Khmer architecture ( Khmer : ស្ថាបត្យកម្មខ្មែរ ), also known as Angkorian architecture ( Khmer : ស្ថាបត្យកម្មសម័យអង្គរ ), is the architecture produced by the Khmer during the Angkor period of the Khmer Empire from approximately the later half of the 8th century CE to the first half of the 15th century CE.
106-851: Prasat (Khmer: ប្រាសាទ , Thai: ปราสาท ) is a Khmer and Thai term meaning "castle", "palace", or "temple" (derived from the Sanskrit prāsāda / प्रासाद ). It may refer to: Prasat , towers in Khmer architecture Prasat (Thai architecture) , a royal or religious building form in Thai architecture Prasat, Preah Netr Preah , a khum (commune) of Preah Netr Preah District, Banteay Meanchey Province, Cambodia Prasat District , Surin Province, Thailand See also [ edit ] All pages with titles containing prasat Prasad (disambiguation) Topics referred to by
212-484: A "rest house with fire" for travellers. An inscription at Preah Khan tells of 121 such rest houses lining the highways into Angkor . The Chinese traveller Zhou Daguan expressed his admiration for these rest houses when he visited Angkor in 1296 CE. Another theory is that the House of Fire had a religious function as the repository the sacred flame used in sacred ceremonies. Structures conventionally known as "libraries" are
318-459: A background. Sculpture in bas-relief is distinguished from sculpture in haut-relief, in that the latter projects farther from the background, in some cases almost detaching itself from it. The Angkorian preferred to work in bas-relief, while their neighbors the Cham were partial to haut-relief. Narrative bas-reliefs are bas-reliefs depicting stories from mythology or history. Until about the 11th century,
424-484: A common feature of the Khmer temple architecture, but their true purpose remains unknown. Most likely they functioned broadly as religious shrines rather than strictly as repositories of manuscripts. Freestanding buildings, they were normally placed in pairs on either side of the entrance to an enclosure, opening to the west. Srahs and barays were reservoirs , generally created by excavation and embankment , respectively. It
530-534: A decorative motif in architecture. Indra is associated with the East; since Angkorian temples typically open to the East, his image is sometimes encountered on lintels and pediments facing that direction. Typically, he is mounted on the three-headed elephant Airavata and holds his trusty weapon, the thunderbolt or vajra . The numerous adventures of Indra documented in Hindu epic Mahabharata are not depicted at Angkor. The kala
636-467: A grandiose consecration ritual on the sacred Mount Mahendraparvata, now known as Phnom Kulen . At the ritual, which was taken from the Hindu tradition, Jayavarman II proclaimed himself as chakravartin (from Sanskrit, commonly translated as "universal ruler"; Old Khmer: Kamraten jagad ta Raja ) and devaraja (from Sanskrit, lit. ' god king ' ). He also declared Kambuja's independence from
742-461: A guardian of temples and as a mount for some warriors. The gajasimha may be found at Banteay Srei and at the temples belonging to the Roluos group. The reachisey is another mythical animal, similar to the gajasimha, with the head of a lion, a short elephantine trunk, and the scaly body of a dragon. It occurs at Angkor Wat in the epic bas reliefs of the outer gallery. Garuda is a divine being that
848-457: A hierarchy reflecting the Hindu caste system , where the commoners – rice farmers and fishermen – formed the large majority of the population. The kshatriyas – royalty, nobles, warlords, soldiers, and warriors – formed a governing elite and authorities. Other social classes included brahmins (priests), traders, artisans such as carpenters and stonemasons, potters, metalworkers , goldsmiths , and textile weavers, while on
954-519: A king's rule. The cult enabled the Khmer kings to embark on massive architectural projects, constructing majestic monuments such as Angkor Wat and the Bayon to celebrate the king's divine rule on earth. The King was surrounded by ministers, state officials, nobles, royalties, palace women, and servants, all protected by guards and troops. The capital city of Angkor and the Khmer royal court are famous for grand ceremonies, with many festivals and rituals held in
1060-510: A large part of mainland Southeast Asia . At that time, Khmer was known as the Chenla kingdom, the predecessor state of the Khmer empire. Latest research reveals that the Khmer already erected stone buildings in the protohistoric period, which they used for the worship of mighty tutelary spirits . This earliest extant architecture consists of relatively small cells made from prefabricated megalithic construction parts, which probably date at least to
1166-451: A light wooden roof. The problem of preventing the collapse of corbelled structures at Angkor remains a serious one for modern conservation. A lintel is a horizontal beam connecting two vertical columns between which runs a door or passageway. Because the Angkorean lacked the ability to construct a true arch , they constructed their passageways using lintels or corbelling . A pediment is
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#17330942677081272-457: A loss of royal authority and thereby to a lack of workers. The water-management apparatus also degenerated, meaning that harvests were reduced by floods or drought. While previously three rice harvests per year were possible – a substantial contribution to the prosperity and power of Kambuja – the declining harvests further weakened the empire. Looking at the archaeological record, however, archaeologists noticed that not only were
1378-571: A place inscriptions call "Java". Historians debate whether "Java" means the Indonesian island of Java , Champa or a different location. According to an older established interpretation, Jayavarman II was a prince who lived at the court of Sailendra in Java and brought back to Cambodia the art and culture of the Javanese Sailendran court (such as the concept of a devaraja ). This classical theory
