127-519: The Lalande Prize (French: Prix Lalande also known as Lalande Medal ) was an award for scientific advances in astronomy, given from 1802 until 1970 by the French Academy of Sciences . The prize was endowed by astronomer Jérôme Lalande in 1801, a few years before his death in 1807, to enable the Academy of Sciences to make an annual award "to the person who makes the most unusual observation or writes
254-405: A 6-stage process with rules and regulations that allowed for chosen candidates to canvas other members and for current members to consider postponing certain stages of the process if the need would arise. Elections in the early days of the academy were important activities, and as such made up a large part of the proceedings at the academy, with many meetings being held regarding the election to fill
381-609: A building to connect the Tuileries with the older Louvre building. Henry IV , France's new king from 1589 (the first from the House of Bourbon ) and master of Paris from 1594, is associated with the further articulation of what became known as the Grand Dessein ("Grand Design") of uniting the Louvre and the Tuileries in a single building, together with the extension of the eastern courtyard to
508-441: A committee comprising Le Vau, Charles Le Brun and Claude Perrault produced a symmetrical and classical design featuring a giant Corinthian order colonnade with paired columns and a balustrade running along the flat line of the roof. Works started in 1667 and the exterior structures were largely completed by 1674, but would not be fully decorated and roofed until the early 19th century under Napoleon . The definitive design of
635-640: A few more years. Marigny had ambitious plans for the completion of the Cour Carrée, but their execution was cut short in the late 1750s by the adverse developments of the Seven Years' War . Jacques-Germain Soufflot in 1759 led the demolition of the upper structures of Le Vau's dome above the Pavillon des Arts, whose chimneys were in poor condition, and designed the northern and eastern passageways ( guichets ) of
762-715: A financial crisis in France. Today the academy is one of five academies comprising the Institut de France . Its members are elected for life. Currently, there are 150 full members, 300 corresponding members, and 120 foreign associates. They are divided into two scientific groups: the Mathematical and Physical sciences and their applications and the Chemical , Biological , Geological and Medical sciences and their applications. The academy currently has five missions that it pursues. These being
889-568: A greater level of ambition for the Louvre was again signaled. On 24 March 1848, the provisional government published an order that renamed the Louvre as the Palais du Peuple ("People's Palace") and heralded the project to complete it and dedicate it to the exhibition of art and industry as well as the National Library. In a February 1849 speech at the National Assembly , Victor Hugo described
1016-586: A new building campaign during which the Pavillon de l'Horloge was completed. Its second staircase, mirroring Lescot's Grand Degré to the north, was still unfinished when the Fronde again interrupted the works in the 1640s, and its decoration has never been completed since then. At that time, much of the construction (though not the decoration) of the new wing had been completed, but the northern pavilion, or Pavillon de Beauvais , designed by Lemercier similarly as Lescot's Pavillon du Roi , had barely been started. On
1143-510: A new design inspired by classical antiquity and Italian Renaissance architecture . Most parts of the current building were constructed in the 17th and 19th centuries. In the late 20th century, the Grand Louvre project increased visitor access and gallery space, including by adding the Louvre Pyramid in the courtyard Cour Napoléon. For more than three centuries, the history and design of
1270-578: A new suite of rooms flanking it to the west (the Grand Cabinet du Roi , later Escalier Percier et Fontaine ) with a new façade on what became known as the Cour de la Reine (later Cour de l'Infante , Cour du Musée , and now Cour du Sphinx ), and expanded the former Grand Salon on the northern side as well as making it double-height, creating the Salon Carré in its current dimensions. From 1668 to 1678
1397-634: A protruding structure on the northern side, the Porte des Lions , a passageway to the quay, the Porte Jaujard on the north side, now the main entrance to the École du Louvre , and finally the Pavillon de Flore . Similarly, on the northern side of the Cour Napoléon are, from east to west, the pavilions named after Jean-Baptiste Colbert , Cardinal Richelieu , and Anne Robert Jacques Turgot . Between these and
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#17330929003321524-400: A single vacancy within the academy. That is not to say that discussion of candidates and the election process as a whole was relegated to the meetings. Members that belonged to the vacancy's respective field would continue discussion of potential candidates for the vacancy in private. Being elected into the academy did not necessarily guarantee being a full member, in some cases, one would enter
1651-409: A supporter of the particle-theory of light, he looked for a way to disprove it. Poisson thought that he had found a flaw when he demonstrate that Fresnel's theory predicts that an on-axis bright spot would exist in the shadow of a circular obstacle, where there should be complete darkness according to the particle-theory of light. The Poisson spot is not easily observed in every-day situations and so it
1778-451: A variety of themes and challenges dealing with African development and covering a large field spectrum. Specifically higher education in sciences, and research practices in basic and applied sciences that deal with various aspects relevant to development (renewable energy, infectious diseases, animal pathologies, food resources, access to safe water, agriculture, urban health, etc.). The Academic Standing Committees and Working Parties prepare
1905-404: A wheat warehouse and deteriorated. On 21 October 1652, the king and the court ceremonially re-entered the Louvre and made it their residence again, initiating a new burst of construction that would last to the late 1670s. Meanwhile Anne of Austria , like Marie de' Medici as queen mother before her, inhabited the ground-floor apartment in the Cour Carrée's southern wing. She extended it to
2032-474: Is a building that has gone through a lot"). In the early 1920s Henri Verne , who would soon become the Louvre's Director, noted that "it has become, through the very slow pace of its development, the most representative monument of our national life." In 1190 King Philip II of France , who was about to leave for the Third Crusade , ordered the construction of a defensive wall all around Paris . To protect
