistance training takes a toll on the cardiovascular system in untrained individuals, leading to a reluctance in prescription of resistance training for hypertensive reduction purposes. Failure to thrive , seizures , irritability , lack of energy , and difficulty in breathing can be associated with hypertension in newborns and young infants. In older infants and children, hypertension can cause headache, unexplained irritability, fatigue , failure to thrive, blurred vision , nosebleeds , and facial paralysis . Primary (also termed essential) hypertension results from

1016-551: A flat surface at the level of the heart. Blood pressure measurement should be done in a quiet room so the medical professional checking the blood pressure can hear the Korotkoff sounds while listening to the brachial artery with a stethoscope for accurate blood pressure measurements. The blood pressure cuff should be deflated slowly (2–3 mmHg per second) while listening for the Korotkoff sounds. The bladder should be emptied before

1143-410: A given situation. When judging their own capabilities, people will often take in information from their body, how a person interprets that information impacts self-efficacy. For example, in activities that require physical strength, someone may take fatigue or pain as an indicator of inability or of effort. People generally avoid tasks where self-efficacy is low, but undertake tasks where self-efficacy

1270-481: A given task show a greater and more sustained effort to complete a task. It also lowers the effect of self-doubt in a person. However, those who are doing the encouraging, put the person in a situation where success is more often likely to be attained. If they are put in a situation prematurely with no hope of any success, it can undermine self-efficacy. A person's emotional and physiological state can also influence an individual's belief about their ability to perform in

1397-476: A group setting. Self-concept theory seeks to explain how people perceive and interpret their own existence from clues they receive from external sources, focusing on how these impressions are organized and how they are active throughout life. Successes and failures are closely related to the ways in which people have learned to view themselves and their relationships with others. This theory describes self-concept as learned (i.e., not present at birth); organized (in

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1524-412: A lack of effort. They approach threatening situations with the belief that they can control them. These things have been linked to lower levels of stress and a lower vulnerability to depression . In contrast, people with a low sense of self-efficacy view difficult tasks as personal threats and shy away from them. Difficult tasks lead them to look at the skills they lack rather than the ones they have. It

1651-464: A localized abdominal bruit to the left or right of the midline, or in both locations. Coarctation of the aorta frequently causes a decreased blood pressure in the lower extremities relative to the arms, or delayed or absent femoral arterial pulses . Pheochromocytoma may cause abrupt episodes of hypertension accompanied by headache, palpitations , pale appearance , and excessive sweating . Severely elevated blood pressure (equal to or greater than

1778-508: A major risk factor for stroke , coronary artery disease , heart failure , atrial fibrillation , peripheral arterial disease , vision loss , chronic kidney disease , and dementia . Hypertension is a major cause of premature death worldwide. High blood pressure is classified as primary (essential) hypertension or secondary hypertension . About 90–95% of cases are primary, defined as high blood pressure due to nonspecific lifestyle and genetic factors. Lifestyle factors that increase

1905-402: A minimum of 28g/day for women and 38g/day for men diagnosed with hypertension. Self-efficacy In psychology , self-efficacy is an individual's belief in their capacity to act in the ways necessary to reach specific goals. The concept was originally proposed by the psychologist Albert Bandura in 1977. Self-efficacy affects every area of human endeavor. By determining the beliefs

2032-419: A painful experience - writing. There is a causal relationship between self-efficacy beliefs that the writers hold and the accomplishments that they can achieve in their writing. Accordingly, scholars emphasized that writing self-efficacy beliefs are instrumental for making predictions of crafting outcomes. Empirically speaking, there is a study on introductory Composition courses that proved that poor writing

2159-669: A person holds regarding their power to affect situations, self-efficacy strongly influences both the power a person actually has to face challenges competently and the choices a person is most likely to make. These effects are particularly apparent, and compelling, with regard to investment behaviors such as in health , education , and agriculture . A strong sense of self-efficacy promotes human accomplishment and personal well-being . A person with high self-efficacy views challenges as things that are supposed to be mastered rather than threats to avoid. These people are able to recover from failure faster and are more likely to attribute failure to

2286-414: A person's blood pressure is measured since this can increase blood pressure by up to 15/10 mmHg. Multiple blood pressure readings (at least two) spaced 1–2 minutes apart should be obtained to ensure accuracy. Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring over 12 to 24 hours is the most accurate method to confirm the diagnosis. An exception to this is those with very high blood pressure readings especially when there

2413-406: A personal experience of success. Achieving difficult goals in the face of adversity helps build confidence and strengthen perseverance. Another source of self-efficacy is through vicarious experiences of social models. Seeing someone, who you view as similar to yourself, succeed at something difficult can motivate you to believe that you have the skills necessary to achieve a similar goal. However,

2540-407: A predictor, self-efficacy is supposed to facilitate the forming of behavioral intentions, the development of action plans, and the initiation of action. As mediator, self-efficacy can help prevent relapse to unhealthy behavior. As a moderator, self-efficacy can support the translation of intentions into action. See Health action process approach . Parents' sense of academic efficacy for their child

2667-439: A prior minor disturbance such as a silent heart attack. Blood pressure measurements can be influenced by circumstances of measurement. Guidelines use different thresholds for office (also known as clinic), home (when the patient measures their own blood pressure at home), and ambulatory blood pressure (using an automated device over a 24-hour period). Hypertension occurs in around 0.2 to 3% of newborns; however, blood pressure

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2794-629: A role in influencing the adoption, initiation, and maintenance of healthy behaviors, as well as curbing unhealthy practices. Healthcare providers can integrate self-efficacy interventions into patient education. One method is to provide examples of other people acting on a health promotion behavior and then work with the patient to encourage their belief in their own ability to change. Furthermore, when nurses followed-up by telephone after hospital discharge, individuals with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) were found to have increased self-efficacy in managing breathing difficulties. In this study,