1484-414: A roughly triangular structure above a lintel. A tympanum is the decorated surface of a pediment. The styles employed by Angkorean artists in the decoration of lintels evolved over time, as a result, the study of lintels has proven a useful guide to the dating of temples. Some scholars have endeavored to develop a periodization of lintel styles. The most beautiful Angkorean lintels are thought to be those of
1590-516: A second moved to Phnom Penh to establish a parallel kingdom. The final fall of Angkor would then be due to the transfer of economic – and therewith political – significance, as Phnom Penh became an important trade center on the Mekong . Severe droughts and ensuing floods were considered one of the contributing factors to its fall. The empire focused more on regional trade after the first drought. Ecological failure and infrastructural breakdown
1696-621: A severe epidemic outbreak may have hit the heavily populated Angkor and contributed to the fall of the empire, has been reconsidered. By the 14th century, the Black Death had affected Asia, as the plague first appeared in China around 1330 and reached Europe around 1345. Most seaports along the line of travel from China to Europe felt the impact of the disease, which might have had a severe impact on life throughout Southeast Asia. Possible diseases include bubonic plague , smallpox , and malaria . There
1802-402: A stone statues or as relief carvings in the walls of temples and other buildings, generally close to entrances or passageways. Their function is to protect the temples. Dvarapalas may be seen, for example, at Preah Ko , Lolei , Banteay Srei , Preah Khan and Banteay Kdei . The gajasimha is a mythical animal with the body of a lion and the head of an elephant. At Angkor, it is portrayed as
1908-431: A troupe. Even in broad daylight, the candles are lighted. Then come other palace women, bearing royal paraphernalia made of gold and silver... Then come the palace women carrying lances and shields, with the king's private guards. Carts drawn by goats and horses, all in gold, come next. Ministers and princes are mounted on elephants, and in front of them one can see, from afar, their innumerable red umbrellas. After them come
2014-474: A type found in certain late 12th-century temples constructed under King Jayavarman VII : Ta Prohm , Preah Khan , Banteay Kdei and Banteay Chhmar . It is a rectangular building elongated along the temple's east axis and divided into four courtyards by galleries. Formerly it had a roof made of perishable materials; now only the stone walls remain. The pillars of the galleries are decorated with carved designs of dancing apsaras ; hence scholars have suggested that
2120-491: A warrior he was less successful. In 1220, under mounting pressure from the increasingly powerful Đại Việt and its ally Champa, the Khmer withdrew from many of the provinces previously conquered from the Chams. Indravarman II was succeeded by Jayavarman VIII (reigned 1243–1295). In contrast to his predecessors, Jayavarman VIII was a follower of Hindu Shaivism and an aggressive opponent of Buddhism, destroying many Buddha statues in
2226-425: Is a ferocious monster symbolic of time in its all-devouring aspect and associated with the destructive side of the god Siva . In Khmer temple architecture, the kala serves as a common decorative element on lintels, tympana and walls, where it is depicted as a monstrous head with a large upper jaw lined by large carnivorous teeth, but with no lower jaw. Some kalas are shown disgorging vine-like plants, and some serve as
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#17330942677082332-543: Is an alternative theory regarding the end of Kambuja. Scientists working on the Greater Angkor Project believe that the Khmers had an elaborate system of reservoirs and canals used for trade, transportation, and irrigation. The canals were used for harvesting rice. As the population grew there was more strain on the water system. During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, there were also severe climatic changes impacting
2438-421: Is dated 1327 and describes the succession of Indrajayavarman by Jayavarmadiparamesvara. Historians suspect a connection with the kings' adoption of Theravada Buddhism: the kings were no longer considered devarajas (god kings) and there was therefore no need to erect huge temples to them, or rather to the gods under whose protection they stood. The retreat from the concept of the devaraja may also have led to
2544-632: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Khmer architecture The architecture of the Indian rock-cut temples , particularly in sculpture, had an influence on Southeast Asia and was widely adopted into the Indianised architecture of Cambodian (Khmer), Annamese and Javanese temples (of the Greater India ). Evolved from Indian influences, Khmer architecture became clearly distinct from that of
2650-424: Is evidence for a further period of use of Angkor after the 15th century. Under the rule of Khmer king Barom Reachea I (reigned 1566–1576), who temporarily succeeded in driving back Ayutthaya, the royal court was briefly returned to Angkor. Inscriptions from the 17th century testify to Japanese settlements alongside those of the remaining Khmer. The best-known inscription tells of Ukondayu Kazufusa , who celebrated
2756-584: Is explained in the story of the churning of the Ocean of Milk , or samudra manthan , found in the Vishnu Purana . Other stories in the Mahabharata detail the exploits of individual apsaras, who were often used by the gods as agents to persuade or seduce mythological demons, heroes and ascetics. The widespread use of apsaras as a motif for decorating the walls and pillars of temples and other religious buildings, however,
2862-616: Is not clear whether the significance of these reservoirs was religious, agricultural, or a combination of the two. The two largest reservoirs at Angkor were the West Baray and the East Baray located on either side of Angkor Thom . The East Baray is now dry. The West Mebon is an 11th-century temple standing at the center of the West Baray and the East Mebon is a 10th-century temple standing at
