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108-469: The Primitive Hut as an architectural theory was brought to life over the mid-1700s till the mid-1800s, theorised in particular by abbé Marc-Antoine Laugier . Laugier provided an allegory of a man in nature and his need for shelter in An Essay on Architecture that formed an underlying structure and approach to architecture and its practice. This approach has been explored in architectural theory to speculate on

216-457: A blessing is similar in some aspects to the consecration of a bishop, with the new abbot being presented with the mitre , the ring, and the crosier as symbols of office and receiving the laying on of hands and blessing from the celebrant. Though the ceremony installs the new abbot into a position of legal authority, it does not confer further sacramental authority- it is not a further degree of Holy Orders (although some abbots have been ordained to

324-469: A contemporary emergency—the revenues of the community were handed over to a lay lord, in return for his protection, early suggested to the emperors and kings the expedient of rewarding their warriors with rich abbeys held in commendam . During the Carolingian epoch, the custom grew up of granting these as regular heritable fiefs or benefices , and by the 10th century, before the great Cluniac reform,

432-460: A group. The Primitive Hut is an a-historical point of reference that is not necessarily a historical object that is investigated through speculation or an archaeological investigation. The Primitive Hut was instead a self-evident realisation that created a new perspective of architectural inquiry. Architectural inquiry would be engaged to justify the validity of the primitive hut model. The origins of The Primitive Hut have conceptually been linked to

540-453: A lesser rank, whom he fitted for the universities. His table, attendance and officers were an honour to the nation. He would entertain as many as 500 persons of rank at one time, besides relieving the poor of the vicinity twice a week. He had his country houses and fisheries, and when he travelled to attend parliament his retinue amounted to upwards of 100 persons. The abbots of Cluny and Vendôme were, by virtue of their office, cardinals of

648-419: A new direction or a new order for architecture. In the image a young woman who personifies architecture draws the attention of an angelic child towards the primitive hut. Architecture is pointing to a new structural clarity found in nature, rather than the ironic ruins of the past. The Essay on Architecture provides a story of man in his primitive state to explain how the creation of the "primitive man's" house

756-448: A number of influential works against heresy , and about monastic and liturgical discipline, and Christian philanthropy . In the Tales of Redwall series , the creatures of Redwall are led by an abbot or abbess. These "abbots" are appointed by the brothers and sisters of Redwall to serve as a superior and provide paternal care, much like real abbots. "The Abbot" was a nickname of RZA from

864-459: A pitched roof). Laugier also noted that the deviation or misuse of the principles lead to inherent faults in typical buildings and in architectural practice. In particular he recognised logical faults, issues such as proportion and unintelligent design. Instead, advocating that "by approaching the simplicity of the model, fundamental mistakes are avoided and true perfection achieved". The idea also claims that Ancient Greek temples owed their form to

972-595: A possible destination for architecture as a discipline. The Essay on Architecture was first published by Marc-Antoine Laugier in 1753. It was written in the Age of Enlightenment , during a time characterised by rationalist thinking through science and reason. Architecture in France during this period was defined predominantly by the Baroque style with its excessive ornamentation and religious iconography . Rather than being concerned with

1080-409: A question of overlordship, but implied the concentration in lay hands of all the rights, immunities and jurisdiction of the foundations, i.e. the more or less complete secularization of spiritual institutions. The lay abbot took his recognized rank in the feudal hierarchy, and was free to dispose of his fief as in the case of any other. The enfeoffment of abbeys differed in form and degree. Sometimes

1188-670: A ring. Crown moldings soften transitions between frieze and cornice and emphasize the upper edge of the abacus , which is the upper part of the capital. Roman Doric columns also have moldings at their bases and stand on low square pads or are even raised on plinths . In the Roman Doric mode, columns are not usually fluted; indeed, fluting is rare. Since the Romans did not insist on a triglyph covered corner, now both columns and triglyphs could be arranged equidistantly again and centered together. The architrave corner needed to be left "blank", which

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1296-599: A significant contribution to Christian hagiography , one of the most well-known being the Life of St. Benedict of Nursia by St. Gregory the Great . During the years 1106–1107 AD, Daniel, a Russian Orthodox abbot, made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land and recorded his experiences. His diary was much-read throughout Russia , and at least seventy-five manuscript copies survive. Saint Joseph , Abbot of Volokolamsk , Russia (1439–1515), wrote

1404-460: A transgression. Examples among the Egyptian monks of this submission to the commands of the superiors, exalted into a virtue by those who regarded the entire crushing of the individual will as a goal, are detailed by Cassian and others, e.g. a monk watering a dry stick, day after day, for months, or endeavoring to remove a huge rock immensely exceeding his powers. When a vacancy occurred, the bishop of