2159-472: Is not limited to the field of astronomy. French Academy of Sciences The French Academy of Sciences ( French : Académie des sciences , [akademi de sjɑ̃s] ) is a learned society , founded in 1666 by Louis XIV at the suggestion of Jean-Baptiste Colbert , to encourage and protect the spirit of French scientific research . It was at the forefront of scientific developments in Europe in
2286-559: Is now a journal series with seven titles. The publications can be found on site of the French National Library . In 1818 the French Academy of Sciences launched a competition to explain the properties of light. The civil engineer Augustin-Jean Fresnel entered the competition by submitting a new wave theory of light . Siméon Denis Poisson , one of the members of the judging committee, studied Fresnel's theory in detail. Being
2413-628: Is similarly known as the Lemercier Wing ( Aile Lemercier ). The eastern wing is the Aile de la Colonnade , named after its iconic eastern façade, the Louvre Colonnade . On the southern side of the Cour Napoléon , the Denon Wing's three main pavilions are named respectively, from east to west, after Napoleon -era officials Pierre Daru , Vivant Denon and Nicolas François Mollien . Between these and
2540-692: Is the continuity of the French state." For example, from the 1620s to the 1650s Jacques Lemercier thoroughly replicated the Lescot Wing 's patterns for his design of the northern half of the western wing of the Cour Carrée . In the 1660s Louis Le Vau echoed Lemercier's Pavillon de l'Horloge for his redesign of the central pavillon of the Tuileries Palace further west (burnt in 1871 and demolished in 1883), and mostly continued Lescot's and Lemercier's pattern for
2667-411: Is the result of many phases of building, modification, destruction and reconstruction. Its apparent stylistic consistency is largely due to conscious efforts of architects over several centuries to echo each other's work and preserve a strong sense of historical continuity, mirroring that of the French monarchy and state; American essayist Adam Gopnik has written that "The continuity the Louvre represents
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#17330929003322794-454: Is viewed as obsolete. Briggs suggests that H. J. Wolf's proposal in 1969 that Louvre derives instead from Latin Rubras , meaning "red soil", is more plausible. David Hanser suggests instead that the word may come from French louveterie , a "place where dogs were trained to chase wolves". Beyond the name of the palace itself, the toponymy of the Louvre can be treacherous. Partly because of
2921-621: The Appartement d'été d'Anne d'Autriche . In 1659, Louis XIV instigated a new phase of construction under Le Vau and painter Charles Le Brun . Le Vau oversaw the remodeling and completion of the Tuileries Palace, and at the Louvre, the completion of the walls of the north wing and of the eastern half of the south wing. By 1660 the Pavillon de Beauvais and the western half of the northern wing had been completed; in October of that year, most of
3048-609: The Grande Galerie . Percier and Fontaine were retained by Louis XVIII at the beginning of the Bourbon Restoration , and kept working on the decoration projects they had started under Napoleon. The Escalier du Midi was opened to the public on 25 August 1819. But there were no further budget allocations for the completion of the Louvre Palace during the reigns of Louis XVIII, Charles X and Louis-Philippe I , while
3175-484: The Hôtel du Petit-Bourbon was demolished to make way for the completion of the Cour Carrée. On the courtyard's southern side the Pavillon des Arts was completed in 1663, with a design by Le Vau that echoed that of the Pavillon de l'Horloge. Most of the northern wing was completed in the mid-1660s, though without a salient central pavilion as had been built on the west and south (Pavillon de l'Horloge, Pavillon des Arts) or on
3302-604: The Louvre Pyramid in the middle of the Cour Napoléon has marked the center of the Louvre complex. At the same time, the Louvre Museum has adopted a toponymy developed by the Carbone Smolan Agency to refer to the three clusters of buildings that surround that central focus point: The Louvre Museum occupies most of the palace's space, but not all of it. The main other users are at the building's two western tips: in
3429-553: The Palace of Versailles , despite his minister Colbert's insistence on completing the Louvre. Louis XIV had already left the Louvre from the beginning of 1666, immediately after the death of his mother Anne of Austria in her ground-floor apartment, and would never reside there again, preferring Versailles, Vincennes , Saint-Germain-en-Laye , or if he had to be in Paris, the Tuileries . From
3556-476: The Paris Commune of 1871. The Louvre and Tuileries became physically connected as part of the project called the "Grand Design", with the completion of the Pavillon de Flore in the early 1600s. The Pavillon de Flore and Pavillon de Marsan , which used to respectively mark the southern and northern ends of the Tuileries Palace, are now considered part of the Louvre Palace. The Carrousel Garden , first created in
3683-399: The Pavillon de Marsan , with the intent to expand it all the way to the Pavillon de Beauvais on the northwestern corner of the Cour Carrée. By the end of Napoleon's rule the works had progressed up to the rue de l'Échelle [ fr ] . The architectural design of the southern façade of that wing replicated that attributed to Jacques II Androuet du Cerceau for the western section of
3810-439: The Pavillon de l'Horloge , and of a wing further north that would start the quadrupling of the Louvre's courtyard. Architect Jacques Lemercier won the design competition against Jean Androuet du Cerceau , Clément II Métezeau , and the son of Salomon de Brosse . The works were stopped in 1628 at a time of hardship for the kingdom and state finances, and only progressed very slowly if at all until 1639. In 1639 Lemercier started
3937-699: The Right Bank of the Seine in Paris , occupying a vast expanse of land between the Tuileries Gardens and the church of Saint-Germain l'Auxerrois . Originally a defensive castle , it has served several government-related functions in the past, including intermittently as a royal residence between the 14th and 18th centuries. It is now mostly used by the Louvre Museum , which first opened there in 1793. While this area along
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4064-502: The Rue de Rivoli to its north, and the Place du Louvre to its east. The complex occupies about 40 hectares with buildings distributed around two main open spaces: the eastern Cour Carrée (square courtyard), which is closed by four wings that form the square of its name, and the central Cour Napoléon , which is open on its western side, beyond the thoroughfare known as Place du Carrousel , towards