2968-505: Is part man and part bird. He is the lord of birds, the mythological enemy of nāgas , and the battle steed of Vishnu . Depictions of Garuda at Angkor number in the thousands, and though Indian in inspiration exhibit a style that is uniquely Khmer. They may be classified as follows: In the ancient religion of the Vedas , Indra the sky-god reigned supreme. In the medieval Hinduism of Angkor, however, he had no religious status, and served only as
3074-416: Is soft when taken from the ground but that hardens when exposed to the sun, for foundations and other hidden parts of buildings. Because the surface of laterite is uneven, it was not suitable for decorative carvings, unless first dressed with stucco. Laterite was more commonly used in the Khmer provinces than at Angkor itself. Because the water table in this entire region is well high, Laterite has been used in
3180-470: Is some indication that, before or after the war, Suryavarman I gifted a chariot to Rajendra I to possibly facilitate trade or an alliance. Suryavarman I's wife was Viralakshmi , and following his death in 1050, he was succeeded by Udayadityavarman II , who built the Baphuon and West Baray . In 1074, conflict arose between Harshavarman III , the younger brother and successor of Udayadityavarman II, and
3286-517: The Angkor period , after the empire's most well-known capital, Angkor . The Khmer Empire ruled or vassalised most of Mainland Southeast Asia and stretched as far north as southern China . The beginning of the Khmer Empire is conventionally dated to 802, when Khmer prince Jayavarman II declared himself chakravartin ( lit. ' universal ruler ' , a title equivalent to 'emperor') in
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3392-494: The Bayon , describe everyday life in the ancient Khmer kingdom, including scenes of palace life, naval battles on the river and lakes, and common scenes of the marketplace. The ancient Khmers were a traditional agricultural community, relying heavily on rice farming . The farmers, who formed the majority of the kingdom's population, planted rice near the banks of the lake or river, in the irrigated plains surrounding their villages, or in
3498-610: The Bhagavata Purana . The following are some of the most important Angkorian depictions of the life of Krishna: Khmer Empire The Khmer Empire was a Hindu - Buddhist empire in Southeast Asia , centered around hydraulic cities in what is now northern Cambodia . Known as Kambuja ( Old Khmer : កម្វុជ ; Khmer : កម្ពុជ ) by its inhabitants, it grew out of the former civilization of Chenla and lasted from 802 to 1431. Historians call this period of Cambodian history
3604-471: The Champa king Harivarman IV . The Greater Angkor Region was had a population of approximately 700,000 to 900,000 at its peak in the 13th century CE. This population, which made Angkor one of the most populous cities of the medieval world. The 12th century was a time of conflict and brutal power struggles. Under Suryavarman II (reigned 1113–1150) the empire united internally and Angkor Wat , dedicated to
3710-543: The Hall of Dancers at Preah Khan , in the pillars that line the passageways through the outer gallery of the Bayon , and in the famous bas-relief of Angkor Wat depicting the churning of the Ocean of Milk. The largest population of devatas (around 2,000) is at Angkor Wat , where they appear individually and in groups. Dvarapalas are human or demonic temple guardians, generally armed with lances and clubs. They are presented either as
3816-604: The Indian sub-continent as it developed its own special characteristics, some of which were created independently and others of which were incorporated from neighboring cultural traditions, resulting in a new artistic style in Asian architecture unique to the Angkorian tradition. The development of Khmer architecture as a distinct style is particularly evident in artistic depictions of divine and royal figures with facial features representative of
3922-673: The Khmer New Year in Angkor in 1632. However, in the following decades the Japanese community was absorbed into the local Khmer community, owing to a lack of new Japanese arrivals and thus little possibility of renewing their community. Much of what is known about Kambuja comes from the bas-reliefs of Angkor's temples and the first-hand accounts of Chinese diplomat Zhou Daguan ( The Customs of Cambodia ), which provide information on 13th-century Cambodia and earlier. The bas-reliefs, such as those in
4028-697: The Phimeanakas , and most notably the Phnom Bakheng at Angkor . According to Charles Higham , "A temple was built for the worship of the ruler, whose essence, if a Saivite , was embodied in a linga... housed in the central sanctuary which served as a temple-mausoleum for the ruler after his death...these central temples also contained shrines dedicated to the royal ancestors and thus became centres of ancestor worship". Bas-reliefs are individual figures, groups of figures, or entire scenes cut into stone walls, not as drawings but as sculpted images projecting from
4134-579: The Phnom Kulen mountains. Although the end of the Khmer Empire has traditionally been marked with the fall of Angkor to the Siamese Ayutthaya Kingdom in 1431, the reasons for the empire's collapse are still debated amongst scholars. Researchers have determined that a period of strong monsoon rains was followed by a severe drought in the region, which caused damage to the empire's hydraulic infrastructure. Variability between droughts and flooding
4240-452: The Preah Ko style from the late 9th century. Common motifs in the decoration of lintels include the kala , the nāga and the makara , as well as various forms of vegetation. Also frequently depicted are the Hindu gods associated with the four cardinal directions, with the identity of the god depicted on a given lintel or pediment depending on the direction faced by that element. Indra ,