1512-536: A triglyph form the corner, and filled it with a half ( demi -) metope, allowing triglyphs centered over columns ( illustration, right, V. ). There are many theories as to the origins of the Doric order in temples. The term Doric is believed to have originated from the Greek-speaking Dorian tribes. One belief is that the Doric order is the result of early wood prototypes of previous temples. With no hard proof and

1620-431: Is a hierarchy of precedence or authority among abbots. In some cases, this is the result of an abbey being considered the "mother" of several "daughter" abbeys founded as dependent priories of the "mother". In other cases, abbeys have affiliated in networks known as "congregations". Some monastic families recognize one abbey as the motherhouse of the entire order. The title abbé (French; Ital. abate ), as commonly used in

1728-519: Is an ecclesiastical title given to the head of an independent monastery for men in various Western Christian traditions. The name is derived from abba , the Aramaic form of the Hebrew ab , and means "father". The female equivalent is abbess . The title had its origin in the monasteries of Egypt and Syria , spread through the eastern Mediterranean , and soon became accepted generally in all languages as

1836-417: Is an abstract concept of a place that is created through mans response to the natural environment, where architecture acts as the mediator between man and nature. The Primitive hut concept explores how architecture came to be, and is a way of explaining the fundamental origins of architecture. The Primitive hut provides a point of reference for all speculation on the essentials of building and represents arguably

1944-410: Is created instinctively based on man's need to shelter himself from nature. Laugier believed that the model of the primitive man's hut provided the ideal principles for architecture or any structure. It was from this perspective that Laugier formed his general principles of architecture where he outlined the standard form of architecture and what he believed was fundamental to all architecture. To Laugier,

2052-449: Is illustrated at Vitruvian module . According to Vitruvius, the height of Doric columns is six or seven times the diameter at the base. This gives the Doric columns a shorter, thicker look than Ionic columns, which have 8:1 proportions. It is suggested that these proportions give the Doric columns a masculine appearance, whereas the more slender Ionic columns appear to represent a more feminine look. This sense of masculinity and femininity

2160-446: Is made of an abbot of Leicester , c. 1360, who was the most skilled of all the nobility in hare hunting. In magnificence of equipage and retinue the abbots vied with the first nobles of the realm. They rode on mules with gilded bridles, rich saddles and housings, carrying hawks on their wrist, followed by an immense train of attendants. The bells of the churches were rung as they passed. They associated on equal terms with laymen of

2268-454: Is proved by their attendance and votes at ecclesiastical councils. Thus at the first Council of Constantinople , AD 448, 23 archimandrites or abbots sign, with 30 bishops . The second Council of Nicaea , AD 787, recognized the right of abbots to ordain their monks to the inferior orders below the diaconate , a power usually reserved to bishops. Abbots used to be subject to episcopal jurisdiction, and continued generally so, in fact, in

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2376-664: Is sometimes referred to as a half, or demi- , metope ( illustration, V. , in Spacing the Columns above ). The Roman architect Vitruvius , following contemporary practice, outlined in his treatise the procedure for laying out constructions based on a module, which he took to be one half a column's diameter, taken at the base. An illustration of Andrea Palladio 's Doric order, as it was laid out, with modules identified, by Isaac Ware, in The Four Books of Palladio's Architecture (London, 1738)

2484-492: Is the head and chief governor of a community of monks, called also in the East hegumen or archimandrite . The English version for a female monastic head is abbess . In Egypt , the first home of monasticism, the jurisdiction of the abbot, or archimandrite, was but loosely defined. Sometimes he ruled over only one community, sometimes over several, each of which had its own abbot as well. Saint John Cassian speaks of an abbot of

2592-466: Is to be traced, far more than to the arrogance of abbots, rendered it increasingly frequent, and, in the 6th century, the practice of exempting religious houses partly or altogether from episcopal control, and making them responsible to the pope alone, received an impulse from Pope Gregory the Great . These exceptions, introduced with a good object, had grown into a widespread evil by the 12th century, virtually creating an imperium in imperio, and depriving

2700-592: The Lateran council , AD 1123. In the East abbots, if in priests' orders and with the consent of the bishop, were, as we have seen, permitted by the second Nicene council , AD 787, to confer the tonsure and admit to the order of reader; but gradually abbots, in the West also, advanced higher claims, until we find them in AD 1489 permitted by Innocent IV to confer both the subdiaconate and diaconate. Of course, they always and everywhere had

2808-575: The Revolution ; but the courtesy title of abbé, having long lost all connection in people's minds with any special ecclesiastical function, remained as a convenient general term applicable to any clergyman. In the Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches , the abbot is referred to as the hegumen . The Superior of a monastery of nuns is called the Hēguménē . The title of archimandrite (literally

2916-641: The Royal Hospital Chelsea (1682 onwards, by Christopher Wren ). The first engraved illustrations of the Greek Doric order dated to the mid-18th century. Its appearance in the new phase of Classicism brought with it new connotations of high-minded primitive simplicity, seriousness of purpose, noble sobriety. In Germany it suggested a contrast with the French, and in the United States republican virtues. In