4191-535: The Salon Carré and the Rotonde d'Apollon (formerly Salon du Dôme ) on the first floor (replaced in the 1850s by the Escalier Daru ). The two architects also remade the interior design of the Grande Galerie , in which they created nine sections separated by groups of monumental columns, and a system of roof lighting with lateral skylights . On the eastern front of the Tuileries Palace , Percier and Fontaine had
4318-598: The Salon Carré , Grande Galerie , and Pavillon de Flore . In the middle of the Grande Galerie are the Guichets du Carrousel , a composition of three monumental arches flanked by two narrow pavilions named respectively after the Duke of Lesdiguières and Henri de La Trémoille ( Pavillon Lesdiguières and Pavillon La Trémoille ). Further west are the Pavillon des Sessions ,
4445-518: The Tuileries Palace ; many courtiers moved into the Louvre. Many of these in turn emigrated during the French Revolution , and more artists swiftly moved into their vacated Louvre apartments. In December 1804, Napoleon appointed Pierre Fontaine as architect of the Tuileries and the Louvre. Fontaine had forged a strong professional bond with his slightly younger colleague Charles Percier . Between 1805 and 1810 Percier and Fontaine completed
4572-498: The giant order of the western section of the Grande Galerie , built in the early 17th century and attributed to Jacques II Androuet du Cerceau , for their design of the northern wing to connect the Tuileries with the Louvre along the rue de Rivoli . In the 1850s during Napoleon III's Louvre expansion , architects Louis Visconti then Hector Lefuel built the Denon and Richelieu pavilions as echoes of Lemercier's Pavillon de l'Horloge. In
4699-541: The rue de Rivoli are three courtyards, from east to west the Cour Khorsabad (formerly Cour de la Poste ), Cour Puget (formerly Cour des Guichets or Cour de l'Horloge ), and Cour Marly (formerly Cour d'Honneur or Cour du Ministre ). On the side facing the rue de Rivoli, the main salient feature is the Pavillon de la Bibliothèque , which connects to the Pavillon Richelieu through
4826-516: The " Nouveau Louvre " was inaugurated by the Emperor on 14 August 1857. The new buildings were arranged around the space then called Place Napoléon-III , later Square du Louvre and, since the 20th century, Cour Napoléon. Before his death, Visconti also had time to rearrange the Louvre's gardens outside the Cour Carrée , namely the Jardin de l'Infante to the south, the Jardin de la Colonnade to
4953-516: The 1680s a new era started for the Louvre, with comparatively little external construction and fragmentation of its interior spaces across a variety of different uses. After the definitive departure of the royal court for Versailles in 1682, the Louvre became occupied by multiple individuals and organizations, either by royal favor or simply squatting . Its tenants included the Infanta Mariana Victoria of Spain during her stay in Paris in
5080-545: The 17th and 18th centuries, and is one of the earliest Academies of Sciences . Currently headed by Patrick Flandrin (President of the academy), it is one of the five Academies of the Institut de France . The Academy of Sciences traces its origin to Colbert's plan to create a general academy. He chose a small group of scholars who met on 22 December 1666 in the King's library, near the present-day Bibliothèque Nationale , and thereafter held twice-weekly working meetings there in
5207-499: The 1860s and 1870s, Lefuel used designs inspired by the Lescot Wing even as he replaced the prior giant-order patterns created by Androuet du Cerceau and replicated by Percier and Fontaine. Finally, in the 1980s, I. M. Pei made explicit reference to André Le Nôtre , the designer of the Tuileries Garden , for his design of the Louvre Pyramid . This section focuses on matters of design, construction and decoration, leaving aside
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5334-555: The 18th century, and gave it double height by creating a visitors' gallery in what had formerly been the Lescot Wing's attic. Further west, Percier and Fontaine created the monumental entrance for the Louvre Museum (called Musée Napoléon since 1804). This opened from what was at the time called the Place du Louvre , abutting the Lescot Wing to the west, into the Rotonde de Mars ,
5461-484: The 1980s on a design by I. M. Pei , is now the centerpiece of the entire Louvre complex. It leads to the underground Hall Napoléon which in turn serves a vast complex of underground spaces, including the Carrousel du Louvre commercial mall around an inverted pyramid further west. The present-day Louvre Palace is a vast complex of wings and pavilions which, although superficially homogeneous in scale and architecture,
5588-593: The 1980s, as the Salle Saint-Louis . In the late 1350s, the growth of the city and the insecurity brought by the Hundred Years' War led Etienne Marcel , provost of the merchants (i.e. municipal leader) of Paris, to initiate the construction of a new protective wall beyond that of Philip II. King Charles V continued the project in the 1360s, and it was later known as the Wall of Charles V . From its westernmost point at
5715-442: The 20th century, in 1987, when the academy decided against the practice and to begin filling vacancies with people with new disciplines. This reform was not only aimed at further diversifying the disciplines under the academy, but also to help combat the internal aging of the academy itself. The academy was expected to remain apolitical, and to avoid discussion of religious and social issues. On 20 January 1699, Louis XIV gave
5842-614: The Carrousel Garden and the rest of the Tuileries Garden . The Louvre is slightly askew of the Historic Axis ( Axe historique ), a roughly eight-kilometer (five-mile) architectural line bisecting the city. The axis begins with the Louvre courtyard, at a point now symbolically marked by a lead copy of Bernini's equestrian statue of Louis XIV , and runs west along the Champs-Élysées to La Défense and slightly beyond. Since 1988,
5969-519: The Company its first rules. The academy received the name of Royal Academy of Sciences and was installed in the Louvre in Paris. Following this reform, the academy began publishing a volume each year with information on all the work done by its members and obituaries for members who had died. This reform also codified the method by which members of the academy could receive pensions for their work. The academy
6096-558: The Cour Carrée in the late 1750s. The southern Guichet des Arts was designed by Maximilien Brébion [ fr ] in 1779 and completed in 1780. Three arched guichets were also opened in 1760 under the Grande Galerie , through the Pavillon Lesdiguières and immediately to its west. The 1790s were a time of turmoil for the Louvre as for the rest of France. On 5 October 1789, King Louis XVI and his court were forced to return from Versailles and settled in
