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121-626: The Transcendent Wisdom of the Prajanaparamita also transcends any single vehicle (yana) of Buddhist philosophy, as explained in the "Heart Sutra" through the replies Avalokiteshvara gives to Shariputra 's question of how should sons and daughters of noble qualities practice the Prajnaparamita: "All the Buddhas of the three times by relying on the Prajnaparamita Awaken completely To

242-465: A + īśvara becomes eśvara . Combined, the parts mean "lord who gazed down (at the world)". The word loka ("world") is absent from the name, but the phrase is implied. It does appear in the Cambodian form of the name, Lokesvarak . The earliest translation of the name Avalokiteśvara into Chinese by authors such as Xuanzang was as Guānzìzài ( Chinese : 觀自在 ; pinyin : Guān zìzài ), not

363-406: A Bodhisattva does "not stand" on include standard listings such as: the five aggregates , the sense fields ( ayatana ), nirvana , Buddhahood , etc. This is explained by stating that Bodhisattvas "wander without a home" ( aniketacārī ); "home" or "abode" meaning signs ( nimitta , meaning a subjective mental impression) of sensory objects and the afflictions that arise dependent on them. This includes

484-515: A Buddha from countless previous incarnations ago, alias Samyaka Dharma-vidya Tathāgata means "Tathāgata who clearly understood the right Dharma". Because of his great compassion and because he wanted to create proper conditions for all the Bodhisattva ranks and bring happiness and peacefulness to sentient beings, he became a Bodhisattva, taking the name of Avalokiteshvara and often abiding in the Sahā world. At

605-606: A Kalachakra initiation at this location in 2006, attended by over 100,000 pilgrims. Westerners were first alerted to the ruins of the Stupa at Amaravati after a visit in 1797 by Major Colin Mackenzie . On the right bank of the Krishna River in the Andhra district of southeast India , Mackenzie came across a huge Buddhist construction built of bricks and faced with slabs of limestone. By

726-727: A case for them to be moved. Elliot seems to have made extensive notes and sketches of his excavations, but most of these were lost getting back to England. By 1855, he had arranged for both photographs and drawings to be made of the artifacts, now called the Elliot Marbles . 75 photographs taken by Captain Linnaeus Tripe are now in the British Library. Many of the sculptures were exported to London in 1859, though more remained in Madras. Robert Sewell, under James Burgess , first Director of

847-607: A class by themselves and deservedly renowned throughout the world of Northern Buddhism. Both have been translated into many languages and have often been commented upon.". Jan Nattier argues the Heart Sutra to be an apocryphal text composed in China from extracts of the Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā and other texts c. 7th century. Red Pine, however, does not support Nattiers argument and believes the Heart Sutra to be of Indian origin. During

968-407: A compassionate bodhisattva who hears the cries of sentient beings and who works tirelessly to help those who call upon his name. A total of 33 different manifestations of Avalokiteśvara are described, including female manifestations, all to suit the minds of various beings. The chapter consists of both a prose and a verse section. This earliest source often circulates separately as its own sutra, called

1089-542: A dream or an illusion. Avalokiteshvara In Buddhism , Avalokiteśvara (meaning "the lord who looks down", IPA : / ˌ ʌ v əl oʊ k ɪ ˈ t eɪ ʃ v ər ə / ), also known as Lokeśvara ("Lord of the World") and Chenrezig (in Tibetan), is a tenth-level bodhisattva associated with great compassion ( mahakaruṇā ). He is often associated with Amitabha Buddha . Avalokiteśvara has numerous manifestations and

1210-780: A female form and is called Guanyin (also spelled Kwan Yin, Kuanyin, or Kwun Yum), "Hearing the Sounds of the World". In Japan, Guanyin is Kannon or Kanzeon; in Korea, Gwaneum ; and in Vietnam, Quan Am . Avalokiteśvara is worshipped as Nātha in Sri Lanka. The Tamil Buddhist tradition developed in Chola literature , such as Buddamitra's Virasoliyam , states that the Vedic sage Agastya learned Tamil from Avalokiteśvara. The earlier Chinese traveler Xuanzang recorded

1331-454: A lake, after construction of a dam. Many remains were relocated to what is now an island in the lake, but most sculptures are now in various museums, in India and abroad. The Chandavaram Buddhist site is another large stupa. In reliefs , the mature Amaravati style is characterised by crowded scenes of "graceful, elongated figures who imbue the sculpted scenes with a sense of life and action that

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1452-619: A result of the works of the earliest Western translators of Buddhist Scriptures, the Lotus Sutra, however, has long been accepted as the earliest literature teaching about the doctrines of Avalokiteśvara. These are found in Chapter 25 of the Lotus Sutra: The Universal Gate of Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara ( Chinese : 觀世音菩薩普門品 ; pinyin : Guānshìyīn púsà pǔ mén pǐn ). This chapter is devoted to Avalokiteśvara, describing him as

1573-536: A scene of worshippers around the Bodhi Tree with no Buddha shown, and 3rd century CE for the reverse face, with a view of a stupa, which large numbers of the later drum-slabs show. The stupas are broadly consistent and are generally taken to show what the late form of the Amaravati Stupa looked like, or was intended to. The early railing pillars are in granite (apparently only on the east and west sides) and plain;

1694-484: A symbol of Buddhism. Several of these have survived. There are also small pilasters at the side of some other reliefs, especially drum-slabs showing stupas. The stupas on drum-slabs show large statues of a standing Buddha behind the entrances, but none of these have survived. Only a few fragments from the garland decorations shown high on the dome in drum-slab stupa depictions (one in Chennai is illustrated). Amaravati itself

1815-667: A temple dedicated to Avalokitesvara in the south Indian Mount Potalaka , a Sanskritization of Pothigai , where Tamil Hindu tradition places Agastya as having learned the Tamil language from Shiva . Avalokitesvara worship gained popularity with the growth of the Abhayagiri vihāra 's Tamraparniyan Mahayana sect. Western scholars have not reached a consensus on the origin of the reverence for Avalokiteśvara. Some have suggested that Avalokiteśvara, along with many other supernatural beings in Buddhism,