2921-410: A student with high self-efficacy who does poorly on an exam will likely attribute the failure to the fact that they did not study enough. However, a student with low self-efficacy who does poorly on an exam is likely to believe the cause of that failure was due to the test being too difficult or challenging, which the student does not control. Bandura identifies four factors affecting self-efficacy. In

3048-421: A systolic 180 mmHg or diastolic of 120 mmHg) is referred to as a hypertensive crisis. Hypertensive crisis is categorized as either hypertensive urgency or hypertensive emergency , according to the absence or presence of end organ damage, respectively. In hypertensive urgency, there is no evidence of end organ damage resulting from the elevated blood pressure. In these cases, oral medications are used to lower

3175-760: A writing assignment. Students with a high self-efficacy are more likely to attempt and persist in unfamiliar writing tasks. Self-efficacy has often been linked to students' writing performance outcomes. More so than any other element within the cognitive-affective domain, self-efficacy beliefs have proven to be predictive of performance outcomes in writing. In order to assess the relationship between self-efficacy and writing capabilities, several studies have constructed scales to measure students' self-efficacy beliefs. The results of these scales are then compared to student writing samples. The studies included other variables, such as writing anxiety , grade goals, depth of processing, and expected outcomes. However, self-efficacy

3302-681: Is motivation . Motivation is often divided into two categories: extrinsic and intrinsic. McLeod suggests that intrinsic motivators tend to be more effective than extrinsic motivators because students then perceive the given task as inherently valuable. Additionally, McCarthy, Meier, and Rinderer explain that writers who are intrinsically motivated tend to be more self-directed, take active control of their writing, and see themselves as more capable of setting and accomplishing goals. Furthermore, writing studies research indicates that self-efficacy influences student choices, effort, persistence, perseverance, thought patterns, and emotional reactions when completing

3429-496: Is terror management theory . Protection motivation theory was developed by R.W. Rogers in 1975 in order to better understand fear appeals and how people cope with them. However, Dr. Rogers would later expand on the theory in 1983 to a more general theory of persuasive communication. The theory was originally based on the work of Richard Lazarus , who researched how people behave and cope during stressful situations. In his book, Stress, Appraisal, and Coping , Richard Lazarus discusses

3556-435: Is a hypertensive emergency and has several serious complications including vision loss , brain swelling , seizures , kidney failure , pulmonary edema , and disseminated intravascular coagulation (a blood clotting disorder). In contrast, gestational hypertension is defined as new-onset hypertension during pregnancy without protein in the urine. There have been significant findings on how exercising can help reduce

3683-507: Is a component of syndrome X (or metabolic syndrome ), can cause hyperuricemia and gout and is also associated with elevated blood pressure. Events in early life, such as low birth weight , maternal smoking , and lack of breastfeeding may be risk factors for adult essential hypertension, although strength of the relationships is weak and the mechanisms linking these exposures to adult hypertension remain unclear. Secondary hypertension results from an identifiable cause. Kidney disease

3810-516: Is a form of salt -sensitive hypertension, where sodium intake does not modulate either adrenal or renal vascular responses to angiotensin II . They make up 25% of the hypertensive population. Hypertension is diagnosed on the basis of a persistently high resting blood pressure. Elevated blood pressure measurements on at least two separate occasions is required for a diagnosis of hypertension. For an accurate diagnosis of hypertension to be made, it

3937-639: Is a lack of randomized controlled trial evidence for this approach. Hypertension occurs in approximately 8–10% of pregnancies. Two blood pressure measurements six hours apart of greater than 140/90 mmHg are diagnostic of hypertension in pregnancy. High blood pressure in pregnancy can be classified as pre-existing hypertension, gestational hypertension , or pre-eclampsia . Women who have chronic hypertension before their pregnancy are at increased risk of complications such as premature birth , low birthweight or stillbirth . Women who have high blood pressure and had complications in their pregnancy have three times

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4064-519: Is a relationship between low self-efficacy and depression. Academic self-efficacy can be a predicting factor that affects academic burnout in students. Self-efficacy can affect the amount of effort made in dealing with obstacles and how stressful the situation is due to the demands of the situation. In a study, the majority of a group of students questioned felt they had a difficulty with listening in class situations. Instructors then helped strengthen their listening skills by making them aware about how

4191-493: Is abnormally high, but diastolic pressure may be normal or low, a condition termed isolated systolic hypertension . The high pulse pressure in elderly people with hypertension or isolated systolic hypertension is explained by increased arterial stiffness , which typically accompanies aging and may be exacerbated by high blood pressure. Many mechanisms have been proposed to account for the rise in peripheral resistance in hypertension. Most evidence implicates either disturbances in

4318-473: Is also associated with decreased peripheral venous compliance , which may increase venous return , increase cardiac preload and, ultimately, cause diastolic dysfunction . For patients having hypertension, higher heart rate variability (HRV) is a risk factor for atrial fibrillation . Pulse pressure (the difference between systolic and diastolic blood pressure) is frequently increased in older people with hypertension. This can mean that systolic pressure

4445-462: Is another key determinant associated with writing efficacy and has great influence on writing development. Self-regulation encapsulates the writing dynamism of complexities, time structure, strategies, and whether deficiencies or capabilities. Through self-regulatory efficacy, writers strive toward more self-efficaciousness that effectively impacts their writing attainments One of the factors most commonly associated with self-efficacy in writing studies

4572-402: Is associated with an improved life expectancy . The effect of treatment of blood pressure between 130/80 mmHg and 160/100 mmHg is less clear, with some reviews finding benefit and others finding unclear benefit. High blood pressure affects 33% of the population globally. About half of all people with high blood pressure do not know that they have it. In 2019, high blood pressure