6223-513: The Cour du Carrousel, the Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel was erected in 1806–1808 to commemorate Napoleon 's military victories. On 10 April 1810, Percier and Fontaine's plan for the completion of the Grand Dessein of uniting the Louvre and the Tuileries was approved, following a design competition among forty-seven participants. Works started immediately afterwards to build an entirely new wing starting from
6350-460: The Grande Galerie was also decorated with wood panelling, even though that work was left unfinished. The Salon Carré , however, was still undecorated when the court left for Versailles in the late 1670s. Meanwhile, landscape architect André Le Nôtre redesigned the Tuileries, first created in 1564 in the Italian style, as a French formal garden . The other major project of the 1660s was to create
6477-413: The King was recognized until its abolishment in 1793. Membership in the academy the exceeded 100 officially-recognised full members only in 1976, 310 years after the academy's inception in 1666. The membership increase came with a large-scale reorganization in 1976. Under this reorganization, 130 resident members, 160 correspondents, and 80 foreign associates could be elected. A vacancy opens only upon
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#17330929003326604-477: The Louvre into a royal residence for the first time, with the transformation designed by his architect Raymond du Temple . This was a political statement as well as a utility project – one scholar wrote that Charles V "made the Louvre his political manifesto in stone" and referred to it as "a remarkably discursive monument-a form of architectural rhetoric that proclaimed the revitalization of France after years of internal strife and external menace." The curtain wall
6731-412: The Louvre was closely intertwined with that of the Tuileries Palace , created to the west of the Louvre by Queen Catherine de' Medici in 1564, with its main block finally demolished in 1883. The Tuileries was the premier seat of French executive power during the last third of that period, from the return of Louis XVI and his court from Versailles in October 1789 until the palace was set on fire during
6858-503: The Louvre's Grosse Tour . Louis IX added constructions in the 1230s, included the medieval Louvre's main ceremonial room or Grande Salle in which several historical events took place, and the castle's first chapel. The partly preserved basement part of that program was rediscovered during heating installations at the Louvre in 1882–1883, and has since then been known successively as the Salle de Philippe Auguste and, after renovation in
6985-662: The Louvre's expansion. The last remains of the Petit-Bourbon were cleared in the 1760s. This sections provides a summary description of the present-day complex and its main constituent parts. The Louvre Palace is situated on the right bank of the Seine , between the Quai François Mitterrand to its south, the Avenue du Général-Lemonnier to its west (thus named since 1957; formerly rue des Tuileries and Avenue Paul-Déroulède , converted into an underpass in 1987–1989 ),
7112-435: The Louvre's façade towards the city and thus complete the Cour Carrée on its eastern side. It involved a convoluted process, with the king's minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert first sidelining Le Vau and then summoning Gian Lorenzo Bernini from Italy. Bernini stayed in Paris from 2 June to 20 October 1665, but none of his five striking designs gained approval, even though some building works started on their basis. Eventually
7239-437: The Louvre's main interior spaces, especially the salle des Sept-Cheminées , Galerie d'Apollon and Salon Carré , which Prince-President Louis Napoleon inaugurated on 5 June 1851 Expropriation arrangements were made for the completion of the Louvre and the rue de Rivoli , and the remaining buildings that cluttered the space that is now the Cour Napoléon were cleared away. . No new buildings had been started, however, by
7366-446: The Louvre's specific context are called guichets . The origin of the name Louvre is unclear. French historian Henri Sauval , probably writing in the 1660s, stated that he had seen "in an old Latin-Saxon glossary, Leouar is translated castle" and thus took Leouar to be the origin of Louvre. According to Keith Briggs, Sauval's theory is often repeated, even in recent books, but this glossary has never been seen again, and Sauval's idea
7493-550: The Marais , until the Armagnac–Burgundian Civil War resulted in the monarchy leaving Paris altogether; in the 1420s and 1430s Charles VII resided largely at or near Bourges , whereas his rival English claimant Henry VI 's representative, the Duke of Bedford , generally resided in his base of Rouen , and while in Paris in his Hôtel des Tournelles . Even after Charles VII's ceremonial entry into Paris in 1437 and after
7620-563: The Petite Galerie built up and decorated as the Salle des Peintures , with portraits of the former kings and queens of France. A portrait of Marie de' Medici by Frans Pourbus the Younger , still in the Louvre , is a rare remnant of this series. In 1624, Louis XIII initiated the construction on a new building echoing the Pavillon du Roi on the northern end of the Lescot Wing , now known as
7747-440: The Seine had been inhabited for thousands of years, the Louvre's history starts around 1190 with its first construction as the Louvre Castle defending the western front of the Wall of Philip II Augustus , the then new city-wall of Paris. The Louvre's oldest section still standing above ground, its palatial Lescot Wing , dates from the late 1540s, when Francis I started the replacement of the greatly expanded medieval castle with
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#17330929003327874-425: The Third class, into a new Second class concerned with literature and a new Third class devoted to the fine arts. Still this relationship between the academy and the government was not a one-way affair, as members expected to receive their payment of an honorarium. Although the academy still exists today, after World War I, the reputation and status of the academy was largely questioned. One factor behind its decline
8001-427: The Tour du Bois, the new wall extended east along the north bank of the Seine to the old wall, enclosing the Louvre and greatly reducing its military value. Remains of that wall have been uncovered and reconstructed in the present-day Louvre's Carrousel du Louvre . Shortly after becoming king in 1364 Charles V abandoned the Palais de la Cité , which he associated with the insurgency led by Etienne Marcel , and made
8128-664: The academy as an associate or correspondent before being appointed as a full member of the academy. The election process was originally only to replace members from a specific section. For example, if someone whose study was mathematics was either removed or resigned from his position, the following election process nominated only those whose focus was also mathematics in order to fill that discipline's vacancy. That led to some periods of time in which no specialists for specific fields of study could be found, which left positions in those fields vacant since they could not be filled with people in other disciplines. The needed reform came late in