1936-480: A translation by Amoghavajra (T. 1033, 20: 9b1–7): namoratnatrayāya | nama āryāvalokiteśvarāya bodhisattvāya mahāsattvāya mahākāruṇikāya | tadyathā padmapāṇi sara sara ehy ehi bhagavann āryāvalokiteśvara ārolik | In Chinese, oṃ ārolik svāha is pronounced Ǎn ālǔlēi jì suōpóhē (唵 阿嚕勒繼 娑婆訶). In Korean, it is pronounced Om aroreuk Ge Sabaha (옴 아로늑계 사바하). In Japanese, it is pronounced On arori kya sowa ka (おん あろりきゃ そわか). The Kāraṇḍavyūha Sūtra also features

2057-607: Is oṃ maṇi padme hūṃ hrīḥ. Hrīḥ is the seed syllable of the Lotus Buddha family and the Buddha Amitabha . Recitation of this mantra while using prayer beads is the most popular religious practice in Tibetan Buddhism. Another popular religious practice associated with om mani padme hum is the spinning of prayer wheels clockwise, which contains numerous repetitions of this mantra and effectively benefits everyone within

2178-656: Is "three and a half syllables" (ardhacaturthākṣara) heart-mantra: " oṃ ārolik svāha " (or sometimes just Ārolik or oṁ ārolik ), which is found (in many forms and variations like ārolika , arulika , etc.) in numerous pre-tenth-century Indian texts, including the 7th century Chinese translation of the Dhāraṇīsaṁgraha , the Susiddhikarasūtra , the Mañjuśriyamūlakalpa , and the Guhyasamājatantra . This

2299-593: Is a "peculiarly characteristic" large fold at the bottom of the robe, one of a number of features similar to the Kushan art of the north. From the 19th century, it was always thought that the stupa was built under the Satavahana dynasty , rulers of the Deccan whose territories eventually straddled both east and west coasts. However, this did not resolve the dating issues, as the dates of that dynasty were uncertain, especially at

2420-558: Is a central concept in Mahāyāna Buddhism and is generally associated with ideas such as emptiness ( śūnyatā ), 'lack of svabhāva ' ( essence ), the illusory ( māyā ) nature of things, how all phenomena are characterized by "non-arising" ( anutpāda , i.e. unborn) and the madhyamaka thought of Nāgārjuna . Its practice and understanding are taken to be indispensable elements of the Bodhisattva path. According to Edward Conze ,

2541-427: Is a middle way, it is neither apprehended as existent ( astitā ) or non-existent ( nāstitā ) and it is "immutable" ( avikāra ) and "free from conceptualization" ( avikalpa ). The Bodhisattva is said to generate "great compassion" ( maha- karuṇā ) for all beings on their path to liberation and yet also maintain a sense of equanimity ( upekṣā ) and distance from them through their understanding of emptiness, due to which,

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2662-574: Is a ruined Buddhist stūpa at the village of Amaravathi, Palnadu district , Andhra Pradesh , India, probably built in phases between the third century BCE and about 250 CE. It was enlarged and new sculptures replaced the earlier ones, beginning in about 50 CE. The site is under the protection of the Archaeological Survey of India , and includes the stūpa itself and the Archaeological Museum. The surviving important sculptures from

2783-773: Is almost exclusively Theravada , based on the Pali Canon. The only Mahayana deity that has entered the worship of ordinary Buddhists in Theravada Buddhism is Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara . In Sri Lanka, he is known as Natha-deva and is mistaken by the majority for the Buddha yet to come, Bodhisattva Maitreya . The figure of Avalokitesvara is usually found in the shrine room near the Buddha image. In more recent times, some western-educated Theravādins have attempted to identify Nātha with Maitreya Bodhisattva; however, traditions and basic iconography (including an image of Amitābha Buddha on

2904-624: Is also an important figure in other East Asian religions , particularly Chinese folk religion and Daoism . Avalokiteśvara is also known for his popular mantra , oṃ maṇi padme hūṃ , which is the most popular mantra in Tibetan Buddhism . The name Avalokiteśvara combines the verbal prefix ava "down", lokita , a past participle of the verb lok "to look, notice, behold, observe", here used in an active sense, and finally īśvara , "lord", "ruler", "sovereign", or "master". In accordance with sandhi (Sanskrit rules of sound combination),

3025-497: Is also associated with Sarvajñata (all-knowledge) in the Prajñāpāramitā sutras, a quality of the mind of a Buddha which knows the nature of all dharmas. According to Karl Brunnholzl, Prajñāpāramitā means that "all phenomena from form up through omniscience being utterly devoid of any intrinsic characteristics or nature of their own." Furthermore, "such omniscient wisdom is always nonconceptual and free from reference points since it

3146-619: Is also the first extant translation of the Prajñāpāramitā genre into a non-Indic language. Comparison with the standard Sanskrit text shows that it is also likely to be a translation from Gāndhāri as it expands on many phrases and provides glosses for words that are not present in the Gāndhārī. This points to the text being composed in Gāndhārī, the language of Gandhara (the region now called the Northwest Frontier of Pakistan, including Peshawar , Taxila and Swat Valley ). The "Split" manuscript

3267-895: Is also the main mantra for the bodhisattva in Shingon Buddhism and is considered to be the main mantra of the Lotus Buddha family . One text (Taisho Tripitaka no. 1031) describes a visualization practice done after reciting oṁ ārolik svāhā seven times which includes meditating on the meanings of the four letters of ārolik which are: The Ārolik mantra has also been found engraved on a few sculptures found in north India . One of these begins with "ārolik oṁ hrīḥ". Another one of these found in Bihar also included other mantras, including ye dharma hetu , followed by "namo ratnatrayāya namo Āryāvalokiteśvarāya bodhisatvāya mahāsatvāya mahākāruṇikāya Ārolok Oṁ hriḥ hriḥ". Another longer mantra appears in

3388-539: Is also the origin of Guanyin "perceiving sound, cries". This translation was favored by the tendency of some Chinese translators, notably Kumārajīva , to use the variant Guānshìyīn Chinese : 觀世音 ; pinyin : Guānshìyīn "who perceives the world's lamentations"—wherein lok was read as simultaneously meaning both "to look" and "world" (Sanskrit loka ; Chinese : 世 ; pinyin : shì ). The original form of Guanyin's name appears in Sanskrit fragments from