4699-403: Is associated with elevated blood pressure. Air pollution is associated with hypertension. Whether these associations are causal is unknown. Gout and elevated blood uric acid are associated with hypertension and evidence from genetic ( Mendelian Randomization) studies and clinical trials indicate this relationship is likely to be causal. Insulin resistance , which is common in obesity and

4826-424: Is associated with higher blood pressure, but the possible roles of other factors such as caffeine consumption, and vitamin D deficiency are less clear. Average blood pressure is higher in the winter than in the summer. Depression is associated with hypertension and loneliness is also a risk factor. Periodontal disease is also associated with high blood pressure. Arsenic exposure through drinking water

4953-419: Is being measured to sit quietly for at least five minutes which is then followed by application of a properly fitted blood pressure cuff to a bare upper arm. The person should be seated with their back supported, feet flat on the floor, and with their legs uncrossed. The person whose blood pressure is being measured should avoid talking or moving during this process. The arm being measured should be supported on

5080-466: Is classified by two measurements, the systolic (first number) and diastolic (second number) pressures. For most adults, normal blood pressure at rest is within the range of 100–140 millimeters mercury (mmHg) systolic and 60–90 mmHg diastolic. For most adults, high blood pressure is present if the resting blood pressure is persistently at or above 130/80 or 140/90 mmHg. Different numbers apply to children. Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring over

5207-446: Is considerable evidence that reducing dietary salt intake lowers blood pressure , but whether this translates into a reduction in mortality and cardiovascular disease remains uncertain. Estimated sodium intake ≥6 g/day and <3 g/day are both associated with high risk of death or major cardiovascular disease, but the association between high sodium intake and adverse outcomes is only observed in people with hypertension. Consequently, in

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5334-435: Is defined as an average systolic or diastolic blood pressure on three or more occasions equal or higher than the 95th percentile appropriate for the sex, age and height of the child. High blood pressure must be confirmed on repeated visits however before characterizing a child as having hypertension. In adolescents, it has been proposed that hypertension is diagnosed and classified using the same criteria as in adults. Much of

5461-507: Is developed from external experiences and self-perception and is influential in determining the outcome of many events, it is an important aspect of social cognitive theory. Self-efficacy represents the personal perception of external social factors. According to Bandura's theory, people with high self-efficacy—that is, those who believe they can perform well—are more likely to view difficult tasks as something to be mastered rather than something to be avoided. Social learning theory describes

5588-433: Is easy for them to lose faith in their own abilities after a failure. Low self-efficacy can be linked to higher levels of stress and depression. Psychologist Albert Bandura has defined self-efficacy as one's belief in one's ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish a task. One's sense of self-efficacy can play a major role in how one approaches goals, tasks, and challenges. The theory of self-efficacy lies at

5715-399: Is essential for proper blood pressure measurement technique to be used. Improper measurement of blood pressure is common and can change the blood pressure reading by up to 10 mmHg, which can lead to misdiagnosis and misclassification of hypertension. Correct blood pressure measurement technique involves several steps. Proper blood pressure measurement requires the person whose blood pressure

5842-450: Is high. When self-efficacy is significantly beyond actual ability, it leads to an overestimation of the ability to complete tasks. On the other hand, when self-efficacy is significantly lower than actual ability, it discourages growth and skill development. Research shows that the optimum level of self-efficacy is slightly above ability; in this situation, people are most encouraged to tackle challenging tasks and gain experience. Self-efficacy

5969-434: Is lifestyle changes, including dietary changes, physical activity, and weight loss. Though these have all been recommended in scientific advisories, a Cochrane systematic review found no evidence (due to lack of data) for effects of weight loss diets on death, long-term complications or adverse events in persons with hypertension. The review did find a decrease in body weight and blood pressure. Their potential effectiveness

6096-405: Is linked to their children's scholastic achievement. If the parents have higher perceived academic capabilities and aspirations for their child, the child itself will share those same beliefs. This promotes academic self-efficacy for the child, and in turn, leads to scholastic achievement. It also leads to prosocial behavior , and reduces vulnerability to feelings of futility and depression . There

6223-437: Is made of dimensions like magnitude, strength, and generality to explain how one believes they will perform on a specific task. High self-efficacy can affect motivation in both positive and negative ways. In general, people with high self-efficacy are more likely to make efforts to complete a task, and to persist longer in those efforts, than those with low self-efficacy. The stronger the self-efficacy or mastery expectations,

6350-407: Is more common in preadolescent children, with most cases caused by kidney disease . Primary or essential hypertension is more common in adolescents and adults and has multiple risk factors, including obesity and a family history of hypertension. Initial assessment upon diagnosis of hypertension should include a complete history and physical examination . The World Health Organization suggests

6477-674: Is not a self-fulfilling prophecy . Over-efficaciousness or 'illusional' efficacy discourages the critical examination of one's practices, therefore inhibiting professional learning. One study, which included 101 lower-division Portuguese students at U.T. Austin , examined the foreign students' beliefs about learning, goal attainment, and motivation to continue with language study. It was concluded that over-efficaciousness negatively affected student motivation, so that students who believed they were "good at languages" had less motivation to study. Social-cognitive models of health behavior change cast self-efficacy as predictor, mediator, or moderator. As

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6604-521: Is not measured routinely in healthy newborns. Hypertension is more common in high risk newborns. A variety of factors, such as gestational age , postconceptional age and birth weight needs to be taken into account when deciding if a blood pressure is normal in a newborn. Hypertension defined as elevated blood pressure over several visits affects 1% to 5% of children and adolescents and is associated with long-term risks of ill-health. Blood pressure rises with age in childhood and, in children, hypertension