8255-446: The academy was funded by and accountable to the Ministry of Public Instruction . The academy came to control French patent laws in the course of the eighteenth century, acting as the liaison of artisans' knowledge to the public domain. As a result, academicians dominated technological activities in France. The academy proceedings were published under the name Comptes rendus de l'Académie des Sciences (1835–1965). The Comptes rendus
8382-482: The academy was in 1944. Removal from the academy was often for not performing to standards, not performing at all, leaving the country, or political reasons. In some rare occasions, a member has been elected twice and subsequently removed twice. This is the case for Marie-Adolphe Carnot . The most direct involvement of the government in the affairs of the institute came in the initial nomination of members in 1795, but as its members nominated constituted only one third of
8509-448: The academy with his hands-on vivisection experiments, could not get his study into its own category. Despite Magendie being one of the leading innovators of his time, it was still a battle for him to become an official member of the academy, a feat he would later accomplish in 1821. He further improved the reverence of the academy when he and anatomist Charles Bell produced the widely known " Bell-Magendie Law ". From 1795 until 1914,
8636-490: The advice notes, policy statements and the Academic Reports. Some have a statutory remit, such as the Select Committee, the Committee for International Affairs and the Committee for Scientists' Rights, some are created ad hoc by the academy and approved formally by vote in a members-only session. Today the academies standing committees and working parties include: Each year, the Academy of Sciences distributes about 80 prizes. These include: The following are incomplete lists of
8763-455: The applications of chemical, natural, biological, and medical sciences. On 8 August 1793, the National Convention abolished all the academies. On 22 August 1795, a National Institute of Sciences and Arts was put in place, bringing together the old academies of the sciences, literature and arts, among them the Académie française and the Académie des sciences. Also in 1795, The academy determined these 10 titles (first 4 in Division 1 and
8890-410: The architect Jacques Lemercier who first designed it in 1624. In some cases, the same name has designated different parts of the building at different times. For example, in the 19th century, the Pavillon de la Bibliothèque referred to what was later called the Porte Jean-Goujon (still later, Porte Barbet-de-Jouy ), on the south side of the Grande Galerie facing the Seine, before becoming
9017-427: The building's design. Lescot tore down the western wing of the old Louvre Castle and rebuilt it as what has become known as the Lescot Wing , ending on the southern side with the Pavillon du Roi . In the latter, he designed in 1556 the ceiling for Henry II's bedroom, still largely preserved after relocation in 1829 to the Louvre's Colonnade Wing, for which he departed from the French tradition of beamed ceilings. On
9144-418: The building's long history and links to changing politics, different names have applied at different times to the same structures or rooms. For example, what used to be known in the 17th and 18th centuries the Pavillon du Milieu or Gros Pavillon is now generally referred to as Pavillon de l'Horloge , or Pavillon Sully (especially when considered from the west), or also Pavillon Lemercier after
9271-486: The city, he opted to build the Louvre as a fortress just outside the wall's junction with the Seine on its right bank , on the road to the Duchy of Normandy that was still controlled by his English rivals. Completed in 1202, the new fortress was situated in what is now the southwest quadrant of the Cour Carrée , and some of its remains, excavated between late 1983 and late 1985, are conserved underground. The original Louvre
9398-401: The completion of the Cour Carrée . A separate design a few years later for the Louvre Colonnade , included window shapes on the ground level based on Lescot's for the Pavillon du Roi a century earlier, ensuring visual continuity even though the dramatic colonnade on the upper level was different from anything that had been done at the Louvre so far. In the 1810s, Percier and Fontaine copied
9525-460: The current dimensions of the Cour Carrée . From early 1595 he directed the construction of the Grande Galerie , designed by his competing architects Louis Métezeau and Jacques II Androuet du Cerceau , who are respectively credited with the eastern and western sections of the building by a long tradition of scholarship. This major addition, about 460 meters long, was built along the bank of the Seine. On
9652-403: The death of members, as they serve for life. During elections, half of the vacancies are reserved for people less than 55 years old. This was created as an attempt to encourage younger members to join the academy. The reorganization also divided the academy into 2 divisions: One division, Division 1, covers the applications of mathematics and physical sciences, the other, Division 2, covers
9779-508: The demolition of the Louvre's old keep. In 1546 he formally commissioned the architect Pierre Lescot and sculptor Jean Goujon to modernize the Louvre into a Renaissance style palace, but the project appears to have actually started in 1545 since Lescot ordered stone deliveries in December of that year. The death of Francis I in 1547 interrupted the work, but it restarted under Francis's successor Henry II who on 10 July 1549 ordered changes in
9906-460: The design of the north, east, and south facades facing the courtyard of the Cour Carrée: the addition of a full third story with pilasters surmounted by a balustrade, very unlike Lescot's attic story to the west. This change was not completed until the first decade of the 19th century (see below). The works at the Louvre stopped in the late 1670s as the king redirected all construction budgets at
10033-556: The early 1720s, artists, craftsmen, the Academies, and various royal officers. For example, in 1743 courtier and author Michel de Bonneval was granted the right to refurbish much of the wing between the Pavillon des Arts and the Pavillon Sud-Est into his own house on his own expense, including 28 rooms on the ground floor and two mezzanine levels, and an own entrance on the Cour Carrée . After Bonneval's death in 1766 his family
10160-516: The east and the Jardin de l'Oratoire to the north, and also designed the Orangerie and Jeu de Paume on the western end of the Tuileries Garden . In the 1860s, Lefuel also demolished the Pavillon de Flore and nearly half of the Grande Galerie, and reconstructed them on a modified design that included the passageway known as the Guichet de l'Empereur (later Porte du Sud , now Porte des Lions),