3509-1239: Is as follows: 南無 大慈 大悲 救苦 救難 廣大 靈感 觀世音 菩薩 (Námó dàcí dàbēi jiùkǔ jiùnàn guǎngdà línggǎn Guānshìyīn púsà) English: Homage to Guanyin Bodhisattva [who is] loving, compassionate and powerful, delivering sentient beings from unhappiness and hardship. 南無佛南無法南無僧 (Námó Fó Námó Fǎ Námó Sēng, Homage to the Buddha, Homage to the Dharma, Homage to the Sangha) 南無 救苦 救難 觀世音 菩薩 (Námó jiùkǔ jiùnàn Guānshìyīn púsà) English: Homage to Guanyin Bodhisattva who delivers sentient beings from unhappiness and hardship 怛垤哆唵 伽囉伐哆伽囉伐哆伽訶佛哆 囉伽佛哆囉伽佛哆娑婆訶 (DA ZHI DUO ONG QIE LA FA DUO QIE LA FA DUO QIE HE FA DUO LA QIE FA DUO LA QIE FA DUO SA PO HE) Sanskrit Mantra: Tadyatha Om,  khara varta, khara varta,  gaha varta,  raga varta, raga varta,  Svaha 天羅神 地羅神 人離難 難離身 一切 災殃 化 為塵。 Tiān luó shén Dì luó shén Rén lí nán Nán lí shēn Yīqiè zāiyāng huà wéichén English: Heavenly deities and earthly deities, may people be free from difficulties, may their hardships disappear, may all disasters and calamities turn to dust. 南無 摩訶 般若波羅蜜 (Námó Móhē Bōrěbōluómi) Amar%C4%81vati Stupa Amarāvati Stupa

3630-550: Is depicted in various forms and styles. In some texts, he is even considered to be the source of all Hindu deities (such as Vishnu , Shiva , Saraswati , Brahma , etc). While Avalokiteśvara was depicted as male in India, in East Asian Buddhism , Avalokiteśvara is most often depicted as a female figure known as Guanyin , Kannon , Gwaneum , and Quan Am in Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese, respectively. Guanyin

3751-459: Is evidently a copy of an earlier text, though Falk and Karashima do not give an estimate on how old the original may be. In contrast to western scholarship, Japanese scholars have traditionally considered the Diamond Sūtra ( Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra ) to be from a very early date in the development of Prajñāpāramitā literature. The usual reason for this relative chronology which places

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3872-773: Is known for his translation of a massive Sanskrit collection of Prajñāpāramitā sutras called "the Xuánzàng Prajñāpāramitā Library" or "The Great Prajñāpāramitāsūtra" (般若 波羅蜜 多 經, pinyin: bōrě bōluómì duō jīng ). Xuánzàng returned to China with three copies of this Sanskrit work which he obtained in South India and his translation is said to have been based on these three sources. In total it includes 600 scrolls, with 5 million Chinese characters. This collection consists of 16 Prajñāpāramitā texts: A modern English translation: The Great Prajna Paramita Sutra (vols. 1 to 6) translated by Naichen Chen (Tucson: Wheatmark). In

3993-494: Is no Tathāgata. The suchness of these dharmas, and the suchness of the Tathāgatas, is all one single suchness ( ekaivaiṣā tathatā ), not two, not divided ( dvaidhīkāraḥ ). ... beyond all classification ( gaṇanāvyativṛttā ), due to non-existence ( asattvāt ). Suchness then does not come or go because like the other terms, it is not a real entity ( bhūta , svabhāva ), but merely appears conceptually through dependent origination , like

4114-470: Is not certain whether either the early or late phases of sculptural decoration were ever completed, as too much has been destroyed. Most survivals can be fitted into groups, by architectural function and placement. A typical "drum-slab" is about 124 centimetres high, 86 cm wide and 12.5 cm thick. A two-sided example in the British Museum is dated by them to the 1st century BCE for the obverse face, with

4235-571: Is one of the largest PP sutras, comprising three volumes of the Tibetan Kangyur (26-28). It was also one of the most important and popular PP sutras in India, seeing as how there are numerous Indian commentaries on this text, including commentaries by Vimuktisena, Haribhadra, Smṛtijñānakīrti, and Ratnakarashanti. The sutra also survives in the original Sanskrit, which was found in Gilgit . It also exists in four Chinese translations. According to Nattier,

4356-529: Is the constant and panoramic awareness of the nature of all phenomena and does not involve any shift between meditative equipoise and subsequent attainment." Edward Conze outlined several psychological qualities of a Bodhisattva's practice of Prajñāpāramitā: The Prajñāpāramitā sutras also teach of the importance of the other pāramitās (perfections) for the Bodhisattva such as Ksanti (patience): "Without resort to this patience (kṣānti) they [bodhisattvas] cannot reach their respective goals". Another quality of

4477-568: Is the main ideal in Mahayana (Great Vehicle), which sees the goal of the Buddhist path as becoming a Buddha for the sake of all sentient beings, not just yourself: A central quality of the Bodhisattva is their practice of Prajñāpāramitā, a most deep ( gambhīra ) state of knowledge which is an understanding of reality arising from analysis as well as meditative insight. It is non-conceptual and non-dual ( advaya ) as well as transcendental . Literally,

4598-481: Is the most important site for a distinct regional style, called the Amaravati School or style, or Andhran style. There are numerous other sites, many beyond the boundaries of the modern state of Andhra Pradesh. One reason for the use of the terms Amaravati School or style is that the actual find-spot of many Andhran pieces is uncertain or unknown. The early excavations at Amaravati itself were not well recorded, and

4719-457: Is unique in Indian art"; "decorative elements reach a suave richness never surpassed... In the narrative scenes, the deep cutting permits overlapping figures on two or even three planes, the figures appearing to be fully in the round. The superlative beauty of the individual bodies and the variety of poses, many realizing new possibilities of depicting the human form, as well as the swirling rhythms of

4840-509: Is widely chanted and recited by East Asian Buddhists is: Chinese: 南無觀世音菩薩 , Pinyin: Námó Guānshìyīn Púsà (Japanese: Namu Kanzeon Bosatsu ) In English: Homage to Guanyin Bodhisattva. There are also longer chants, usually termed "White Robed Guanyin" (Baiyin Guanyin) sutras (jing) or mantras (zhou). The most well known is the "Divine White-robed Guanyin Mantra" (c. 11th century). This longer mantra

4961-721: The Adhyardhaśatikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra (150 lines), the famous Heart Sutra ( Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya ), the Ekaślokikā prajñāpāramitā, Svalpākṣarā Prajñāpāramitā, Kauśikā Prajñāpāramitā, Saptaślokikā Prajñāpāramitā , the *Prajñāpāramitānāmāṣṭaśataka and the Candragarbha Prajñāpāramitā. Some of these sources, like the Svalpākṣarā, claim that simply reciting the dharanis found in the sutras are as beneficial as advanced esoteric Buddhist practices (with