4346-447: The second century BC . There are three pre-Angkorean architectural styles: Scholars have worked to develop a periodization of Angkorean architectural styles. The following periods and styles may be distinguished. Each is named for a particular temple regarded as paradigmatic for the style. Angkorian builders used brick , sandstone , laterite and wood as their materials. The ruins that remain are of brick, sandstone and laterite,
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4452-612: The 11th to the 13th centuries, was the most extensive pre-industrial urban complex in the world. Modern scholars often refer to the Empire as the "Khmer Empire" ( Khmer : ចក្រភពខ្មែរ ) or the "Angkorian Empire" (Khmer: ចក្រភពអង្គរ ), the latter after the capital Angkor. The Empire referred to itself as Kambuja ( Sanskrit : កម្ពុជ ; Old Khmer : កម្វុជ ; Khmer: កម្ពុជ ) or Kambujadeśa (Sanskrit: កម្ពុជទេស , lit. 'country of Kambuja'; Old Khmer: កម្វុជទេឝ ; Khmer: កម្ពុជទេស ), names which were pre-modern predecessors to
4558-653: The Angkorian Khmer confined their narrative bas-reliefs to the space on the tympana above doorways. The most famous early narrative bas-reliefs are those on the tympana at the 10th-century temple of Banteay Srei , depicting scenes from Hindu mythology as well as scenes from the great works of Indian literature, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata . By the 12th century, however, the Angkorian artists were covering entire walls with narrative scenes in bas-relief. At Angkor Wat ,
4664-699: The Bakong and Borobudur in Java , going into architectural details such as the gateways and stairs to the upper terraces, strongly suggests that Borobudur might have served as the prototype of Bakong. There must have been exchanges of travelers, if not mission, between Khmer kingdom and the Sailendras in Java . Transmitting to Cambodia not only ideas, but also technical and architectural details of Borobudur, including arched gateways in corbelling method. Other Khmer temple mountains include Baphuon , Pre Rup , Ta Keo , Koh Ker ,
4770-453: The Khmer civilization's adoption into its decorative iconography of elements derived from long forgotten primitive antecedents. Scenes from the life of Krishna , a hero and Avatar of the god Vishnu , are common in the relief carvings decorating Angkorian temples, and unknown in Angkorian sculpture in the round. The literary sources for these scenes are the Mahabharata , the Harivamsa , and
4876-557: The Lower Chao Phraya basin (Ayutthaya-Suphanburi-Lopburi). From the fourteenth century onward, Ayutthaya became Kambuja's rival. Angkor was besieged by the Ayutthayan king Uthong in 1352, and following its capture the next year, the Khmer king was replaced with successive Siamese princes. Then in 1357, the Khmer king Suryavamsa Rajadhiraja retook the throne. In 1393, the Ayutthayan king Ramesuan besieged Angkor again, capturing it
4982-738: The Sandstones or the Granites. However, the tenets of the Sacred Architecture as enunciated in the Vedas and the Shastras, require no adhesives to be used while building blocks are assembled one over the other to create the Temples, as such bricks have been used only in relatively smaller temples such as Lolei and The Preah Ko. Besides, strength of bricks is much lesser as compared to the stones (mentioned here-in) and
5088-402: The axis of the enclosure wall. If the wall is constructed with an accompanying gallery, the gallery is sometimes connected to the arms of the gopura. Many Angkorian gopuras have a tower at the centre of the cross. The lintels and pediments are often decorated, and guardian figures ( dvarapalas ) are often placed or carved on either side of the doorways. A Hall of Dancers is the structure of
5194-419: The base for other figures. Scholars have speculated that the origin of the kala as a decorative element in Khmer temple architecture may be found in an earlier period when the skulls of human victims were incorporated into buildings as a kind of protective magic or apotropaism . Such skulls tended to lose their lower jaws when the ligaments holding them together dried out. Thus, the kalas of Angkor may represent
5300-465: The capital was raided and looted in a naval battle on the Tonlé Sap lake by a Cham fleet under Jaya Indravarman IV , and Khmer king Tribhuvanadityavarman was killed. King Jayavarman VII (reigned 1181–1219) was generally considered Cambodia's greatest king. He had already been a military leader as a prince under the previous kings. After Champa had conquered Angkor, he gathered an army and retook
5406-467: The capital. He consequently ascended to the throne and continued to wage war against Champa for another 22 years, until the Khmer defeated the Chams in 1203 and conquered large parts of their territory. According to Chinese sources, Jayavarman VII added Pegu to the territory of the Khmer Empire in 1195. Jayavarman VII stands as the last of the great kings of Angkor, not only because of his successful military campaign against Champa, but also because he
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#17330942677085512-473: The cardinal points. A gallery is a passageway running along the wall of an enclosure or along the axis of a temple, often open to one or both sides. Historically, the form of the gallery evolved during the 10th century from the increasingly long hallways which had earlier been used to surround the central sanctuary of a temple. During the period of Angkor Wat in the first half of the 12th century, additional half galleries on one side were introduced to buttress
5618-670: The center of the East Baray. The baray associated with Preah Khan is the Jayataka, in the middle of which stands the 12th-century temple of Neak Pean . Scholars have speculated that the Jayataka represents the Himalayan lake of Anavatapta , known for its miraculous healing powers. The dominant scheme for the construction of state temples in the Angkorian period was that of the Temple Mountain, an architectural representation of Mount Meru ,