6731-485: Is poor organ function. With the availability of 24-hour ambulatory blood pressure monitors and home blood pressure machines, the importance of not wrongly diagnosing those who have white coat hypertension has led to a change in protocols. In the United Kingdom, current best practice is to follow up a single raised clinic reading with ambulatory measurement, or less ideally with home blood pressure monitoring over

6858-405: Is predictive of students' production of effective writing. Therefore, increasing their writing positive beliefs resulted in better performance in their writing. Nurturing the participants' perceived self-efficacy elevated the goals that they used to set up in the writing courses, and this, in turn, promoted their quality of writing and placed more sense of self-satisfaction. Self-regulatory writing

6985-557: Is similar to and at times exceeds a single medication. If hypertension is high enough to justify immediate use of medications, lifestyle changes are still recommended in conjunction with medication. Dietary changes shown to reduce blood pressure include diets with low sodium, the DASH diet (Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension), which was the best against 11 other diet in an umbrella review, and plant-based diets. A 2024 clinical guideline recommended an increase dietary fiber intake, with

7112-414: Is strongly sponsored by the writers' self-doubts of making effective writing rather than their actual writing capabilities. Self-referent thought is a powerful mediator that links one's knowledge and actions. Therefore, even when individuals have the required skills and knowledge, their self-referent may continue in hindering their optimal performance. A 1997 study looked at how self-efficacy could influence

7239-463: Is the most common secondary cause of hypertension. Hypertension can also be caused by endocrine conditions, such as Cushing's syndrome , hyperthyroidism , hypothyroidism , acromegaly , Conn's syndrome or hyperaldosteronism , renal artery stenosis (from atherosclerosis or fibromuscular dysplasia ), hyperparathyroidism , and pheochromocytoma . Other causes of secondary hypertension include obesity , sleep apnea , pregnancy , coarctation of

7366-774: Is the most correlated with protection motivation, according to meta-analysis studies. Each influential factor is generally measured by asking questions through a survey. For example, Boer (2005) studied on intention of condom use to prevent from getting AIDS guided by protection motivation theory. The study asked the following questions to individuals: "If I do not use condoms, I will run a high risk of getting HIV/AIDS." for vulnerability, "If I became infected with HIV or get AIDS, I would suffer from all kind of ailments." for severity, "Using condoms will protect me against becoming infected with HIV." for response efficacy, and "I am able to talk about safe sex with my boyfriend/girlfriend." Protection motivation theory conventionally has been applied in

7493-429: Is typical of all people who ultimately develop hypertension is disputed. The increased peripheral resistance in established hypertension is mainly attributable to structural narrowing of small arteries and arterioles , although a reduction in the number or density of capillaries may also contribute. It is not clear whether or not vasoconstriction of arteriolar blood vessels plays a role in hypertension. Hypertension

7620-399: Is used as a secondary indicator of kidney disease. Lipid panel and glucose tests are done to identify comorbidities such as diabetes and hyperlipidemia and for cardiovascular risk stratification. Electrocardiogram (EKG/ECG) testing is done to check for evidence that the heart is under strain from high blood pressure, such as thickening of the heart muscle or whether the heart has experienced

7747-403: Is when blood pressure increases upon standing. Once the diagnosis of hypertension has been made, further testing may be performed to find secondary hypertension , identify comorbidities such as diabetes , identify hypertension-caused organ damage such as chronic kidney disease or thickening of the heart muscle , and for cardiovascular disease risk stratification. Secondary hypertension

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7874-725: The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute and American Academy of Pediatrics made a similar recommendation. However, the American Academy of Family Physicians supports the view of the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force that the available evidence is insufficient to determine the balance of benefits and harms of screening for hypertension in children and adolescents who do not have symptoms. The US Preventive Services Task Force recommends screening adults 18 years or older for hypertension with office blood pressure measurement. According to one review published in 2003, reduction of

8001-432: The blood pressure by 5 mmHg can decrease the risk of stroke by 34%, of ischemic heart disease by 21%, and reduce the likelihood of dementia , heart failure , and mortality from cardiovascular disease . Various expert groups have produced guidelines regarding how low the blood pressure target should be when a person is treated for hypertension. These groups recommend a target below the range 140–160 / 90–100 mmHg for

8128-452: The 2017 American Heart Association guidelines recommend medications if the systolic blood pressure is >140 mmHg or if the diastolic BP is >90 mmHg. For people who have experienced cardiovascular disease or those who are at a 10-year risk of cardiovascular disease of greater than 10%, it recommends medications if the systolic blood pressure is >130 mmHg or if the diastolic BP is >80 mmHg. The first line of treatment for hypertension

8255-456: The BP gradually over 24 to 48 hours. In hypertensive emergency, there is evidence of direct damage to one or more organs. The most affected organs include the brain, kidney, heart and lungs, producing symptoms which may include confusion , drowsiness, chest pain and breathlessness. In hypertensive emergency, the blood pressure must be reduced more rapidly to stop ongoing organ damage; however, there

8382-653: The WAC questionnaire can reliably measure agentic capabilities and can be useful in understanding the sociodemographic and organizational differences in mean values of agentic capabilities. The result of Stajkovic and Sergent's (2019) research on self-efficacy within the context of Social Cognitive Theory emphasizes its pivotal role in influencing behavior and performance. The research highlights that higher levels of self-efficacy are associated with greater motivation, resilience, and achievement. Individuals with strong self-efficacy beliefs are more likely to set challenging goals, persist in

8509-554: The WSE of a consumer, which in turn shows a strong correlation with e-service usage. These findings are significant for future consumer targeting and marketing. Furthermore, self-efficacy has been included as one of the four factors of core self-evaluation , one's fundamental appraisal of oneself, along with locus of control , neuroticism , and self-esteem . Core self-evaluation has shown to predict job satisfaction and job performance . Researchers have also examined self-efficacy in