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5082-640: The Gaṇḍavyūha Sūtra and Xuanzang's Great Tang Records on the Western Regions , is Mount Potigai in Ambasamudram , Tirunelveli , at the Tamil Nadu - Kerala border. Shu also said that Mount Potalaka has been a sacred place for the people of South India since time immemorial. It is the traditional residence of Siddhar Agastya at Agastya Mala . With the spread of Buddhism in the region beginning at

5203-648: The Mahāyānasaṃgraha , entitled Vivṛtaguhyārthapiṇḍavyākhyā ( A Condensed Explanation of the Revealed Secret Meaning, Derge No. 4052), lists eight Prajñāpāramitā sūtras which were "taught to bodhisattvas" and are seen as superior (from the Sravakayana sutras) because they are superior "in eliminating conceptually imaged forms". The eight texts are listed according to length and are the following: The Chinese scholar and translator Xuánzàng (玄奘, 602-664)

5324-491: The Archaeological Survey of India , made further excavations in the 1880s, recording his excavations in some detail with drawings and sketches but not in the detail that would now be expected. Plans have also been put in place to create a purpose built exhibition space for the sculptures still in India. Those marbles not in an air-conditioned store were said to show signs of damage from the atmosphere and salt. The Chennai museum has plans for an air-conditioned gallery to install

5445-672: The Avalokiteśvara Sūtra ( Chinese : 觀世音經 ; pinyin : Guānshìyīn jīng ), and is commonly recited or chanted at Buddhist temples in East Asia. When the Chinese monk Faxian traveled to Mathura in India around 400 CE, he wrote about monks presenting offerings to Avalokiteśvara. When Xuanzang traveled to India in the 7th century, he provided eyewitness accounts of Avalokiteśvara statues being venerated by devotees from all walks of life, from kings to monks to laypeople. In Chinese Buddhism and East Asia, Tangmi practices for

5566-540: The Aṣṭasāhasrikā . This view is taken in part by examining parallels between the two works, in which the Aṣṭasāhasrikā seems to represent the later or more developed position. According to Schopen, these works also show a shift in emphasis from an oral tradition ( Vajracchedikā ) to a written tradition ( Aṣṭasāhasrikā ). The Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā prajñāpāramitā Sūtra (T. Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa stong phrag nyi shu lnga pa ; C. Mohe bore boluomi jing , 摩訶般若波羅蜜經)

5687-575: The Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā is basically the Aṣṭasāhasrikā base text which has been "sliced" up and filled with other material, increasing the length of the text considerably. This process of expansion continued, culminating in the massive Śatasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra (100,000 lines), the largest of the PP sutras. According to Joseph Walser, there is evidence that the Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra (25,000 lines) and

5808-583: The Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā translated by Kumārajīva (344–413 CE). There are also later commentaries from Zen Buddhists on the Heart and Diamond sutra and Kūkai 's commentary (9th century) is the first-known Tantric commentary. The PP sutras were first brought to Tibet in the reign of Trisong Detsen (742-796) by scholars Jinamitra and Silendrabodhi and the translator Ye shes De. Tibetan Buddhist scholasticism generally studies

5929-598: The Tibetan Buddhist tradition, the Abhisamayālaṅkāra is traditionally said to be a commentary to seventeen Prajñāpāramitā (PP) source texts. These are seen as the most important PP sutras and they collectively known as the "Seventeen Mothers and Sons" (Wyl. yum sras bcu bdun ). The Six Mothers are: The Eleven Sons are: In the Prajñāpāramitā section of the Kangyur , there are also other Prajñāpāramitā sutras besides

6050-554: The Vajracchedikā earlier is not its date of translation, but rather a comparison of the contents and themes. Some western scholars also believe that the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra was adapted from the earlier Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra . Examining the language and phrases used in both the Aṣṭasāhasrikā and the Vajracchedikā , Gregory Schopen also sees the Vajracchedikā as being earlier than

6171-418: The chiastic structures of the text that the entire sūtra may have been composed as a single whole (with a few additions added on the core chapters). A number of scholars have proposed that the Mahāyāna Prajñāpāramitā teachings were first developed by the Caitika subsect of the Mahāsāṃghikas . They believe that the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra originated amongst the southern Mahāsāṃghika schools of

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6292-402: The group in the British Museum in London. Others are given below. Art historians regard the art of Amaravati as one of the three major styles or schools of ancient Indian art, the other two being the Mathura style, and the Gandharan style. Largely because of the maritime trading links of the East Indian coast, the Amaravati school or Andhra style of sculpture, seen in a number of sites in

6413-567: The stūpa simply as the deepaladimma or 'hill of lights'. The monument was not called a stūpa in ancient inscriptions, but rather the mahācetiya or great sanctuary. The stupa, or mahāchetiya , was possibly founded in the third century BCE in the time of Asoka but there is no decisive evidence for the date of foundation. The earliest inscription from the site belongs to the early centuries BCE but it cannot be assigned to Aśoka with certainty. The earliest phase from which we have architectural or sculpted remains seems to be post-Mauryan, from

6534-569: The stūpa . In the early period (circa 200-100 BCE), the stūpa had a simple railing consisting of granite pillars, with plain cross-bars, and coping stones. The coping stones with youths and animal reliefs, the early drum slabs, and some other early fragments belong to this period. The stūpa must have been fairly large at this time, considering the size of the granite pillars (some of which are still seen in situ , following excavations). The late period of construction started around ca. 50 BCE and continued until circa 250 CE. The exterior surfaces of

6655-425: The vedika railings and gateways surrounding it, making Amaravati "the most richly decorated stupa known". The final form of the railings had a diameter of 192 feet. The railing uprights were some 9 feet high, with three rounded cross-bars horizontally between them, and a coping at the top. Both uprights and cross-bars were decorated with round medallion or tondo reliefs, the latter slightly larger, and containing

6776-406: The Āndhra region, along the Kṛṣṇa River . These Mahāsāṃghikas had two famous monasteries near Amarāvati Stupa and Dhānyakataka , which gave their names to the Pūrvaśaila and Aparaśaila schools. Each of these schools had a copy of the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra in Prakrit . Guang Xing also assesses the view of the Buddha given in the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra as being that of