3024-600: The Thebaid who had 500 monks under him. By the Rule of St Benedict , which, until the Cluniac reforms , was the norm in the West, the abbot has jurisdiction over only one community. The rule, as was inevitable, was subject to frequent violations; but it was not until the foundation of the Cluniac Order that the idea of a supreme abbot, exercising jurisdiction over all the houses of an order,

3132-559: The Tuscan order , elaborated for nationalistic reasons by Italian Renaissance writers, which is in effect a simplified Doric, with un-fluted columns and a simpler entablature with no triglyphs or guttae. The Doric order was much used in Greek Revival architecture from the 18th century onwards; often earlier Greek versions were used, with wider columns and no bases to them. The ancient architect and architectural historian Vitruvius associates

3240-559: The Wu-Tang Clan . Doric order The Doric order is one of the three orders of ancient Greek and later Roman architecture; the other two canonical orders were the Ionic and the Corinthian . The Doric is most easily recognized by the simple circular capitals at the top of the columns . Originating in the western Doric region of Greece, it is the earliest and, in its essence,

3348-410: The column , entablature , pediment , the different storeys of architecture, the windows and doors . In Article 1, for example, Laugier makes four general rules for the construction of columns, one of them being that the column "must be strictly perpendicular, because being intended to support the whole load, perfect verticality gives it its greatest strength." To Laugier, these articles emphasised

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3456-427: The refectory , and be content with the ordinary fare of the monks, unless he had to entertain a guest. These ordinances proved, however, generally ineffective to secure strictness of diet, and contemporaneous literature abounds with satirical remarks and complaints concerning the inordinate extravagance of the tables of the abbots. When the abbot condescended to dine in the refectory, his chaplains waited upon him with

3564-444: The vestry , and a chapter was held, and the bishop or his delegate preached a suitable sermon . Before the late modern era, the abbot was treated with the utmost reverence by the brethren of his house. When he appeared either in church or chapter all present rose and bowed. His letters were received kneeling, as were those of the pope and the king. No monk might sit in his presence, or leave it, without his permission, reflecting

3672-564: The Catholic Church on the European continent, is the equivalent of the English "Father" (parallel etymology), being loosely applied to all who have received the tonsure . This use of the title is said to have originated in the right conceded to the king of France, by the concordat between Pope Leo X and Francis I (1516), to appoint commendatory abbots ( abbés commendataires ) to most of

3780-460: The Delians reassigned the temple to the island of Poros . It is "hexastyle", with six columns across the pedimented end and thirteen along each long face. All the columns are centered under a triglyph in the frieze , except for the corner columns. The plain, unfluted shafts on the columns stand directly on the platform (the stylobate ), without bases. The recessed "necking" in the nature of fluting at

3888-542: The Doric with masculine proportions (the Ionic representing the feminine). It is also normally the cheapest of the orders to use. When the three orders are superposed , it is usual for the Doric to be at the bottom, with the Ionic and then the Corinthian above, and the Doric, as "strongest", is often used on the ground floor below another order in the storey above. In their original Greek version, Doric columns stood directly on

3996-539: The Old Testament and the story of Adam and Eve , and of other primitive cultures. The classical orders in the stories about primitive dwellings are often the subject of analysis to trace the history of the primitive hut, these have arguably been traced back to the works of Vitruvius and The Ten Books on Architecture . These tracings work to validate The Primitive Hut model. Scientific and philosophical approaches have led to various branches of inquiry that question both

4104-532: The Parthenon. Pronounced features of both Greek and Roman versions of the Doric order are the alternating triglyphs and metopes . The triglyphs are decoratively grooved with two vertical grooves ("tri-glyph") and represent the original wooden end-beams, which rest on the plain architrave that occupies the lower half of the entablature. Under each triglyph are peglike "stagons" or "guttae" (literally: drops) that appear as if they were hammered in from below to stabilize

4212-520: The Roman church. In the process of time, the title abbot was extended to clerics who had no connection with the monastic system, as to the principal of a body of parochial clergy; and under the Carolingians to the chief chaplain of the king, Abbas Curiae , or military chaplain of the emperor, Abbas Castrensis. It even came to be adopted by purely secular officials. Thus the chief magistrate of

4320-400: The West till the 11th century. The Code of Justinian (lib. i. tit. iii. de Ep. leg. xl.) expressly subordinates the abbot to episcopal oversight. The first case recorded of the partial exemption of an abbot from episcopal control is that of Faustus, abbot of Lerins, at the council of Arles, AD 456; but the exorbitant claims and exactions of bishops, to which this repugnance to episcopal control

4428-438: The abbeys in France. The expectation of obtaining these sinecures drew young men towards the church in considerable numbers, and the class of abbés so formed – abbés de cour they were sometimes called, and sometimes (ironically) abbés de sainte espérance ("abbés of holy hope; or in a jeu de mots , "of St. Hope") – came to hold a recognized position. The connection many of them had with