5724-420: The centre of the temple, and by the greater decoration on its walls. Symbolically, the sanctuary represented Mount Meru , the legendary home of the Hindu gods. The prang is the tall finger-like spire, usually richly carved, common to much Khmerreligious architecture. Khmer temples were typically enclosed by a concentric series of walls, with the central sanctuary in the middle; this arrangement represented
5830-475: The centre than the one supporting it from below, until the two sides meet in the middle. The corbel arch is structurally weaker than the true arch . The use of corbelling prevented the Angkorian engineers from constructing large openings or spaces in buildings roofed with stone, and made such buildings particularly prone to collapse once they were no longer maintained. These difficulties did not, of course, exist for buildings constructed with stone walls surmounted by
5936-556: The city. Even when travelling, the King and his entourages created quite a spectacle, as described in Zhou Daguan's accounts. Zhou Daguan's description of a royal procession of Indravarman III is as follows: When the king goes out, troops are at the head of [his] escort; then come flags, banners and music. Palace women, numbering from three to five hundred, wearing flowered cloth, with flowers in their hair, hold candles in their hands, and form
6042-467: The decline of Kambuja. The relationship between the rulers and their elites was unstable – among the 27 rulers of Kambuja, eleven lacked a legitimate claim to power, and violent power struggles were frequent. Kambuja focused more on its domestic economy and did not take advantage of the international maritime trade network. The input of Buddhist ideas also conflicted with and disturbed the state order built under Hinduism. The last Sanskrit inscription
6148-555: The empire and converting Buddhist temples to Hindu temples. Kambuja was threatened externally in 1283 by the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty . Jayavarman VIII avoided war with general Sogetu (sometimes known as Sagatu or Sodu), the governor of Guangzhou, China , by paying annual tribute to the Mongols, starting in 1285. Jayavarman VIII's rule ended in 1295 when he was deposed by his son-in-law Srindravarman (reigned 1295–1309). The new king
6254-401: The external gallery wall is covered with some 12,000 or 13,000 square meters of such scenes, some of them historical, some mythological. Similarly, the outer gallery at the Bayon contains extensive bas-reliefs documenting the everyday life of the medieval Khmer as well as historical events from the reign of King Jayavarman VII . The following is a listing of the motifs illustrated in some of
6360-446: The farmers' houses, which were elevated on stilts to protect them from flooding. The marketplace of Angkor contained no permanent buildings; it was an open square where the traders sat on the ground on woven straw mats and sold their wares. There were no tables or chairs. Some traders might be protected from the sun with a simple thatched parasol. A certain type of tax or rent was levied by officials for each space occupied by traders in
6466-487: The first nor the last Chinese representative to visit Kambuja. His stay is notable, however, because Zhou later wrote a detailed report on life in Angkor. His portrayal of the empire is today one of the most important sources of understanding historical Angkor. Alongside the descriptions within several great temples (the Bayon, the Baphuon, Angkor Wat), his account informs us that the towers of the Bayon were once covered in gold ;
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#17330942677086572-666: The former degrade with age. Angkor's neighbor state of Champa was also the home to numerous brick temples that are similar in style to those of Angkor. The most extensive ruins are at Mỹ Sơn in Vietnam . A Cham story tells of the time that the two countries settled an armed conflict by means of a tower-building contest proposed by the Cham King Po Klaung Garai . While the Khmer built a standard brick tower, Po Klaung Garai directed his people to build an impressive replica of paper and wood. The only stone used by Angkorian builders
6678-503: The former kingdom of Chenla , he quickly built up his influence and defeated a series of competing kings. In 790 he became king of an empire called Kambuja by the Khmer. He then moved his court northwest to Mahendraparvata , far inland north from the great lake of Tonlé Sap . Jayavarman II (reigned 802–835) is widely regarded as the king who set the foundations of the Angkor period. Historians generally agree that this period of Cambodian history began in 802, when Jayavarman II conducted
6784-415: The glossary below. Since a number of different architectural styles succeeded one another during the Angkorean period, not all of these features were equally in evidence throughout the period. Indeed, scholars have referred to the presence or absence of such features as one source of evidence for dating the remains. Many temples had been built before Cambodia became the powerful Khmer Empire which dominated
6890-599: The god Vishnu , was built over a period of 37 years. In the east, Suryavarman II's campaigns against Champa and Dai Viet were unsuccessful, though he sacked Vijaya in 1145 and deposed Jaya Indravarman III. The Khmers occupied Vijaya until 1149, when they were driven out by Jaya Harivarman I . In 1114, Suryavarman II sent a mission to Chola and presented a precious stone to the Chola emperor Kulottunga I . Another period followed in which kings reigned briefly and were violently overthrown by their successors. Finally, in 1177
6996-438: The god of the sky, is associated with East; Yama , the god of judgment and Hell, with South; Varuna , the god of the ocean, with West; and Kubera , god of wealth, with North. Angkorean stairs are notoriously steep. Frequently, the length of the riser exceeds that of the tread , producing an angle of ascent somewhere between 45 and 70 degrees. The reasons for this peculiarity appear to be both religious and monumental. From