10287-417: The east façade is attributed to Perrault, who made the final alterations needed to accommodate a decision to double the width of the south wing. He designed the new south façade, making it more compatible with the east facade and covering Le Vau's original south facade. Perrault redesigned the north wing's city-side facade, and is thought to have been at least partly responsible for an important alteration to
10414-775: The effective end of the Hundred Years' War in 1453, French monarchs preferred residing in the Châteaux of the Loire Valley , the Palace of Fontainebleau or, when in Paris, at the Château de Vincennes or the Hôtel des Tournelles. Meanwhile, the Louvre Castle was left in a state of increasing disrepair, even as it remained used as an arsenal and prison. In 1528, after returning from his captivity in Spain following his defeat at Pavia , Francis I ordered
10541-442: The encouraging of the scientific life, promoting the teaching of science, transmitting knowledge between scientific communities, fostering international collaborations, and ensuring a dual role of expertise and advise. The French Academy of Science originally focused its development efforts into creating a true co-development Euro-African program beginning in 1997. Since then they have broadened their scope of action to other regions of
10668-455: The existing buildings cleared away to create a vast open space, the Cour du Carrousel , which they had closed with an iron fence in 1801. Somewhat ironically, the clearance effort was facilitated by the Plot of the rue Saint-Nicaise , a failed bomb attack on Napoleon on 24 December 1800, which damaged many of the neighborhood's building that were later demolished without compensation. In the middle of
10795-513: The first intent to extend the Louvre's courtyard to its current size by doubling the lengths of the wings, even though no implementation was made of such plans until the 1620s. Lescot is also credited with the design of the Petite Galerie , which ran from the southwest corner of the Louvre to the Seine. All work stopped in the late 1560s, however, as the Wars of Religion gathered momentum. In
10922-401: The first world war, the French Academy of Science was the most prevalent organization of French science. Almost all the old members of the previously abolished Académie were formally re-elected and retook their ancient seats. Among the exceptions was Dominique, comte de Cassini , who refused to take his seat. Membership in the academy was not restricted to scientists: in 1798 Napoleon Bonaparte
11049-401: The fitting or remodeling of exhibition spaces within the museum, which are described in the article Louvre . No fewer than twenty building campaigns have been identified in the history of the Louvre Palace. The architect of the largest such campaign, Hector Lefuel , crisply summarized the identity of the complex by noting: " Le Louvre est un monument qui a vécu " (translatable as "The Louvre
11176-422: The fortress were supplied by the vaulted chambers of the keep as well as two wings built against the insides of the curtain walls of the western and southern sides. The circular plans of the towers and the keep avoided the dead angles created by square or rectangular designs which allowed attackers to approach out of firing range. Cylindrical keeps were typical of French castles at the time, but few were as large as
11303-558: The government refused to accept the result of academy elections. The academies control by the government was apparent in 1803, when Bonaparte decided on a general reorganization. His principal concern was not the First class but the Second, which included political scientists who were potential critics of his government. Bonaparte abolished the second class completely and, after a few expulsions, redistributed its remaining members, together with those of
11430-405: The ground floor at the eastern end of the new wing, Métezeau created a lavishly decorated room that was known as the Salle des Ambassadeurs or Salle des Antiques , later called Salle d'Auguste and now Salle des Empereurs . At the time, the room on the first floor above, later Salon Carré , was known as Grand Salon or Salon du Louvre . Henry IV also had the first floor of
11557-450: The ground floor of the Petite Galerie , which had previously been the venue for the King's Council That "summer apartment" was fitted by architect Louis Le Vau , who had succeeded Lemercier upon the latter's death in 1654. The ceilings, decorated in 1655–1658 by Giovanni Francesco Romanelli who had been recommended by Cardinal Mazarin , are still extant in the suite of rooms now known as
11684-475: The ground floor, Lescot installed monumental stone caryatids based on classical precedents in the salle des gardes , now known as the Salle des Caryatides . On the northern end of the new wing, Lescot created a monumental staircase in the 1550s, long known as the Grand Degré du Roi (now Escalier Henri II , with sculpted ceilings attributed to Jean Goujon . During the early 1560s, Lescot demolished
11811-530: The ground-floor Passage Richelieu (formerly Guichet du Ministère ) between the Cour Puget and Cour Marly . Further west are the Pavillon de Rohan and the Aile de Rohan , built in the early 19th century and named after the nearby rue de Rohan [ fr ] , then the Aile de Marsan and the Pavillon de Marsan , both rebuilt by Hector Lefuel in the 1870s. The Louvre Pyramid , built in
11938-518: The kings resided in the Tuileries . By 1825, Percier and Fontaine's northern wing had only been built up to the rue de Rohan [ fr ] , and made no progress in the following 25 years. Further attempts at budget appropriations to complete the Louvre, led by Adolphe Thiers in 1833 and again in 1840, were rejected by the Chamber of Deputies . From the early days of the Second Republic ,
12065-524: The late 19th century (during Napoleon III's Louvre expansion ) in what used to be the great courtyard of the Tuileries (or Cour du Carrousel ), is now considered part of the Tuileries Garden . A less high-profile but historically significant dependency of the Louvre was to its immediate east, the Hôtel du Petit-Bourbon , appropriated by the monarchy following the betrayal of the Constable of Bourbon in 1523 and mostly demolished in October 1660 to give way to
12192-461: The latter also known as Pavillon Sully . The section between the Pavillon du Roi and the Pavillon Sully, known as the Lescot Wing ( Aile Lescot ) as it was designed by architect Pierre Lescot , is the oldest standing part of the entire Louvre Palace. The section between the Pavillon Sully and the Pavillon de Beauvais, which was modeled after the Lescot Wing by architect Jacques Lemercier ,