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4536-432: The architect. Often the last two columns were set slightly closer together ( corner contraction ), to give a subtle visual strengthening to the corners. That is called the "classic" solution of the corner conflict ( IV. ). Triglyphs could be arranged in a harmonic manner again, and the corner was terminated with a triglyph, though the final triglyph and column were often not centered. Roman aesthetics did not demand that

4644-427: The bishop of all authority over the chief centres of influence in his diocese . In the 12th century, the abbots of Fulda claimed precedence of the archbishop of Cologne . Abbots more and more assumed almost episcopal state, and in defiance of the prohibition of early councils and the protests of St Bernard and others, adopted the episcopal insignia of mitre , ring, gloves and sandals. It has been maintained that

4752-457: The church was of the slenderest kind, consisting mainly in adopting the title of abbé, after a remarkably moderate course of theological study, practising celibacy and wearing distinctive dress, a short dark-violet coat with narrow collar. Being men of presumed learning and undoubted leisure, many of the class found admission to the houses of the French nobility as tutors or advisers. Nearly every great family had its abbé. The class did not survive

4860-458: The church, and proceed barefoot to meet the members of the house advancing in a procession. After proceeding up the nave , he was to kneel and pray at the topmost step of the entrance of the choir, into which he was to be introduced by the bishop or his commissary , and placed in his stall. The monks, then kneeling, gave him the kiss of peace on the hand, and rising, on the mouth, the abbot holding his staff of office . He then put on his shoes in

4968-570: The church, have caused themselves to be called abbots, and presumed to attribute to themselves a title, as well as estates, to which they have no just claim. In conventual cathedrals, where the bishop occupied the place of the abbot, the functions usually devolving on the superior of the monastery were performed by a prior . In the Roman Catholic Church, abbots continue to be elected by the monks of an abbey to lead them as their religious superior in those orders and monasteries that make use of

5076-435: The clergy, of appointing the most powerful people of a parish stewards, or, rather, patrons, of their churches; who, in process of time, from a desire of gain, have usurped the whole right, appropriating to their own use the possession of all the lands, leaving only to the clergy the altars, with their tenths and oblations, and assigning even these to their sons and relations in the church. Such defenders, or rather destroyers, of

5184-491: The complexity comes in the frieze , where the two features originally unique to the Doric, the triglyph and gutta , are skeuomorphic memories of the beams and retaining pegs of the wooden constructions that preceded stone Doric temples. In stone they are purely ornamental . The relatively uncommon Roman and Renaissance Doric retained these, and often introduced thin layers of moulding or further ornament, as well as often using plain columns. More often they used versions of

5292-409: The corner triglyph should form the corner of the entablature, creating an inharmonious mismatch with the supporting column. The architecture followed rules of harmony. Since the original design probably came from wooden temples and the triglyphs were real heads of wooden beams, every column had to bear a beam which lay across the centre of the column. Triglyphs were arranged regularly; the last triglyph

5400-514: The designation of the head of a monastery. The word is derived from the Aramaic av meaning "father" or abba , meaning "my father" (it still has this meaning in contemporary Hebrew: אבא and Aramaic: ܐܒܐ) In the Septuagint , it was written as "abbas". At first it was employed as a respectful title for any monk, but it was soon restricted by canon law to certain priestly superiors. At times it

5508-411: The diocese chose the abbot out of the monks of the monastery , but the right of election was transferred by jurisdiction to the monks themselves, reserving to the bishop the confirmation of the election and the benediction of the new abbot. In abbeys exempt from the archbishop's diocesan jurisdiction, the confirmation and benediction had to be conferred by the pope in person, the house being taxed with

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5616-460: The dishes, a servant, if necessary, assisting them. When abbots dined in their own private hall, the Rule of St Benedict charged them to invite their monks to their table, provided there was room, on which occasions the guests were to abstain from quarrels, slanderous talk and idle gossiping. The ordinary attire of the abbot was according to rule to be the same as that of the monks. But by the 10th century

5724-416: The earliest habitations erected by man. In the primitive hut, the horizontal beam was supported by tree trunks planted upright in the ground and the roof was sloped to shed rainwater. This was an extension of the primitive hut concept and the inspiration behind the basic Doric order . The essay advocates that architecture approach perfection through the search for absolute beauty, specifically by returning to

5832-418: The episcopacy). Once he has received this blessing, the abbot not only becomes father of his monks in a spiritual sense, but their major superior under canon law, and has the additional authority to confer the ministries of acolyte and lector (formerly, he could confer the minor orders, which are not sacraments, that these ministries have replaced). The abbey is a species of "exempt religious" in that it is, for