7102-407: The hall itself may have been used for dancing. House of Fire, or Dharmasala , is the name given to a type of building found only in temples constructed during the reign of late 12th-century monarch Jayavarman VII : Preah Khan , Ta Prohm and Banteay Chhmar . A House of Fire has thick walls, a tower at the west end and south-facing windows. Scholars theorize that the House of Fire functioned as
7208-525: The hills when the lowlands were flooded. The rice paddies were irrigated by a massive and complex hydraulics system, including networks of canals and barays , or giant water reservoirs. This system enabled the formation of large-scale rice farming communities surrounding Khmer cities. Sugar palm trees, fruit trees, and vegetables were grown in the orchards by the villages, providing other sources of agricultural produce such as palm sugar , palm wine , coconut, various tropical fruits, and vegetables. Located by
7314-670: The home of the gods in Hinduism . Enclosures represented the mountain chains surrounding Mount Meru, while a moat represented the ocean. The temple itself took shape as a pyramid of several levels, and the home of the gods was represented by the elevated sanctuary at the center of the temple. The first great temple mountain was the Bakong , a five-level pyramid dedicated in 881 by King Indravarman I . The structure of Bakong took shape of stepped pyramid , popularly identified as temple mountain of early Khmer temple architecture. The striking similarity of
7420-417: The kingdom of Champa to the east (in what is now central Vietnam ). The son of Rajendravarman II, Jayavarman V , reigned from 968 to 1001, after establishing himself as the new king over the other princes. His rule was a largely peaceful period, marked by prosperity and a cultural flowering. He established a new capital slightly west of his father's and named it Jayendranagari; its state temple, Ta Keo ,
7526-461: The kingdom without wars and initiated extensive building projects, which were enabled by the wealth gained through trade and agriculture. Foremost were the temple of Preah Ko and irrigation works. Indravarman I developed Hariharalaya further by constructing Bakong circa 881. Bakong in particular bears striking similarities to the Borobudur temple in Java, which suggests that it may have served as
7632-606: The local Khmer population, including rounder faces, broader brows, and other physical characteristics. In any study of Angkorian architecture, the emphasis is necessarily on religious architecture, since all the remaining Angkorian buildings are religious in nature. During the period of Angkor, only temples and other religious buildings were constructed of stone. Non-religious buildings such as dwellings were constructed of perishable materials such as wood, and so have not survived. The religious architecture of Angkor has characteristic structures, elements, and motifs, which are identified in
7738-417: The lowest social level were slaves . The extensive irrigation projects provided rice surpluses that could support a large population. The state religion was Hinduism but influenced by the cult of Devaraja , elevating the Khmer kings as possessing the divine quality of living gods on earth, attributed to the incarnation of Vishnu or Shiva . In politics, this status was viewed as the divine justification of
7844-565: The marketplace. The trade and economy in the Angkor marketplace were mainly run by women. Zhou Daguan's description of the women of Angkor: The local people who know how to trade are all women. So when a Chinese man goes to this country, the first thing he must do is take in a woman, partly with a view of profiting from her trading abilities. The women age very quickly, no doubt because they marry and give birth when they are too young. When they are twenty or thirty-years-old, they look like Chinese women who are forty or fifty. The role of women in
7950-428: The massive Tonlé Sap lake, and also near numerous rivers and ponds, many Khmer people relied on fresh water fisheries for their living. Fishing gave the population their main source of protein, which was turned into prahok – dried or roasted or steamed fish paste wrapped in banana leaves. Rice was the main staple along with fish. Other sources of protein included pigs, cattle, and poultry, which were kept under
8056-572: The modern Kampuchea . No written records of the Angkor period have survived other than stone inscriptions. Current knowledge of the historical Khmer civilization is derived primarily from: According to an inscription in the Sdok Kok Thom temple , around 781 the Khmer prince Jayavarman II established Indrapura as the capital of his domain. It was located in Banteay Prey Nokor , near today's Kampong Cham . After returning to his home in
8162-434: The modern-day ruins of Banteay Prey Nokor ) in eastern Cambodia. Moreover, many early temples on Phnom Kulen show Cham (e.g. Prasat Damrei Krap) as well as Javanese influences (e.g. the primitive " temple-mountain " of Aram Rong Cen and Prasat Thmar Dap), even if their asymmetric distribution seems typically Khmer. In the following years, Jayavarman II extended his territory and established a new capital, Hariharalaya , near
8268-416: The modern-day town of Roluos . He thereby laid the foundation of Angkor, which was to arise some 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) to the northwest. Jayavarman II died in 835 and was succeeded by his son Jayavarman III . Jayavarman III died in 877 and was succeeded by Indravarman I . The successors of Jayavarman II kept extending the territory of Kambuja. Indravarman I (reigned 877–889) managed to expand
8374-402: The more famous Angkorian narrative bas-reliefs: Angkorean shrines frequently opened in only one direction, typically to the east. The other three sides featured fake or blind doors to maintain symmetry. Blind windows were often used along otherwise blank walls. Colonnettes were narrow decorative columns that served as supports for the beams and lintels above doorways or windows. Depending on