6897-409: The Śatasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra (100,000 lines) have a connection with the Dharmaguptaka sect, while the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra (8,000 lines) does not. Other PP texts were also composed which were much shorter and had a more independent structure from the Aṣṭasāhasrikā. Regarding the shorter PP texts, Conze writes, "two of these, the Diamond Sūtra and the Heart Sūtra are in

7018-431: The 18-armed form of Avalokiteśvara called Cundī are very popular. The popularity of Cundī is attested by the three extant translations of the Cundī Dhāraṇī Sūtra from Sanskrit to Chinese, made from the end of the seventh century to the beginning of the eighth century. In late imperial China , these early esoteric traditions still thrived in Buddhist communities. Robert Gimello has also observed that in these communities,

7139-416: The 2nd century BCE. The main construction phases of Amaravati fall in two main periods, with the stupa enlarged in the second by additions to the main solid earth mound, faced with brick, consisting of railings ( vedikā ) and carved slabs placed around the stūpa proper. As elsewhere these slabs are usually called 'drum slabs' because they were placed round the vertical lower part or "drum" ( tholobate ) of

7260-479: The Bodhisattva is their freedom from fear ( na vtras ) in the face of the seemingly shocking doctrine of the emptiness of all dharmas which includes their own existence. A good friend ( kalyanamitra ) is useful in the path to fearlessness. Bodhisattvas also have no pride or self-conception ( na manyeta ) of their own stature as Bodhisattvas. These are important features of the mind of a bodhisattva, called bodhicitta . The Prajñāpāramitā sutras also mention that bodhicitta

7381-425: The Bodhisattva knows that even after bringing countless beings to nirvana, "no living being whatsoever has been brought to nirvana." Bodhisattvas and Mahāsattvas are also willing to give up all of their meritorious deeds for sentient beings and develop skillful means ( upaya ) in order to help abandon false views and teach them the Dharma. The practice of Prajñāpāramitā allows a Bodhisattva to become: "a saviour of

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7502-400: The Buddha himself is not shown, as also in other Indian schools . Unlike other major sites, minor differences in the depiction of narratives show that the exact textual sources used remain unclear, and have probably not survived. Especially in the later period at Amaravati itself, the main relief scenes are "a sort of 'court art'", showing a great interest in scenes of court life "reflecting

7623-468: The Buddha under whom Dharmakara became a monk and made forty-eight vows before becoming Amitābha . Avalokiteśvara's six armed manifestation as Cintāmaṇicakra is also widely venerated in East Asia. The Cintāmaṇicakra Dharani ( Chinese : 如意寶輪王陀羅尼 ; pinyin : Rúyì Bǎolún Wáng Tuóluóní ) is another popular dharani associated with the bodhisattva. There are various mantras and dharanis associated with Avalokiteśvara. In Tibetan Buddhism ,

7744-429: The Chinese monk Zhu Zixing , who brought back a manuscript of the Prajñāpāramitā of 25,000 lines: When in 260 AD, the Chinese monk Zhu Zixing chose to go to Khotan in an attempt to find original Sanskrit sūtras , he succeeded in locating the Sanskrit Prajñāpāramitā in 25,000 verses, and tried to send it to China. In Khotan, however, there were numerous Hīnayānists who attempted to prevent it because they regarded

7865-440: The Great Compassion Mantra. It is very popular in East Asian Buddhism . Another popular Avalokiteśvara dharani in East Asian Buddhism is Eleven-Faced Avalokitesvara Heart Dharani . This dharani is associated with Avalokiteśvara's eleven face form, known as Ekādaśamukha , one of the six forms of Guanyin. In East Asian Buddhism, the most popular form of Avalokiteśvara is the feminine white robed Guanyin . A common phrase which

7986-413: The Mahāsāṃghikas. Edward Conze estimates that this sūtra originated around 100 BCE. In 2012, Harry Falk and Seishi Karashima published a damaged and partial Kharoṣṭhī manuscript of the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā . It is very similar to the first Chinese translation of the Aṣṭasāhasrikā by Lokakṣema (ca. 179 CE) whose source text is assumed to be in the Gāndhārī language ; Lokakṣema's translation

8107-407: The PP literature developed in nine stages: (1) An urtext similar to the first two chapters of the Sanskrit Ratnagunasaṃcaya Gāthā; (2) Chapters 3 to 28 of the Ratnagunasaṃcaya are composed, along with the prose of the Aṣṭasāhasrikā . This base text was further expanded with (3) material from the Abhidharma , and (4) concessions to the "Buddhism of Faith" (referring to Pure Land references in

8228-467: The PP sutras through the Abhisamayālaṅkāra and its numerous commentaries. The focus on the Abhisamayālaṅkāra is particularly pronounced in the Gelug school, who according to Georges Dreyfus "take the Ornament as the central text for the study of the path" and "treat it as a kind of Buddhist encyclopedia, read in the light of commentaries by Je Dzong-ka-ba , Gyel-tsap Je , and the authors of manuals [monastic textbooks]." An Indian commentary on

8349-434: The Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras are "a collection of about forty texts ... composed somewhere on the Indian subcontinent between approximately 100 BC and AD 600." Some Prajnāpāramitā sūtras are thought to be among the earliest Mahāyāna sūtras . Western scholars have traditionally considered the earliest sūtra in the Prajñāpāramitā class to be the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra or "Perfection of Wisdom in 8,000 Lines", which

8470-451: The Satavahanas and before the Gupta Empire , in the 3rd and early 4th centuries, perhaps starting 325-340. This album of drawings of Amarāvati is a landmark in the history of archaeology in India. The pictures were made in 1816 and 1817 by a team of military surveyors and draftsmen under the direction of Colonel Colin Mackenzie (1757-1821), the first Surveyor-General of India. The album contains maps, plans and drawings of sculpture from

8591-456: The World"). In Tibetan , Avalokiteśvara is Chenrézig ( Tibetan : སྤྱན་རས་གཟིགས་ ). The etymology of the Tibetan name Chenrézik is spyan "eye", ras "continuity", and gzig "to look". This gives the meaning of one who always looks upon all beings (with the eye of compassion). The name Avalokiteśvara first appeared in the Avatamsaka Sutra , a Mahayana scripture that precedes the Lotus Sutra . On account of its popularity in Japan and as