5940-449: The expenses of the new abbot's journey to Rome . It was necessary that an abbot should be at least 30 years of age, of legitimate birth, a monk of the house for at least 10 years, unless it furnished no suitable candidate, when a liberty was allowed of electing from another monastery, well instructed himself, and able to instruct others, one also who had learned how to command by having practised obedience. In some exceptional cases an abbot

6048-455: The first architectural 'idea'. The Primitive Hut concept also suggests that the natural environment provides the solutions for this ideal architectural form. Understandings of vernacular architecture have often had a major influence on the understandings of the Primitive Hut, as they often provide a different point of origin for a potential direction for architecture. Rather than focusing on

6156-401: The flat pavement (the stylobate ) of a temple without a base. With a height only four to eight times their diameter, the columns were the most squat of all the classical orders; their vertical shafts were fluted with 20 parallel concave grooves , each rising to a sharp edge called an arris . They were topped by a smooth capital that flared from the column to meet a square abacus at

6264-413: The fundamental components of a building and what he identifies as their core necessities - that is, The Primitive Hut model. Laugier emphasised the point that nature provides the rules for architecture. Laugier used the frontispiece to illustrate that typically architecture needs only three main elements, the free-standing columns, horizontal beams (entablature), and a simple pediment (the triangular end of

6372-515: The general principles of architecture were found in what was natural, intrinsic and part of natural processes. Laugier's Essay on Architecture is divided into six chapters that focus on the different constituencies and considerations of architecture. It methodically identifies the key components of a building, describes their fundamental importance and how they should be approached. In Chapter 1: "The General Principles of Architecture", Laugier divides and analyses buildings into five main "articles":

6480-424: The great feudal families, as late as the 13th century and later, with the head of the community retaining the title of dean. The connection of the lesser lay abbots with the abbeys, especially in the south of France, lasted longer; and certain feudal families retained the title of abbés chevaliers ( Latin : abbates milites ) for centuries, together with certain rights over the abbey lands or revenues. The abuse

6588-525: The head of the enclosure) used to mean something similar. In the East , the principle set forth in the Corpus Juris Civilis still applies, whereby most abbots are immediately subject to the local bishop. Those monasteries which enjoy the status of being stauropegic will be subject only to a primate or his Synod of Bishops and not the local bishop. Although currently in the Western Church

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6696-505: The heads of some monasteries converted at the Reformation into collegiate foundations. Of these the most noteworthy is Loccum Abbey in Hanover , founded as a Cistercian house in 1163 by Count Wilbrand of Hallermund, and reformed in 1593. The abbot of Loccum, who still carries a pastoral staff, takes precedence over all the clergy of Hanover, and was ex officio a member of the consistory of

6804-419: The hierarchical etiquette of families and society. The highest place was assigned to him, both in church and at table. In the East he was commanded to eat with the other monks. In the West, the Rule of St Benedict appointed him a separate table, at which he might entertain guests and strangers. Because this permission opened the door to luxurious living, Synods of Aachen decreed that the abbot should dine in

6912-440: The highest distinction, and shared all their pleasures and pursuits. This rank and power was, however, often used most beneficially. For instance, we read of Richard Whiting , the last abbot of Glastonbury , judicially murdered by Henry VIII , that his house was a kind of well-ordered court, where as many as 300 sons of noblemen and gentlemen, who had been sent to him for virtuous education, had been brought up, besides others of

7020-418: The hypothetical original hut as a model for building. The Primitive Hut made an important contribution to the theory of architecture. It marked the beginning of a significant analysis and debate within architectural theory, particularly between rationalist and utilitarian schools of thought. While previously the field of architecture concerned the search for the ideal building form through truth in building,

7128-507: The inspiration for the Doric came from Mycenae. At the ruins of this civilization lies architecture very similar to the Doric order. It is also in Greece, which would make it very accessible. Some of the earliest examples of the Doric order come from the 7th-century BC. These examples include the Temple of Apollo at Corinth and the Temple of Zeus at Nemea . Other examples of the Doric order include

7236-591: The intersection with the horizontal beam ( architrave ) that they carried. The Parthenon has the Doric design columns. It was most popular in the Archaic Period (750–480 BC) in mainland Greece, and also found in Magna Graecia (southern Italy), as in the three temples at Paestum . These are in the Archaic Doric, where the capitals spread wide from the column compared to later Classical forms, as exemplified in

7344-580: The kingdom. The governing body of the abbey consists of the abbot, prior and the "convent", or community, of Stiftsherren (canons). In the Church of England , the Bishop of Norwich , by royal decree given by Henry VIII , also holds the honorary title of "Abbot of St. Benet." This title hails back to England's separation from the See of Rome, when King Henry, as supreme head of the newly independent church, took over all of

7452-510: The largest temple in classical Athens , is also in the Doric order, although the sculptural enrichment is more familiar in the Ionic order: the Greeks were never as doctrinaire in the use of the Classical vocabulary as Renaissance theorists or Neoclassical architects. The detail, part of the basic vocabulary of trained architects from the later 18th century onwards, shows how the width of the metopes