12319-450: The meantime, beginning in 1564, Catherine de' Medici directed the building of a new residence to the west, outside the wall of Charles V . It became known as the Tuileries Palace because it was built on the site of old tile factories ( tuileries ). Architect Philibert de l'Orme started the project, and was replaced after his death in 1570 by Jean Bullant . A letter of March 1565 indicates that Catherine de' Medici already considered
12446-457: The membership and most of these had previously been elected as members of the respective academies under the old regime, few objections were raised. Moreover, these nominated members were then completely free to nominate the remaining members of the institute. Members expected to remain such for life, but interference occurred in a few cases where the government suddenly terminated membership for political reasons. The other main interference came when
12573-606: The monumental room at the northern end of the Appartement d'été d'Anne d'Autriche . The entrance door was dominated by a colossal bronze head of the Emperor by Lorenzo Bartolini , installed in 1805. Visitors could either visit the classical antiquities collection ( Musée des Antiques ) in Anne of Austria's rooms or in the redecorated ground floor of the Cour Carrée's southern wing to the left, or they could turn right and access Percier and Fontaine's new monumental staircase, leading to both
12700-429: The monumental staircase on the latter's southern and northern ends between 1807 and 1811. Percier and Fontaine also created the monumental decoration of most of the ground-floor rooms around the Cour Carrée, most of which still retain it, including their renovation of Jean Goujon's Salle des Caryatides . On the first floor, they recreated the former Salle Haute of the Lescot Wing , which had been partitioned in
12827-597: The most useful paper to further the progress of Astronomy, in France or elsewhere." The awarded amount grew in time: in 1918 the amount awarded was 1000 Francs , and by 1950, it was 10,000 francs. It was combined with the Valz Prize (Prix Valz) in 1970 to create the Lalande-Valz Prize and then with a further 122 foundation prizes in 1997, resulting in the establishment of the Grande Médaille . The Grande Medaille
12954-693: The name for the main pavilion of the Richelieu Wing On the rue de Rivoli, its exact symmetrical point from the Louvre Pyramid. The main room on the first floor of the Lescot Wing has been the Salle Haute , Grande Salle , Salle des Gardes , Salle d'Attente , in the 16th and 17th centuries. It was fragmented into apartments during the 18th century, then recreated in the early 19th and called successively Salle Royale , Salle des Séances Royales or Salle des Etats (the latter also being
13081-528: The name of two other ceremonial rooms, created in the 1850s and 1860s respectively); then as part of the museum, salle des terres cuites , after 1871 Salle La Caze in honor of donor Louis La Caze , Salle des Bronzes , and since 2021 Salle Etrusque . The room immediately below, now known as Salle des Caryatides , has also been called Salle Basse , Salle Basse des Suisses , Grande Salle , Salle des Gardes , Salle des Antiques (from 1692 to 1793), and Salle des Fleuves in
13208-430: The officers of the academy. See also Category:Officers of the French Academy of Sciences . For a list of the academy's members past and present, see Category:Members of the French Academy of Sciences Source: French Academy of Sciences Louvre Palace The Louvre Palace (French: Palais du Louvre , [palɛ dy luvʁ] ), often referred to simply as the Louvre , is an iconic French palace located on
13335-580: The others in Division 2) to be their newly accepted branches of scientific study: The last two sections are bundled since there were many good candidates fit to be elected for those practices, and the competition was stiff. Some individuals like Francois Magendie had made stellar advancements in their selected fields of study, that warranted a possible addition of new fields. However, even someone like Magendie that had made breakthroughs in Physiology and impressed
13462-682: The past, among other names. The Sully Wing forms a square of approximately 160 m (520 ft) side length. The protruding sections at the corners and center of each side are known as pavillons . Clockwise from the northwest corner, they are named as follows: Pavillon de Beauvais (after a now-disappeared street ), Pavillon Marengo (after the nearby rue de Marengo ), Pavillon Nord-Est (also Pavillon des Assyriens ), Pavillon Central de la Colonnade (also Pavillon Saint-Germain-l'Auxerrois ), Pavillon Sud-Est (also Pavillon des Egyptiens ), Pavillon des Arts , Pavillon du Roi , and Pavillon de l'Horloge ,
13589-420: The pavilions are the blocks at either the end or the center of a wing. In the Louvre's context, the word "wing" does not denote a peripheral location: the Lescot Wing, in particular, was built as the Louvre's main corps de logis . Given the Louvre wings' length and the fact that they typically abutted parts of the city with streets and private buildings, several of them have passageways on the ground floor which in
13716-496: The project as making the Louvre into a focal point for world culture, which he referred to a "Mecca of intelligence". During the Republic's brief existence, the palace was extensively restored by Louvre architect Félix Duban , especially the exterior façades of the Petite Galerie and Grande Galerie , on which Duban designed the ornate portal now known as Porte Barbet-de-Jouy . Meanwhile, Duban restored or completed several of
13843-516: The southern and eastern sides. In the courtyard, slightly offset to the northeast, was the cylindrical keep or donjon, known as the Grosse Tour du Louvre (Great Tower of the Louvre), thirty meters high and fifteen meters wide with 4-meter-thick external walls. The keep was encircled by a deep, dry ditch with stone counterscarps to help prevent the scaling of its walls with ladders. Accommodations in
13970-518: The southern side, Lemercier commissioned Nicolas Poussin to decorate the ceiling of the Grande Galerie . Poussin arrived from Rome in early 1641, but returned to Italy in November 1642 leaving the work unfinished. During Louis XIV 's minority and the Fronde , from 1643 to 1652 the Louvre was left empty as the royal family stayed at the Palais-Royal or outside of Paris; the Grande Galerie served as
14097-425: The southern wing of the old Louvre and started to replace it with a duplication of the Lescot Wing. His plan may have been to create a square complex of a similar size as the old Louvre, not dissimilar to the Château d'Écouen that had been recently completed on Jean Bullant 's design, with an identical third wing to the north and a lower, entrance wing on the eastern side. A contested hypothesis attributes to Lescot