8480-399: The mountain ranges surrounding Mount Meru , the mythical home of the gods. Enclosures are the spaces between these walls, and between the innermost wall and the temple itself. By modern convention, enclosures are numbered from the centre outwards. The walls defining the enclosures of Khmer temples are frequently lined by galleries, while passage through the walls is by way of gopuras located at
8586-530: The next year. Ramesuan's son ruled Kambuja for a short time before being assassinated. Finally, in 1431, the Khmer king Ponhea Yat abandoned Angkor as indefensible, and moved to the Phnom Penh area. The new center of the Kambuja was in the southwest, at Oudong near present-day Phnom Penh. However, there are indications that Angkor was not completely abandoned. One line of Khmer kings may have remained there, while
8692-408: The one at Phimai, which in turn sent their goods to large cities like Angkor in return for other goods, such as pottery and foreign trade items from China. The king and his officials were in charge of irrigation management and water distribution, which consisted of an intricate series of hydraulics infrastructure, such as canals, moats, and massive reservoirs called barays . Society was arranged in
8798-423: The period, they were round, rectangular, or octagonal in shape. Colonnettes were often circled with molded rings and decorated with carved leaves. Angkorian engineers tended to use the corbel arch in order to construct rooms, passageways and openings in buildings. A corbel arch is constructed by adding layers of stones to the walls on either side of an opening, with each successive layer projecting further towards
8904-569: The powerful Chola emperor Rajendra I against Tambralinga. After learning of Suryavarman's alliance with Chola, Tambralinga requested aid from the Srivijaya king Sangrama Vijayatungavarman. This eventually led to Chola coming into conflict with Srivijaya. The war ended with a victory for Chola and Kambuja, and major losses for Srivijaya and Tambralinga. The two alliances had religious nuance, as Chola and Kambuja were Hindu Shaivite , while Tambralinga and Srivijaya were Mahayana Buddhist . There
9010-472: The prototype for Bakong. There were at the time exchanges of travellers and missions between Kambuja and the Sailendras in Java, which brought to Cambodia not only ideas, but also technical and architectural details. Indravarman I was followed by his son Yasovarman I (reigned 889–915), who established a new capital, Yasodharapura – the first city of the larger Angkor area. The city's central temple
9116-456: The religious perspective, a steep stairway can be interpreted as a "stairway to heaven", the realm of the gods. "From the monumental point of view", according to Angkor-scholar Maurice Glaize , "the advantage is clear – the square of the base not having to spread in surface area, the entire building rises to its zenith with a particular thrust". Apsaras , divine nymphs or celestial dancing girls, are characters from Indian mythology. Their origin
9222-424: The reservoir of Srah Srang . An extensive network of roads was laid down connecting every town of the empire, with rest-houses built for travelers and a total of 102 hospitals established across his realm. After the death of Jayavarman VII, his son Indravarman II (reigned 1219–1243) ascended to the throne. Like his father, he was a Buddhist, and he completed a series of temples begun under his father's rule. As
9328-585: The same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Prasat . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prasat&oldid=1254439530 " Categories : Disambiguation pages Place name disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Articles containing Khmer-language text Articles containing Thai-language text Articles containing Sanskrit-language text Short description
9434-430: The structure of the temple. A gopura is an entrance building. At Angkor , passage through the enclosure walls surrounding a temple compound is frequently accomplished by means of an impressive gopura, rather than just an aperture in the wall or a doorway. Enclosures surrounding a temple are often constructed with a gopura at each of the four cardinal points . In plan, gopuras are usually cross-shaped and elongated along
9540-429: The structures ceasing to be built, but the Khmer's historical inscription was also lacking from the 14th to 17th centuries. With this lack of historical content, there is very limited archaeological evidence to work with. However, archaeologists have been able to determine that the sites were abandoned and then reoccupied later by different people. The Ayutthaya Kingdom arose from a confederation of three city-states on
9646-560: The text also offers valuable information on the everyday life and habits of the inhabitants of Angkor. By the 14th century, Kambuja had suffered a long, arduous, and steady decline. Historians have proposed different causes for the decline: the religious conversion from Vishnuite-Shivaite Hinduism to Theravada Buddhism that affected social and political systems, incessant internal power struggles among Khmer princes, vassal revolt, foreign invasion, plague, and ecological breakdown. For social and religious reasons, many aspects contributed to
9752-439: The throne (reigned 944–968) was the royal palace returned to Yasodharapura. He once again took up the extensive building schemes of the earlier kings and established a series of Hindu temples in the Angkor area, such as Pre Rup and the East Mebon , a temple located on an artificial island in the center of the East Baray. Several Buddhist temples and monasteries were also built. In 950, the first war took place between Kambuja and
9858-595: The throne by taking the capital Angkor. His rule was marked by repeated attempts by his opponents to overthrow him and military conflicts with neighboring kingdoms. Suryavarman I established diplomatic relations with the Chola dynasty of south India early in his rule. In the first decade of the 11th century, Kambuja came into conflict with the kingdom of Tambralinga in the Malay Peninsula . After surviving several invasions from his enemies, Suryavarman requested aid from