8712-416: The absence, the "not taking up" ( aparigṛhīta ) of even "correct" mental signs and perceptions such as "form is not self", "I practice Prajñāpāramitā", etc. To be freed of all constructions and signs, to be signless ( animitta ) is to be empty of them and this is to stand in Prajñāpāramitā. The Prajñāpāramitā sutras state that all Buddhas and Bodhisattvas in the past have practiced Prajñāpāramitā. Prajñāpāramitā

8833-567: The area around the stupa and excavated near the west gate of the railing, removing many sculptures to Madras (now Chennai). They were kept outside the local college before being transported to the Madras Museum . At this time India was run by the East India Company and it was to that company that the curator of the museum appealed. The curator Dr Edward Balfour was concerned that the artefacts were deteriorating so in 1853 he started to raise

8954-412: The base the dome seems to have been brought out by 2.4 metres all round, the distance between the outer face of the old drum wall, and that of the new one. The older wall was 2.4 metres thick and the new one 1.2 metres. The size and shape of the new dome is uncertain. The earlier vedika railings were also replaced with larger ones, with more sculpture. Some of the old stones were recycled elsewhere on

9075-619: The central mantra is the six-syllable mantra oṃ maṇi padme hūṃ ( Sanskrit : ॐ मणि पद्मे हूँ , also called the Mani mantra. Due to his association with this mantra, one form of Avalokiteśvara is called Ṣaḍākṣarī ("Lord of the Six Syllables") in Sanskrit . The Mani mantra is also popular in East Asian Mahayana . There are also different variations of the mani mantra, the most common which

9196-499: The cross-bars were perhaps in limestone. Many stumps of the pillars are now arranged around the stupa. Fragments have been found of limestone coping stones, some with reliefs of running youths and animals, similar in style to those at Bharhut , so perhaps from c. 150-100 BCE. This subject-matter continued in the coping stones of the first phase of the later railings. The later "railing copings" (uṣṇīṣa) are long pieces typically about 75 to 90 cm tall and 20 to 28 cm thick, running along

9317-508: The crown of early Indian art". The name Amaravathi is relatively modern, having been applied to the town and site after the Amareśvara Liṅgasvāmin temple was built in the eighteenth century. The ancient settlement, just next to the modern Amaravathi village, is now called Dharanikota ; this was a significant place in ancient times, probably a capital city. The oldest maps and plans, drawn by Colin Mackenzie and dated 1816, label

9438-467: The development of East Asian Mādhyamaka and on Chinese Buddhism . Xuanzang (fl. c. 602–664) was a Chinese scholar who traveled to India and returned to China with three copies of the Mahāprajñāpāramitā Sūtra which he had secured from his extensive travels. Xuanzang, with a team of disciple translators, commenced translating the voluminous work in 660 CE using the three versions to ensure

9559-403: The drum. The earlier sculptures, now invisible and facing into the stupa, were often badly abraded or worn down in this position. In the final form of the stupa, it seems that all the sculpture of the early phase was eventually replaced, and new sculpture added in positions where there had been none before, giving a profusion of sculpture, both relief and free-standing, on the stupa itself, and

9680-513: The esoteric practices of Cundī were extremely popular among both the populace and the elite. In the Tiantai school, six forms of Avalokiteśvara are defined. Each of the bodhisattva's six qualities is said to break the hindrances in one of the six realms of existence: hell-beings, pretas , animals, humans, asuras , and devas . According to the prologue of Nīlakaṇṭha Dhāraṇī Sūtra, Gautama Buddha told his disciple Ānanda that Avalokiteśvara had become

9801-412: The famous torana gateways; these do not seem to have been a feature at Amaravati. Very little of the sculpture was found and properly recorded in its original exact location, but the broad arrangement of the different types of pieces is generally agreed. The many representations of a stupa, either representing the Amaravati Stupa itself, or an imaginary one very similar to it, provide a useful guide. It

9922-398: The fifth century. This earlier Sanskrit name was supplanted by the form containing the ending -īśvara "lord", but Avalokiteśvara did not occur in Sanskrit before the seventh century. The original meaning of the name fits the Buddhist understanding of the role of a bodhisattva. The reinterpretation presenting him as an īśvara shows a strong influence of Hinduism , as the term īśvara

10043-511: The first appearance of the dhāraṇī of Cundī , which occurs at the end of the sūtra text. After the bodhisattva finally attains samādhi with the mantra "oṃ maṇipadme hūṃ", he is able to observe 77 koṭīs of fully enlightened buddhas replying to him in one voice with the Cundī Dhāraṇī: namaḥ saptānāṃ samyaksaṃbuddha koṭīnāṃ tadyathā, oṃ cale cule cunde svāhā. The Nīlakaṇṭha Dhāraṇī is an 82-syllable dhāraṇī for Avalokiteśvara also known as

10164-419: The form used in East Asian Buddhism today, which is Guanyin ( Chinese : 觀音 ; pinyin : Guānyīn ). It was initially thought that this was due to a lack of fluency, as Guanyin indicates the original Sanskrit form was instead Avalokitasvara , "who looked down upon sound", i.e. , the cries of sentient beings who need help. It is now understood that Avalokitasvara was the original form and

10285-555: The front of the crown) identify Nātha as Avalokiteśvara. Andrew Skilton writes: ... It is clear from sculptural evidence alone that the Mahāyāna was fairly widespread throughout Sri Lanka, although the modern account of the history of Buddhism on the island presents an unbroken and pure lineage of Theravāda. (One can only assume that similar trends were transmitted to other parts of Southeast Asia with Sri Lankan ordination lineages.) Relics of an extensive cult of Avalokiteśvara can be seen in

10406-604: The full ritual panoply of mandalas and abhiseka ). These scriptures may have been recited in esoteric rituals and two of them remain in widespread use today : Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya (commonly recited throughout Asia by Buddhists) and the Adhyardhaśatikā (an widely recited text in Shingon Buddhism) . By the middle of the 3rd century CE, it appears that some Prajñāpāramitā texts were known in Central Asia , as reported by

10527-516: The great limestone railing. Shimada dates the first phase to 50-1 BCE, about the same period as the Sanchi stūpa I gateways. The second phase is 50-100 CE, the same period as Karli chaitya and the Pandavleni Caves (no. 3 and 10) at Nasik . The third phase is circa 200-250 CE based on comparisons with Nagarjunakonda sculpture. Some other types of sculpture belong to an even later time, about