14224-495: The southwestern Aile de Flore , the École du Louvre and Center for Research and Restoration of Museums of France (C2RMF); and in the northwestern Aile de Marsan , the Musée des Arts Décoratifs . In total, some 51,615 square meters (555,000 square feet) in the palace complex are devoted to public exhibition floor space. Many sections of the Louvre are referred to as " wings " ( ailes ) and " pavilions " ( pavillons ) – typically,
14351-464: The southwestern and northwestern corners (Pavillon du Roi, Pavillon de Beauvais). On 6 February 1661, a fire destroyed the attic of the Grand Salon and much of the Salle des Peintures in the Petite Galerie (though not Anne of Austria's ground-floor apartment). Le Vau was tasked by Louis XIV to lead the reconstruction. He rebuilt the Petite Galerie as the more ornate Galerie d'Apollon , created
14478-520: The time of the December 1851 coup d'état . On this basis, Napoleon III was able to finally unite the Louvre with the Tuileries in a single, coherent building complex. The plan of the Louvre's expansion were made by Louis Visconti , a disciple of Percier, who died suddenly in December 1853 and was succeeded in early 1854 by Hector Lefuel . Lefuel developed Visconti's plan into a higher and more ornate building concept, and executed it at record speed so that
14605-407: The two rooms assigned to the group. The first 30 years of the academy's existence were relatively informal, since no statutes had as yet been laid down for the institution. In contrast to its British counterpart , the academy was founded as an organ of government. In Paris, there were not many membership openings, to fill positions there were contentious elections. The election process was at least
14732-449: The wave-nature of light. For three centuries women were not allowed as members of the academy. This meant that many women scientists were excluded, including two-time Nobel Prize winner Marie Curie , Nobel winner Irène Joliot-Curie , mathematician Sophie Germain , and many other deserving women scientists. The first woman admitted as a correspondent member was a student of Curie's, Marguerite Perey , in 1962. The first female full member
14859-468: The wing facing the seine are three courtyards, from east to west the Cour du Sphinx (covered as a glass atrium since 1934), Cour Visconti (ground floor covered since 2012), and Cour Lefuel . On the side of the Seine , this wing starts with the north–south Petite Galerie bordering a side garden known as the Jardin de l'Infante , and continues westwards along the Quai François Mitterrand with
14986-514: The works of the Cour Carrée that had been left unfinished since the 1670s, despite Marigny's repairs around 1760. They opted to equalize its northern and southern wing with an attic modeled on the architecture of the Colonnade wing , thus removing the existing second-floor ornamentation and sculptures, of which some were by Jean Goujon and his workshop. The Cour Carrée and Colonnade wing were completed in 1808–1809, and Percier and Fontaine created
15113-518: The world. The standing committee COPED is in charge of the international development projects undertaken by the French Academy of Science and their associates. The current president of COPED is Pierre Auger , the vice president is Michel Delseny , and the honorary president is Francois Gros . All of which are current members of the French Academy of Science. COPED has hosted several workshops or colloquia in Paris, involving representatives from African academies, universities or research centers, addressing
15240-464: Was Yvonne Choquet-Bruhat in 1979. Membership in the academy is highly geared towards representing common French populace demographics . French population increases and changes in the early 21st century led to the academy expanding reference population sizes by reform in the early 2002. The overwhelming majority of members leave the academy posthumously, with a few exceptions of removals, transfers, and resignations. The last member to be removed from
15367-533: Was able to keep the house for a few more years. Some new houses were even erected in the middle of the Cour Carrée , but were eventually torn down on the initiative of the Marquis de Marigny in early 1756. A follow-up 1758 decision led to the clearance of buildings on most of what is now the Place du Louvre in front of the Colonnade, except for the remaining parts of the Hôtel du Petit-Bourbon which were preserved for
15494-451: Was elected a member of the academy and three years later a president in connection with his Egyptian expedition , which had a scientific component. In 1816, the again renamed "Royal Academy of Sciences" became autonomous, while forming part of the Institute of France ; the head of State became its patron. In the Second Republic , the name returned to Académie des sciences. During this period,
15621-400: Was nearly square in plan, at seventy-eight by seventy-two meters, and enclosed by a 2.6-metre thick crenellated and machicolated curtain wall . The entire structure was surrounded by a water-filled moat . On the outside of the walls were ten round defensive towers: one at each corner and at the center of the northern and western sides, and two pairs respectively flanking the narrow gates on
15748-452: Was only natural for Poisson to interpret it as an absurd result and that it should disprove Fresnel's theory. However, the head of the committee, Dominique-François-Jean Arago , and who incidentally later became Prime Minister of France, decided to perform the experiment in more detail. He molded a 2-mm metallic disk to a glass plate with wax. To everyone's surprise he succeeded in observing the predicted spot, which convinced most scientists of
15875-443: Was originally organized by the royal reform hierarchically into the following groups: Pensionaires, Pupils, Honoraires, and Associés. The reform also added new groups not previously recognized, such as Vétéran. Some of these role's member limits were expanded and some roles even removed or combined throughout the course of academy's history. The Honoraires group establish by this reform in 1699 whose members were directly appointed by
16002-541: Was pierced with windows, new wings added to the courtyard, and elaborate chimneys, turrets, and pinnacles to the top. Known as the joli Louvre ("pretty Louvre"), Charles V's palace was memorably pictured in the illustration The Month of October of the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry . In the late 14th and early 15th centuries, the preferred royal residence in Paris was the Hôtel Saint-Pol in what became
16129-463: Was the development from a meritocracy to gerontocracy : a shift from those with demonstrated scientific ability leading the academy to instead favoring those with seniority. It became known as a sort of "hall of fame" that lost control, real and symbolic, of the professional scientific diversity in France at the time. Another factor was that in the span of five years, 1909 to 1914, funding to science faculties considerably dropped, eventually leading to
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