7560-434: The last triglyph was not centered with the corresponding column. That "archaic" manner was not regarded as a harmonious design. The resulting problem is called the doric corner conflict . Another approach was to apply a broader corner triglyph ( III. ) but was not really satisfying. Because the metopes are somewhat flexible in their proportions, the modular space between columns ("intercolumniation") can be adjusted by

7668-566: The meanings that are associated with the building and its components, the Primitive Hut questions the fundamental components that are universal in architecture. Theory surrounding The Primitive Hut covers a number of key themes: The primitive hut has been theorised to have different forms: The Primitive Hut concept has been explored over various periods of time to varying extents in architectural history, including by notable architects such as: Abbot Abbot

7776-457: The monasteries, mainly for their possessions, except for St. Benet, which he spared because the abbot and his monks possessed no wealth, and lived like simple beggars, deposing the incumbent Bishop of Norwich and seating the abbot in his place, thus the dual title still held to this day. Additionally, at the enthronement of the Archbishop of Canterbury , there is a threefold enthronement, once in

7884-412: The monastery would be a mere priory, headed by a prior who acts as superior but without the same degree of legal authority that an abbot has. The abbot is chosen by the monks from among the fully professed monks. Once chosen, he must request blessing: the blessing of an abbot is celebrated by the bishop in whose diocese the monastery is or, with his permission, another abbot or bishop. The ceremony of such

7992-411: The monks were directly subject to the lay abbot; sometimes he appointed a substitute to perform the spiritual functions, known usually as dean ( decanus ), but also as abbot ( abbas legitimus , monasticus , regularis ). When the great reform of the 11th century had put an end to the direct jurisdiction of the lay abbots, the honorary title of abbot continued to be held by certain of

8100-423: The most part, answerable to the pope, or to the abbot primate, rather than to the local bishop. The abbot wears the same habit as his fellow monks, though by tradition he adds to it a pectoral cross. Territorial abbots follow all of the above, but in addition must receive a mandate of authority from the pope over the territory around the monastery for which they are responsible. In some monastic families, there

8208-406: The origin of building, arguing that it was a matter of human beings gathering around a fire. This narrative, itself symbolic, elucidates what fire could have meant and where it came from. The important thing to take away from it is that men gathered around an event, most likely in a circle. A space formed by human beings thus came into being in two senses: as room between men and as the social space of

8316-419: The origins and the possible destinations of architecture. These have been recognised across a range of different cultures. These different approaches have led to various conceptualisations that question cultural differences and attempt to define the ideal principles of architecture and of the primitive hut specifically. The Primitive hut is a conceptual hut, that is not necessarily a material and physical hut. It

8424-516: The parallel rank of Archpriest or Protopresbyter . Normally there are no celibate priests who are not monastics in the Orthodox Church, with the exception of married priests who have been widowed . Since the time of Catherine II the ranks of Abbot and Archimandrite have been given as honorary titles in the Russian Church, and may be given to any monastic, even if he does not in fact serve as

8532-419: The post-and-beam ( trabeated ) construction. They also served to "organize" rainwater runoff from above. The spaces between the triglyphs are the "metopes". They may be left plain, or they may be carved in low relief. The spacing of the triglyphs caused problems which took some time to resolve. A triglyph is centered above every column, with another (or sometimes two) between columns, though the Greeks felt that

8640-416: The power of admitting their own monks and vesting them with the religious habit. The power of the abbot was paternal but absolute, limited, however, by the canon law . One of the main goals of monasticism was the purgation of self and selfishness, and obedience was seen as a path to that perfection. It was sacred duty to execute the abbot's orders, and even to act without his orders was sometimes considered

8748-632: The precedence was yielded to the abbot of Glastonbury, until in AD 1154 Adrian IV (Nicholas Breakspear) granted it to the abbot of St Alban's, in which monastery he had been brought up. Next after the abbot of St Alban's ranked the abbot of Westminster and then Ramsey. Elsewhere, the mitred abbots that sat in the Estates of Scotland were of Arbroath , Cambuskenneth , Coupar Angus , Dunfermline , Holyrood , Iona , Kelso , Kilwinning , Kinloss , Lindores , Paisley , Melrose , Scone , St Andrews Priory and Sweetheart . To distinguish abbots from bishops, it

8856-415: The primitive hut by Charles Dominique Eisen was the frontispiece for the second edition of Laugier's Essay on Architecture (1755). The frontispiece was arguably one of the most famous images in the history of architecture; it helped to make the essay more accessible and consequently it was more widely received by the public. The message the illustration was suggesting was clear: that the essay would suggest

8964-621: The primitive hut questioned the universal in architecture. It was through the reading of the Laugier Essay questioned the fundamental and the universal requirements of architecture, the text marked a new field of inquiry into the field of architecture that changed the understandings and the approach to architecture. In particular, there were the beginnings of an attempt to understand the various individual components of architecture. Unlike Laugier, Gottfried Semper goes back to this point in his book The Four Elements of Architecture when explaining