10648-435: The helpless, a defender of the defenceless, a refuge to those without refuge, a place to rest to those without resting place, the final relief of those who are without it, an island to those without one, a light to the blind, a guide to the guideless, a resort to those without one and....guide to the path those who have lost it, and you shall become a support to those who are without support." Tathātā (Suchness or Thusness) and

10769-521: The integrity of the source documentation. Xuanzang was being encouraged by a number of the disciple translators to render an abridged version. After a suite of dreams quickened his decision, Xuanzang determined to render an unabridged, complete volume, faithful to the original of 600 fascicles. An important PP text in East Asian Buddhism is the Dazhidulun (大智度論, T no. 1509), a massive commentary on

10890-490: The later Gupta dynasty end in that). They perhaps began to rule around 20 BCE. Their coins nearly all have a standing lion, often with symbols that are very likely Buddhist. Shimada suggests that much or most of the sculpture at Amaravati was created under Sada rule, before the Satavahanas took over in the 2nd century CE, possibly around 100 CE. At the later end of the chronology, the local Andhra Ikshvaku ruled after

11011-478: The later phase of Indian Buddhism, Tāntric Prajñāpāramitā texts were produced from the 8th century upt to 11th century CE. These later esoteric Prajñāpāramitā sutras are generally short texts which contain mantras and/or dhāraṇīs and also reference esoteric Buddhist ( Mantrayana ) ideas. They often promote simple practices based on recitation which lead to the accumulation of merit and help one reach awakening. Esoteric Prajñāpāramitā sutras include texts such as

11132-419: The luxurious life of the upper class, rich, and engaged in the vibrant trade with many parts of India and the wider world, including Rome". Free-standing statues are mostly of the standing Buddha, wearing a monastic robe "organized in an ordered rhythm of lines undulating obliquely across the body and imparting a feeling of movement as well as reinforcing the swelling expansiveness of the form beneath". There

11253-449: The massed compositions, all combine to produce some of the most glorious reliefs in world art". Though the subject matter is similar to that at Bharhut and Sanchi "the style is notably different. Compared with the northern works, their figures are more attenuated and sensual, their decoration more abundant. Empty space is anathema, so that the entire surface is filled with figures in motion". In earlier phases, before about 180-200 CE,

11374-486: The most impressive surviving sculpture. Large numbers of the medallions contained just a single stylized lotus flower. The vedika had four entrances, at the cardinal directions, and here the railings turned to run away from the stupa. All this is much the same as at Sanchi , the surviving highly decorated stupa that is in the closest to its original condition. But the Sanchi railings have much less decoration, except around

11495-490: The perfect, unsurpassable enlightenment." Prajñāpāramitā may also refer to the female deity Prajñāpāramitā Devi , a samboghakaya Buddha of transcendental wisdom also known as the "Great Mother" (Tibetan: Yum Chenmo ) who was widely depicted in Asian Buddhist art . The word Prajñāpāramitā combines the Sanskrit words prajñā "wisdom" (or "knowledge") with pāramitā "perfection" or " transcendent ". Prajñāpāramitā

11616-457: The present-day figure of Nātha. Avalokiteśvara is popularly worshipped in Myanmar , where he is called Lokanat or lokabyuharnat, and Thailand , where he is called Lokesvara . The bodhisattva goes by many other names. In Indochina and Thailand, he is Lokesvara , "The Lord of the World". In Tibet, he is Chenrezig , also spelled Spyan-ras gzigs, "With a Pitying Look". In China, the bodhisattva takes

11737-557: The region, had great influence on art in South India, Sri Lanka and South-East Asia . Like other major early Indian stupas, but to an unusual extent, the Amaravarti sculptures include several representations of the stupa itself, which although they differ, partly reflecting the different stages of building, give a good idea of its original appearance, when it was for some time "the greatest monument in Buddhist Asia", and "the jewel in

11858-591: The related term Dharmatā (the nature of Dharma), and Tathāgata are also important terms of the Prajñāpāramitā texts. To practice Prajñāpāramitā means to practice in accord with 'the nature of Dharma' and to see the Tathāgata (i.e. the Buddha). As the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra states, these terms are generally used equivalently: "As the suchness ( tathatā ) of dharmas is immovable ( acalitā ), and

11979-549: The same time, Avalokiteśvara is also the attendant of Amitabha Buddha, assisting Amitabha Buddha to teach the Dharma in his Pure Land. Veneration of Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva has continued to the present day in Sri Lanka . In times past, both Tantrayana and Mahayana have been found in some of the Theravada countries, but today the Buddhism of Sri Lanka (formerly, Ceylon), Myanmar (formerly, Burma), Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia

12100-413: The sculptures, but these goals have yet to be realised. The history of the sculptures for the stupa is complicated and scholarly understanding of it is still developing. The subject matter of many detailed narrative reliefs is still unidentified, and many reliefs of the first main phase round the drum were turned round in the second, and recarved on their previously plain backs, before being re-mounted on

12221-496: The seventeen Mothers and Sons: There are various Indian and later Chinese commentaries on the Prajñāpāramitā sutras, some of the most influential commentaries include: A key theme of the Prajñāpāramitā sutras is the figure of the Bodhisattva (literally: awakening-being) which is defined in the 8,000-line Prajñāpāramitā sutra as: A Bodhisattva is then a being that experiences everything "without attachment" ( asakti ) and sees reality or suchness ( Tathātā ) as it is. The Bodhisattva

12342-480: The seventh or eighth centuries, and include standing Bodhisattvas and goddesses. Amaravātī continued to be active after this time, probably to about the thirteenth century. The Chinese traveller and Buddhist monk Hiuen Tsang ( Xuanzang ) visited Amaravati in 640 CE, stayed for some time and studied the Abhidhammapitakam . He wrote a enthusiastic account of the place, and the viharas and monasteries there. It

12463-402: The sides facing in towards the stupa. There are three medallions to a column, the bottom one incomplete. Based on the style of the sculpture the construction of the later railing is usually divided into three phases, growing somewhat in size and the complexity of the images. Around the entrances there were a number of columns, pillars and pilasters , some topped with figures of sitting lions,

12584-565: The site are now in a number of museums in India and abroad; many are considerably damaged. The great majority of sculptures are in relief , and the surviving sculptures do not include very large iconic Buddha figures, although it is clear these once existed. The largest collections are the group in the Government Museum, Chennai (along with the friezes excavated from Goli ), that in the Amaravati Archaeological Museum, and