8636-583: The absence of results from randomized controlled trials, the wisdom of reducing levels of dietary sodium intake below 3 g/day has been questioned. ESC guidelines mention periodontitis is associated with poor cardiovascular health status. The value of routine screening for hypertension is debated. In 2004, the National High Blood Pressure Education Program recommended that children aged 3 years and older have blood pressure measurement at least once at every health care visit and

8763-512: The academic activities which they used to achieve success Recent writing research accentuated this connection between writers' self-efficacy, motivation and efforts offered, and achieving success in writing. In another way, writers with a high level of confidence in their writing capabilities and processes are more willing to work persistently for satisfying and effective writing. In contrast, those who have less sense of efficacy are unable to resist any failure and tend to avoid what they believe it as

8890-524: The acquisition of skills that are developed exclusively or primarily within a social group. Social learning depends on how individuals either succeed or fail at dynamic interactions within groups, and promotes the development of individual emotional and practical skills as well as accurate perception of self and acceptance of others. According to this theory, people learn from one another through observation, imitation, and modeling. Self-efficacy reflects an individual's understanding of what skills they can offer in

9017-701: The active phase of pandemic, the students needed high self-efficacy to be able to face the pressure and be able to adapt quickly to new elements, like online learning. Social support There is also a relationship between social support and academic burnout in the current study. Social support is one of the factors that the students must have because it can help make it easier to adjust to their environment so they may not feel alone in facing problems or obstacles.31 Individuals receive support from other people in their lives and feel that others care, respect and love them. Social support can help one to survive and overcome pressures. The social support received by students affect

9144-725: The adoption of health practices have measured self-efficacy to assess its potential to initiate behavior change. With increased self-efficacy, individuals have greater confidence in their ability and thus are more likely to engage in healthy behaviors. Greater engagement in healthy behaviors, result in positive patient health outcomes such as improved quality of life. Choices affecting health (such as smoking , physical exercise , dieting, condom use, dental hygiene, seat belt use, and breast self-examination) are dependent on self-efficacy. Self-efficacy beliefs are cognitions that determine whether health behavior change will be initiated, how much effort will be expended, and how long it will be sustained in

9271-459: The aorta , excessive eating of liquorice , excessive drinking of alcohol, certain prescription medicines, herbal remedies, and stimulants such as cocaine and methamphetamine . A 2018 review found that any alcohol increased blood pressure in males while over one or two drinks increased the risk in females. In most people with established essential hypertension , increased resistance to blood flow ( total peripheral resistance ) accounts for

9398-490: The application of protection motivation theory has extended to other areas. Namely, researchers focusing on information security have applied protection motivation theory to their studies since the end of the 2000s. The general idea here has been to use threats or information security policies to encourage protection security behaviors in the workplace and at home. Accordingly, a more recent security application of protection motivation theory by Boss et al. (2015), returned to use of

9525-464: The body. Through regular bouts of physical activity, blood pressure can reduce the incidence of hypertension. Aerobic exercise has been shown to regulate blood pressure more effectively than resistance training. It is recommended to see the effects of exercising, that a person should aim for 5-7 days/ week of aerobic exercise. This type of exercise should have an intensity of light to moderate, utilizing ~85% of max heart rate (220-age). Aerobic has shown

9652-537: The career area to examine why women are underrepresented in male-dominated STEM fields such as mathematics, engineering, and science. It was found that gender differences in self-efficacy expectancies importantly influence the career-related behaviors and career choices of young women. Technical self-efficacy was found to be a crucial factor for teaching computer programming to school students, as students with higher levels of technological self-efficacy achieve higher learning outcomes. The effect of technical self-efficacy

9779-423: The center of Bandura's social cognitive theory, which emphasizes the role of observational learning and social experience in the development of personality . The main concept in social cognitive theory is that an individual's actions and reactions, including social behaviors and cognitive processes, in almost every situation are influenced by the actions that individual has observed in others. Because self-efficacy

9906-599: The children's own ability beliefs. The classroom environment can also influence the students' self-efficacy through the amount and type of teacher attention, social comparisons, the tasks, the grading system and more. These are often influenced by school environment, including its culture and its educational philosophy. Studies showed that school environment influences the way the four sources of self-efficacy shape students' academic self-efficacy. For example, in different school systems - Democratic schools , Waldorf schools and mainstream public schools - there were differences in

10033-457: The context of the work–life interface . Chan et al. (2016) developed and validated a measure "self-efficacy to regulate work and life" and defined it as "the belief one has in one's own ability to achieve a balance between work and non-work responsibilities, and to persist and cope with challenges posed by work and non-work demands" (p. 1758). Specifically, Chan et al. (2016) found that "self-efficacy to regulate work and life" helped to explain

10160-418: The coping response. In line with the traditional way of measuring the consequences of behavior, response efficacy was operationalized by linking consequences to the recommended behavior as well as to whether the subject regarded the consequences as likely outcomes of the recommended behavior. Among the 6 factors (vulnerability, severity, rewards, response efficacy, self-efficacy, and response costs), self-efficacy

10287-499: The course of 7 days. The United States Preventive Services Task Force also recommends getting measurements outside of the healthcare environment. Pseudohypertension in the elderly or noncompressibility artery syndrome may also require consideration. This condition is believed to be due to calcification of the arteries resulting in abnormally high blood pressure readings with a blood pressure cuff while intra arterial measurements of blood pressure are normal. Orthostatic hypertension

10414-446: The degree of stress or negativity of an event. Threat appraisal is also differentiated from negative cognitive styles, because it assesses children's reported negative appraisals for specific events in their lives rather than their typical style of responding to stressful events. Theoretically, higher threat appraisals should lead to negative arousal and coping and to increased psychological symptomatology. The coping appraisal consists of