9072-403: The republic at Genoa was called Abbas Populi . Lay abbots (M. Lat. defensores , abbacomites , abbates laici , abbates milites , abbates saeculares or irreligiosi , abbatiarii , or sometimes simply abbates ) were the outcome of the growth of the feudal system from the 8th century onwards. The practice of commendation , by which—to meet

9180-818: The right to wear mitres was sometimes granted by the popes to abbots before the 11th century, but the documents on which this claim is based are not genuine (J. Braun, Liturgische Gewandung , p. 453). The first undoubted instance is the bull by which Alexander II in 1063 granted the use of the mitre to Egelsinus, abbot of the monastery of St Augustine at Canterbury. The mitred abbots in England were those of Abingdon , St Alban's , Bardney , Battle , Bury St Edmunds , St Augustine's Canterbury , Colchester , Croyland , Evesham , Glastonbury , Gloucester , St Benet's Hulme , Hyde , Malmesbury , Peterborough , Ramsey , Reading , Selby , Shrewsbury , Tavistock , Thorney , Westminster , Winchcombe , and St Mary's York . Of these

9288-518: The rule was commonly set aside, and we find frequent complaints of abbots dressing in silk, and adopting sumptuous attire. Some even laid aside the monastic habit altogether, and assumed a secular dress. With the increase of wealth and power, abbots had lost much of their special religious character, and become great lords, chiefly distinguished from lay lords by celibacy . Thus we hear of abbots going out to hunt, with their men carrying bows and arrows; keeping horses, dogs and huntsmen; and special mention

9396-411: The search for meaning and the over analysis of the representational elements of architecture, Laugier's essay proposed that the idea of noble and formal architecture was found in what was necessary for architecture, not in its ornamentation but in its true underlying fundamentals. Laugier argued for the simplicity of architecture, that architecture must return to its origins, the simple rustic hut . It

9504-418: The simplest of the orders, though still with complex details in the entablature above. The Greek Doric column was fluted , and had no base, dropping straight into the stylobate or platform on which the temple or other building stood. The capital was a simple circular form, with some mouldings, under a square cushion that is very wide in early versions, but later more restrained. Above a plain architrave ,

9612-467: The sudden appearance of stone temples from one period after the other, this becomes mostly speculation. Another belief is that the Doric was inspired by the architecture of Egypt . With the Greeks being present in Ancient Egypt as soon the 7th-century BC, it is possible that Greek traders were inspired by the structures they saw in what they would consider foreign land. Finally, another theory states that

9720-605: The superior of a monastery. In Greek practice the title or function of Abbot corresponds to a person who serves as the head of a monastery, although the title of the Archimandrite may be given to any celibate priest who could serve as the head of a monastery. In the German Evangelical Church , the German title of Abt (abbot) is sometimes bestowed, like the French abbé , as an honorary distinction, and survives to designate

9828-420: The system was firmly established. Even the abbey of St Denis was held in commendam by Hugh Capet . The example of the kings was followed by the feudal nobles, sometimes by making a temporary concession permanent, sometimes without any form of commendation whatever. In England the abuse was rife in the 8th century, as may be gathered from the acts of the council of Cloveshoe . These lay abbacies were not merely

9936-477: The term (some orders of monks, as the Carthusians for instance, have only priors ). A monastery must have been granted the status of an abbey by the pope, and such monasteries are normally raised to this level after showing a degree of stability—a certain number of monks in vows, a certain number of years of establishment, a certain firmness to the foundation in economic, vocational and legal aspects. Prior to this,

10044-495: The three 6th-century BC temples at Paestum in southern Italy, a region called Magna Graecia , which was settled by Greek colonists. Compared to later versions, the columns are much more massive, with a strong entasis or swelling, and wider capitals. The Temple of the Delians is a " peripteral " Doric order temple, the largest of three dedicated to Apollo on the island of Delos . It was begun in 478 BC and never completely finished. During their period of independence from Athens,

10152-603: The throne the chancel as the diocesan bishop of Canterbury , once in the Chair of St. Augustine as the Primate of All England , and then once in the chapter-house as Titular Abbot of Canterbury. There are several Benedictine abbeys throughout the Anglican Communion . Most of them have mitred abbots. "The Abbot" is one of the archetypes traditionally illustrated in scenes of Danse Macabre . The lives of numerous abbots make up

10260-547: The title "abbot" is given only abbots of monasteries, the title archimandrite is given to "monastics" (i.e., celibate) priests in the East, even when not attached to a monastery, as an honor for service, similar to the title of monsignor in the Latin Church of the Catholic Church. In the Eastern Orthodox Church , only monastics are permitted to be elevated to the rank of archimandrite. Married priests are elevated to