9964-421: The trade and economy of Kambuja suggests that they enjoyed significant rights and freedom. Their practice of marrying early may have contributed to the high fertility rate and huge population of the kingdom. Kambuja was founded upon extensive networks of agricultural rice farming communities. A distinct settlement hierarchy is present in the region. Small villages were clustered around regional centres, such as
10070-473: The underlying layers of Angkor Wat and other temples (especially the larger ones), because it can absorb water and help towards better stability of the Temple. The central sanctuary of an Angkorian temple was home to the temple's primary deity, the one to whom the site was dedicated: typically Shiva or Vishnu in the case of a Hindu temple, Buddha or a bodhisattva in the case of a Buddhist temple. The deity
10176-521: The water management system. Periods of drought led to decreases in agricultural productivity, and violent floods due to monsoons damaged the infrastructure during this vulnerable time. To adapt to the growing population, trees were cut down from the Kulen hills and cleared out for more rice fields. That created rain runoff carrying sediment to the canal network. Any damage to the water system would have enormous consequences. The plague theory, which suggests
10282-547: The wood elements having been lost to decay and other destructive processes. The earliest Angkorian temples were made mainly of brick. Good examples are the temple towers of Preah Ko , Lolei and Bakong at Hariharalaya , and Chóp Mạt in Tay Ninh . Decorations were usually carved into a stucco applied to the brick, rather than into the brick itself. This was because bricks were a softer material, and did not lend themselves to sculpting, as opposed to stones of different kinds such as
10388-462: Was a Khmer innovation. In modern descriptions of Angkorian temples, the term "apsara" is sometimes used to refer not only to dancers but also to other minor female deities, though minor female deities who are depicted standing rather than dancing are more commonly called " devatas ". Apsaras and devatas are ubiquitous at Angkor , but are most common in the foundations of the 12th century. Depictions of true (dancing) apsaras are found, for example, in
10494-503: Was a follower of Theravada Buddhism , a school of Buddhism that had arrived in Southeast Asia from Sri Lanka and subsequently spread through most of the region. In August 1296, the Chinese diplomat Zhou Daguan arrived in Angkor and recorded, "In the recent war with the Siamese, the country was utterly devastated". He remained at the court of Srindravarman until July 1297. He was neither
10600-565: Was also a problem, which may have caused residents to migrate southward and away from the empire's major cities. The site of Angkor is perhaps the empire's most notable legacy, as it was the capital during the empire's zenith. The majestic monuments of Angkor, such as Angkor Wat and the Bayon , bear testimony to the Khmer Empire's immense power and wealth, impressive art and culture, architectural technique, aesthetic achievements, and variety of belief systems that it patronized over time. Satellite imaging has revealed that Angkor, during its peak in
10706-481: Was built on Phnom Bakheng , a hill which rises around 60 m above the plain on which Angkor sits. The East Baray , a massive water reservoir measuring 7.1 by 1.7 kilometres (4.4 by 1.1 mi), was also created under the reign of Yasovarman I. At the beginning of the 10th century, the empire fractured. Jayavarman IV moved the capital to Lingapura (now known as Koh Ker ), some 100 kilometres (62 mi) northeast of Angkor. Only when Rajendravarman II ascended to
10812-594: Was criticized by modern scholars such as Claude Jacques and Michael Vickery, who noted that the Khmer used the term chvea to describe the Chams , their neighbors to the east. But in 2013 Arlo Griffiths refuted these theories and convincingly demonstrated that in almost all cases the inscriptions mention Java they refer to the island of Java in the Indonesian archipelago. Jayavarman's political career began in Vyadhapura (likely
10918-621: Was not a tyrannical ruler in the manner of his immediate predecessors. He unified the empire and carried out noteworthy building projects. The new capital, now called Angkor Thom ( lit. ' great city ' ), was built. In the center, the king (himself a follower of Mahayana Buddhism) had constructed as the state temple the Bayon, with towers bearing faces of the boddhisattva Avalokiteshvara , each several meters high, carved out of stone. Further important temples built under Jayavarman VII were Ta Prohm for his mother, Preah Khan for his father, Banteay Kdei , and Neak Pean , as well as
11024-437: Was represented by a statue (or in the case of Shiva , most commonly by a linga ). Since the temple was not considered a place of worship for use by the population at large, but rather a home for the deity, the sanctuary needed only to be large enough to hold the statue or linga; it was never more than a few metres across. Its importance was instead conveyed by the height of the tower ( prasat ) rising above it, by its location at
11130-449: Was sandstone, obtained from the Kulen mountains . Since its obtainment was considerably more expensive than that of brick, sandstone only gradually came into use, and at first was used for particular elements such as door frames. The 10th-century temple of Ta Keo is the first Angkorian temple to be constructed more or less entirely from Sandstone. Angkorian builders used laterite, a clay that
11236-487: Was to the south. At the court of Jayavarman V lived philosophers, scholars, and artists. New temples were also established; the most important of these were Banteay Srei , considered one of the most beautiful and artistic of Angkor, and Ta Keo, the first temple of Angkor built completely of sandstone . A decade of conflict followed the death of Jayavarman V. Three kings reigned simultaneously as antagonists to each other until Suryavarman I (reigned 1006–1050) ascended to
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