10541-415: The degree to which an event has significant implications for their well-being. Theoretically, threat appraisal is related to Lazaraus' concept of primary appraisal, particularly to the way in which the event threatens the child's commitments, goals, or values. Threat appraisal is differentiated from the evaluation of stressfulness or impact of the event in that is assesses what is threatened, rather than simply

10668-600: The disease burden of high blood pressure is experienced by people who are not labeled as hypertensive. Consequently, population strategies are required to reduce the consequences of high blood pressure and reduce the need for antihypertensive medications. Lifestyle changes are recommended to lower blood pressure. Recommended lifestyle changes for the prevention of hypertension include: Effective lifestyle modification may lower blood pressure as much as an individual antihypertensive medication. Combinations of two or more lifestyle modifications can achieve even better results. There

10795-508: The ears), altered vision or fainting episodes . These symptoms, however, might be related to associated anxiety rather than the high blood pressure itself. Long-standing untreated hypertension can cause organ damage with signs such as changes in the optic fundus seen by ophthalmoscopy . The severity of hypertensive retinopathy correlates roughly with the duration or the severity of the hypertension. Other hypertension-caused organ damage include chronic kidney disease and thickening of

10922-568: The effect of self-efficacy on transgressive behavior was developed and verified in research with school children. Prosocial behavior (such as helping others, sharing, and being kind and cooperative) and moral disengagement (manifesting in behaviors such as making excuses for bad behavior, avoiding responsibility for consequences, and blaming the victim ) are negatively correlated. Academic, social, and self-regulatory self-efficacy encourages prosocial behavior, and thus helps prevent moral disengagement. In low-performing students, self-efficacy

11049-565: The effects of hypertension just after one bout of exercise. Exercising can help reduce hypertension as well as pre-eclampsia and eclampsia. The acute physiological responses include an increase in cardiac output (CO) of the individual (increased heart rate and stroke volume). This increase in CO can inadvertently maintain the amount of blood going into the muscles, improving functionality of the muscle later. Exercising can also improve systolic and diastolic blood pressure making it easier for blood to pump to

11176-436: The face of difficulties, and ultimately achieve better outcomes across various domains, demonstrating the critical impact of self-efficacy on human behavior and performance. Self-Efficacy and Emotional Regulation Self-efficacy, the belief in one's ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish a task, plays a crucial role in emotional regulation. Recent research has highlighted the mediating role of self-efficacy in

11303-530: The face of obstacles and failures. Self-efficacy influences how high people set their health goals (e.g., "I intend to reduce my smoking", or "I intend to quit smoking altogether"). Bandura showed that difference in self-efficacy correlates to fundamentally different world views. People with high self-efficacy generally believe that they are in control of their own lives, that their own actions and decisions shape their lives, while people with low self-efficacy may see their lives as outside their control. For example,

11430-617: The family level are modeled to be equal for both twins and thus cannot be separated into genetic and environmental components. Employing an alternative design, namely that of adoptive siblings, Buchanan et al. found significant shared environmental effects. Self-efficacy was also found to be influenced by environmental factors like cultural context, home environment and educational environment. For example, parents provide their children with sets of aspirations, role models and expectations, and form beliefs about their children's abilities. Parents' beliefs are communicated to their children and affect

11557-509: The following initial tests: serum electrolytes , serum creatinine , lipid panel , HbA1c or fasting glucose , urine dipstick and electrocardiogram (ECG/EKG). Serum creatinine is measured to assess for the presence of kidney disease, which can be either the cause or the result of hypertension. eGFR can also provide a baseline measurement of kidney function that can be used to monitor for side effects of certain anti-hypertensive drugs on kidney function. Testing of urine samples for protein

11684-429: The frequency, intensity, duration, and patterning of neurochemical stress reactions; using injurious substances or carrying out activities that put the person at risk; and impeding adaptive health/illness-related behavior.". Response efficacy concerns beliefs that adopting a particular behavioral response will be effective in reducing the diseases' threat, and self-efficacy is the belief that one can successfully perform

11811-551: The full nomology and measurement of fear in an organizational security context with two studies. A process-variance model of protection motivation theory was strongly supported in this context, as depicted in Figure 1. High blood pressure Hypertension , also known as high blood pressure , is a long-term medical condition in which the blood pressure in the arteries is persistently elevated. High blood pressure usually does not cause symptoms itself. It is, however,

11938-422: The general population. Cochrane reviews recommend similar targets for subgroups such as people with diabetes and people with prior cardiovascular disease. Additionally, Cochrane reviews have found that for older individuals with moderate to high cardiovascular risk, the benefits of trying to achieve a lower than standard blood pressure target (at or below 140/90 mmHg) are outweighed by the risk associated with

12065-587: The heart muscle . Secondary hypertension is hypertension due to an identifiable cause, and may result in certain specific additional signs and symptoms. For example, as well as causing high blood pressure, Cushing's syndrome frequently causes truncal obesity , glucose intolerance , moon face , a hump of fat behind the neck and shoulders (referred to as a buffalo hump), and purple abdominal stretch marks . Hyperthyroidism frequently causes weight loss with increased appetite, fast heart rate , bulging eyes , and tremor. Renal artery stenosis may be associated with

12192-478: The high pressure while cardiac output remains normal. There is evidence that some younger people with prehypertension or 'borderline hypertension' have high cardiac output, an elevated heart rate and normal peripheral resistance, termed hyperkinetic borderline hypertension. These individuals may develop the typical features of established essential hypertension in later life as their cardiac output falls and peripheral resistance rises with age. Whether this pattern

12319-441: The idea of the cognitive appraisal processes and how they relate to coping with stress. He states that people "differ in their sensitivity and vulnerability to certain types of events, as well as in their interpretations and reactions". While Richard Lazarus came up with many of the fundamental ideas used in the protection motivation theory, Rogers was the first to apply the terminology when discussing fear appeals. In modern times,