10368-492: The top of the shafts and the wide cushionlike echinus may be interpreted as slightly self-conscious archaising features, for Delos is Apollo's ancient birthplace. However, the similar fluting at the base of the shafts might indicate an intention for the plain shafts to be capable of wrapping in drapery. A classic statement of the Greek Doric order is the Temple of Hephaestus in Athens, built about 447 BC. The contemporary Parthenon ,

10476-503: Was allowed to name his own successor. Cassian speaks of an abbot in Egypt doing this; and in later times we have another example in the case of St Bruno. Popes and sovereigns gradually encroached on the rights of the monks, until in Italy the pope had usurped the nomination of all abbots, and the king in France, with the exception of Cluny, Premontré and other houses, chiefs of their order. The election

10584-769: Was applied to various priests, e.g. at the court of the Frankish monarchy the Abbas palatinus ("of the palace"') and Abbas castrensis ("of the camp") were chaplains to the Merovingian and Carolingian sovereigns' court and army respectively. The title of abbot came into fairly general use in western monastic orders whose members include priests. An abbot (from Old English : abbod , abbad , from Latin : abbas ("father"), from Ancient Greek : ἀββᾶς ( abbas ), from Imperial Aramaic : אבא / ܐܒܐ ( 'abbā , "father"); compare German : Abt ; French : abbé )

10692-419: Was centred upon the last column ( illustration, right: I. ). This was regarded as the ideal solution which had to be reached. Changing to stone cubes instead of wooden beams required full support of the architrave load at the last column. At the first temples the final triglyph was moved ( illustration, right: II. ), still terminating the sequence, but leaving a gap disturbing the regular order. Even worse,

10800-422: Was definitely recognised. Monks, as a rule, were laymen, nor at the outset was the abbot any exception. For the reception of the sacraments , and for other religious offices, the abbot and his monks were commanded to attend the nearest church. This rule proved inconvenient when a monastery was situated in a desert or at a distance from a city, and necessity compelled the ordination of some monks. This innovation

10908-402: Was flexible: here they bear the famous sculptures including the battle of Lapiths and Centaurs . In the Roman Doric version, the height of the entablature has been reduced. The endmost triglyph is centered over the column rather than occupying the corner of the architrave. The columns are slightly less robust in their proportions. Below their caps, an astragal molding encircles the column like

11016-408: Was for life, unless the abbot was canonically deprived by the chiefs of his order, or when he was directly subject to them, by the pope or the bishop, and also in England it was for a term of 8–12 years. The ceremony of the formal admission of a Benedictine abbot in medieval times is thus prescribed by the consuetudinary of Abingdon. The newly elected abbot was to put off his shoes at the door of

11124-535: Was in the circular Tempietto by Donato Bramante (1502 or later), in the courtyard of San Pietro in Montorio , Rome. Before Greek Revival architecture grew, initially in England, in the 18th century, the Greek or elaborated Roman Doric order had not been very widely used, though "Tuscan" types of round capitals were always popular, especially in less formal buildings. It was sometimes used in military contexts, for example

11232-420: Was not confined to the West. John, patriarch of Antioch at the beginning of the 12th century, informs us that in his time most monasteries had been handed over to laymen, beneficiarii , for life, or for part of their lives, by the emperors. Giraldus Cambrensis reported ( Itinerary , ii.iv) the common customs of lay abbots in the late 12th-century Church of Wales: for a bad custom has prevailed amongst

11340-481: Was not introduced without a struggle, ecclesiastical dignity being regarded as inconsistent with the higher spiritual life, but, before the close of the 5th century, at least in the East, abbots seem almost universally to have become deacons , if not priests. The change spread more slowly in the West, where the office of abbot was commonly filled by laymen till the end of the 7th century. The ecclesiastical leadership exercised by abbots despite their frequent lay status

11448-472: Was often used to determine which type of column would be used for a particular structure. Later periods reviving classical architecture used the Roman Doric until Neoclassical architecture arrived in the later 18th century. This followed the first good illustrations and measured descriptions of Greek Doric buildings. The most influential, and perhaps the earliest, use of the Doric in Renaissance architecture

11556-513: Was ordained that their mitre should be made of less costly materials, and should not be ornamented with gold, a rule which was soon entirely disregarded, and that the crook of their pastoral staff (the crosier) should turn inwards instead of outwards, indicating that their jurisdiction was limited to their own house. The adoption of certain episcopal insignia ( pontificalia ) by abbots was followed by an encroachment on episcopal functions, which had to be specially but ineffectually guarded against by

11664-431: Was through The Primitive Hut that Laugier sought to explain his philosophy of architecture. The Essay on Architecture provides what Laugier explains as the general rules of architecture: the "true principles", the "invariable rules" for "directing the judgement and forming the taste of the gentleman and the architect". To Laugier, The Primitive Hut was the highest virtue that architecture should achieve. An illustration of

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