12446-540: The intervention. These findings may not be applicable to other populations. Many expert groups recommend a slightly higher target of 150/90 mmHg for those over somewhere between 60 and 80 years of age. The JNC 8 and American College of Physicians recommend the target of 150/90 mmHg for those over 60 years of age, but some experts within these groups disagree with this recommendation. Some expert groups have also recommended slightly lower targets in those with diabetes or chronic kidney disease , but others recommend

12573-422: The inverse of the previous statement is true as well. Seeing someone fail at a task can lead to doubt in personal skills and abilities. "The greater the assumed similarity, the more persuasive are the models' successes and failures." A third source of self-efficacy is found through strengthening the belief that one has the ability to succeed. Those who are positively persuaded that they have the ability to complete

12700-550: The kidneys' salt and water handling (particularly abnormalities in the intrarenal renin–angiotensin system ) or abnormalities of the sympathetic nervous system . These mechanisms are not mutually exclusive and it is likely that both contribute to some extent in most cases of essential hypertension. It has also been suggested that endothelial dysfunction and vascular inflammation may also contribute to increased peripheral resistance and vascular damage in hypertension. Interleukin 17 has garnered interest for its role in increasing

12827-500: The more active the efforts. A negative effect of low self-efficacy is that it can lead to a state of learned helplessness. Learned helplessness was studied by Martin Seligman in an experiment in which shocks were applied to animals. Through the experiment, it was discovered that the animals placed in a cage where they could escape shocks by moving to a different part of the cage did not attempt to move if they had formerly been placed in

12954-545: The nurses helped reinforce education and reassured patients regarding their self-care management techniques while in their home environment. At the National Kaohsiung First University of Science and Technology in Taiwan, researchers investigated the correlations between general Internet self-efficacy (GISE), Web-specific self-efficacy (WSE), and e-service usage. Researchers concluded that GISE directly affects

13081-901: The personal health contexts. A meta-analysis study on protection motivation theory categorized major six topics: cancer prevention (17%), exercise/diet/healthy lifestyle (17%), smoking (9%), AIDS prevention (9%), alcohol consumption (8%), and adherence to medical-treatment regimens (6%). As the minority topics, the study presented prevention of nuclear war, wearing bicycle helmets, driving safety, child-abuse prevention, reducing caffeine consumption, seeking treatment for sexually transmitted diseases, inoculation against influenza, saving endangered species, improving dental hygiene, home radon testing, osteoporosis prevention, marijuana use, seeking emergency help via 911, pain management during and recovery after dental surgery, and safe use of pesticides. All these topics were directly or indirectly related to personal physical health. Aside from personal physical health research,

13208-436: The production of several other immune system chemical signals thought to be involved in hypertension such as tumor necrosis factor alpha , interleukin 1 , interleukin 6 , and interleukin 8 . Excessive sodium or insufficient potassium in the diet leads to excessive intracellular sodium, which contracts vascular smooth muscle, restricting blood flow and so increases blood pressure. Non-modulating essential hypertension

13335-399: The protection motivation theory is mainly used when discussing health issues and how people react when diagnosed with health related illnesses. The threat appraisal process consists of both the severity and vulnerability of the situation. It focuses on the source of the threat and factors that increase or decrease likelihood of maladaptive behaviours. Severity refers to the degree of harm from

13462-710: The recommended behavior (i.e. perceived effectiveness of sunscreen in preventing premature aging) as well as one's perceived self-efficacy in carrying out the recommended actions. (i.e. confidence that one can use sunscreen consistently). The Threat and coping appraisal variables combine in a fairly straightforward way, although the relative emphasis may vary from topic to topic and with target population. In Stress, Appraisal, and Coping , Richard Lazarus states that, "studies of coping suggest that different styles of coping are related to specific health outcomes; control of anger, for example, has been implicated in hypertension. Three routes through which coping can affect health include

13589-691: The relationship appears weaker than in controlled laboratory settings. The implications of this research is that managers should provide accurate descriptions of tasks and provide clear and concise instructions. Moreover, they should provide the necessary supporting elements, including training employees in developing their self-efficacy in addition to task-related skills, for employees to be successful. It has also been suggested that managers should factor in self-efficacy when trying to decide candidates for developmental or training programs. It has been found that those who are high in self-efficacy learn more which leads to higher job performance. According to one study,

13716-662: The relationship between physical exercise and emotional regulation. Specifically, the study found that self-efficacy fully mediates this relationship, suggesting that the confidence individuals gain from physical exercise enhances their ability to regulate emotions effectively. This finding underscores the importance of fostering self-efficacy to improve emotional well-being through physical activities. The implications are significant for developing interventions to enhance emotional regulation by targeting self-efficacy through structured exercise programs. Self-efficacy has several effects on thought patterns and responses: A number of studies on

13843-405: The response costs. The coping appraisal process focuses on the adaptive responses and one's ability to cope with and avert the threat. The coping appraisal is the sum of the appraisals of the responses efficacy and self-efficacy, minus any physical or psychological "costs" of adopting the recommended preventive response. Coping Appraisal involves the individual's assessment of the response efficacy of

13970-451: The response efficacy, self-efficacy , and the response costs. Response efficacy is the effectiveness of the recommended behavior in removing or preventing possible harm. Self-efficacy is the belief that one can successfully enact the recommended behavior. The response costs are the costs associated with the recommended behavior. The amount of coping ability that one experiences is the combination of response efficacy and self-efficacy, minus

14097-409: The risk include excess salt in the diet, excess body weight , smoking , physical inactivity and alcohol use. The remaining 5–10% of cases are categorized as secondary hypertension, defined as high blood pressure due to a clearly identifiable cause, such as chronic kidney disease , narrowing of the kidney arteries , an endocrine disorder , or the use of birth control pills . Blood pressure

14224-406: The risk of death of the baby around the time of birth . Usually there are no symptoms in pre-eclampsia and it is detected by routine screening. When symptoms of pre-eclampsia occur the most common are headache, visual disturbance (often "flashing lights"), vomiting, pain over the stomach, and swelling . Pre-eclampsia can occasionally progress to a life-threatening condition called eclampsia , which

14351-457: The risk of developing cardiovascular disease compared to women with normal blood pressure who had no complications in pregnancy. Pre-eclampsia is a serious condition of the second half of pregnancy and following delivery characterised by increased blood pressure and the presence of protein in the urine . It occurs in about 5% of pregnancies and is responsible for approximately 16% of all maternal deaths globally. Pre-eclampsia also doubles

14478-491: The same level. Writing studies research indicates a strong relationship linking perceived self-efficacy to motivation and performance outcomes. Students' academic accomplishments are inextricably connected to their self-thought of efficacy and constructed motivation within their contexts. The resilient efforts that highly self-efficacious individuals exert usually enable them to face the challenge and produce high-performance achievements. Besides, individuals place more value on

14605-399: The same target as for the general population. The issue of what is the best target and whether targets should differ for high risk individuals is unresolved, although some experts propose more intensive blood pressure lowering than advocated in some guidelines. For people who have never experienced cardiovascular disease who are at a 10-year risk of cardiovascular disease of less than 10%,

14732-477: The students in forming perceptions of everything they are going through. A strong negative relationship has been suggested between levels of speech anxiety and self-efficacy. As the focus of healthcare continues to transition from the medical model to health promotion and preventive healthcare , the role of self-efficacy as a potent influence on health behavior and self-care has come under review. According to Luszczynska and Schwarzer, self-efficacy plays

14859-525: The study presents a new questionnaire called Work Agentic Capabilities (WAC) that measures the four agentic capabilities in the organizational context: forethought, self-regulation, self-reflection, and vicarious capability. The WAC questionnaire was validated through exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, and it was found to be positively correlated with psychological capital, positive job attitudes, proactive organizational behaviors, perceived job performance, and promotion prospects. The study concludes that

14986-420: The unhealthy behavior. Vulnerability is the probability that one will experience harm. Another aspect of the threat appraisal is rewards. Rewards refer to the positive aspects of starting or continuing the unhealthy behavior. To calculate the amount of threat experienced take the combination of both the severity and vulnerability, and then subtract the rewards. Threat appraisal refers to children's evaluation of

15113-623: The use of different strategies could produce better outcomes. This way, their levels of self-efficacy were improved as they continued to figure out what strategies worked for them. Self-efficacy has proven especially useful for helping undergraduate students to gain insights into their career development in STEM fields . Researchers have reported that mathematics self-efficacy is more predictive of mathematics interest, choice of math-related courses, and math majors than past achievements in math or outcome expectations. Self-efficacy theory has been applied to

15240-515: The way academic self-efficacy changed along grade levels, as well as variations in the roles of the various sources of self-efficacy. Both parental and educational environments are embedded in wider cultural contexts which influence the way self-efficacy is formed. For example, the mathematics self-efficacy of students from collectivist cultures was found to be more influenced by vicarious experiences and social persuasions than self-efficacy of students from individualist cultures. A theoretical model of

15367-426: The way it is applied to the self); and dynamic (i.e., ever-changing, and not fixed at a certain age). Attribution theory focuses on how people attribute events and how those beliefs interact with self-perception. Attribution theory defines three major elements of cause: According to Bandura, the most effective way to build self-efficacy is to engage in mastery experiences. These mastery experiences can be defined as

15494-463: The weighted average correlation across 114 selected studies. The strength of the relationship, though, is moderated by both task complexity and environmental context. For more complex tasks, the relationships between self-efficacy and work performance is weaker than for easier work-related tasks. In actual work environments, which are characterized by performance constraints, ambiguous demands, deficient performance feedback, and other complicating factors,

15621-478: The writing ability of 5th graders in the United States. Researchers found that there was a direct correlation between students' self-efficacy and their own writing apprehension, essay performance, and perceived usefulness of writing. As the researchers suggest, this study is important because it showed how important it is for teachers to teach skills and also to build confidence in their students. A more recent study

15748-455: Was believed to have been a factor in 19% of all deaths (10.4 million globally). Hypertension is rarely accompanied by symptoms . Half of all people with hypertension are unaware that they have it. Hypertension is usually identified as part of health screening or when seeking healthcare for an unrelated problem. Some people with high blood pressure report headaches , as well as lightheadedness , vertigo , tinnitus (buzzing or hissing in

15875-410: Was done that seemed to replicate the findings of the previous study quite nicely. This study found that students' beliefs about their own writing did have an impact on their self-efficacy, apprehension, and performance. This is also evident in a different study on collegiate students that reported the change of knowledge seeking as an outcome of their self-efficacy promotion. Thus, students' self-efficacy

16002-465: Was found to be even stronger than the effect of gender. Self-efficacy has been shown to be influenced by different instructional approaches in science teaching. Learning about a scientific topic generally results in higher self-efficacy. Self-regulatory and metacognitive approaches that address students' conceptions additionally result in calibrated self-efficacy beliefs, meaning that students' beliefs about their abilities and their actual abilities are on

16129-483: Was the only variable that was a statistically significant predictor of writing performance. According to a study conducted, there was a relationship between self-efficacy and academic burnout. Self-efficacy is significantly related to academic burnout and the two variables are negatively correlated. The importance of the role of students’ self-efficacy can increase their ability to master lecture material and to be able to control themselves from stressful situations. During

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