12705-437: The site. The pillars had mostly been plain, but there was a coping carved in relief at the top. Burgess estimated that the new railings were some 3 metres tall, 59 metres in diameter, with 136 pillars and 348 crossbars, running for 803 feet in total. The work of this period has generally been divided into three phases on the basis of the styles and content of the railing sculpture and so dates that can be assigned to parts of

12826-464: The start. Recently there has been more attention paid to the preceding local Sada dynasty, perhaps tributaries of the Mahameghavahana dynasty ruling Kalinga to the north. Their capital was probably Dhanyakataka ; the stupa was just outside this. Since the 1980s, the dynasty has been given this name as all the names of kings from it, known from coins and inscriptions, end in "-sada" (as all from

12947-411: The stupa and the railings were in effect all new, with the old elements reused or discarded. James Burgess in his book of 1887 on the site, noted that: wherever one digs at the back of the outer rail, broken slabs, statues &etc, are found jammed in behind it. The dark slate slabs too of the procession path are laid on a sort of concrete formed of marble chips, broken slabs, pillars &etc ... At

13068-512: The stūpa at Amarāvati. The album is preserved in the British Library , where it is online, with a second copy in Kolkata. Apart from those in the site museum (some of which are casts), nearly all of the sculptures have been removed from the site of the stupa. Some pieces, especially from the early granite railing pillars, and lotus flower medallions, are placed around the stupa itself. Apart from

13189-401: The subsequent history of many pieces is uncertain. As late as the 1920s and beyond, other sites were the subject of "excavations" that were sometimes little better than treasure hunts, with pieces sold abroad as "Amaravati School". The second most important site for the style is Nagarjunakonda , some 160 km away. This was a large monastic vihara or "university", which is now submerged under

13310-638: The suchness ( tathatā ) of dharmas is the Tathāgata ." The Tathāgata is said in the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra to "neither come nor go". Furthermore, the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra includes a list of synonyms associated with Tathāgata as also being "beyond coming and going", these include: 1. Suchness ( tathatā ); 2. Unarisen ( anutpāda ); 3. Reality limit ( bhūtakoṭi ); 4. Emptiness ("Śūnyatā"); 5. Division ( yathāvatta ); 6. Detachment ( virāga ); 7. Cessation ( nirodha ); 8. Space element ( ākāśadhātu ). The sutra then states: Apart from these dharmas, there

13431-606: The sūtra). This process led to (5) further expansion into larger PP sūtras as well as (6) contraction into the shorter sūtras (i.e. Diamond Sūtra , Heart Sūtra , down to the Prajñāpāramitā in One Letter ). This expanded corpus formed the basis for the (7) Indian PP Commentaries, (8) Tantric PP works and (9) Chinese Chan texts. Jan Nattier also defends the view that the Aṣṭasāhasrikā developed as various layers were added over time. However, Matthew Orsborn has recently argued, based on

13552-421: The term could be translated as "knowledge gone to the other (shore)", or transcendental knowledge. The Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra says: A further passage in the 8,000-line Prajñāpāramitā sutra states that Prajñāpāramitā means that a Bodhisattva stands in emptiness ( shunyata ) by not standing ( √sthā ) or supporting themselves on any dharma (phenomena), whether conditioned or unconditioned. The dharmas that

13673-688: The text as heterodox . Eventually, Zhu Zixing stayed in Khotan, but sent the manuscript to Luoyang where it was translated by a Khotanese monk named Mokṣala. In 296, the Khotanese monk Gītamitra came to Chang'an with another copy of the same text. In China, there was extensive translation of many Prajñāpāramitā texts beginning in the second century CE. The main translators include: Lokakṣema (支婁迦讖), Zhī Qīan (支謙), Dharmarakṣa (竺法護), Mokṣala (無叉羅), Kumārajīva (鳩摩羅什, 408 CE), Xuánzàng (玄奘), Făxián (法賢) and Dānapāla (施護). These translations were very influential in

13794-476: The time he returned in 1816, indiscriminate excavations led by the powerful local zamindar Vasireddy Venkatadri Nayudu had already destroyed what remained of the structure and many of the stones and bricks had been reused to build local houses. Mackenzie carried out further excavations, recorded what he saw and drew a plan of the stupa. In 1845, Sir Walter Elliot of the Madras Civil Service explored

13915-426: The time of the great king Aśoka in the third century BCE, it became a holy place also for Buddhists, who gradually became dominant as a number of their hermits settled there. The local people, though, mainly remained followers of the Tamil animist religion. The mixed Tamil-Buddhist cult culminated in the formation of the figure of Avalokiteśvara. The name Lokeśvara should not be confused with that of Lokeśvararāja ,

14036-561: The top of the railings (where perhaps their detail was hard to make out). Many are carved with crowded scenes, often illustrating Jataka tales from the previous lives of the Buddha. The early coping stones were smaller and mostly carved with a thick undulating garland with small figures within its curves. There was also a much smaller set of limestone railings, undecorated, whose placing and function remains unclear. The later ones, in limestone , are carved with round lotus medallions, and sometimes panels with figurative reliefs, these mostly on

14157-546: The vicinity of the practitioner. The connection between this famous mantra and Avalokiteśvara is documented for the first time in the Kāraṇḍavyūhasūtra . This text is dated to around the late 4th century CE to the early 5th century CE. In this sūtra, a bodhisattva is told by the Buddha that recitation of this mantra while focusing on the sound can lead to the attainment of eight hundred samādhis . Another mantra for Avalokiteśvara commonly recited in East Asian Buddhism

14278-420: Was a borrowing or absorption by Mahayana Buddhism of one or more deities from Hinduism , in particular Shiva or Vishnu . This seems to be based on the name Avalokiteśvara. On the basis of the study of Buddhist scriptures and ancient Tamil literary sources as well as a field survey, Japanese scholar Shu Hikosaka proposes the hypothesis that ancient Mount Potalaka, the residence of Avalokiteśvara described in

14399-586: Was probably put in writing in the 1st century BCE. This chronology is based on the views of Edward Conze , who largely considered dates of translation into other languages. This text also has a corresponding version in verse format, called the Ratnaguṇasaṃcaya Gāthā , which some believe to be slightly older because it is not written in standard literary Sanskrit. However, these findings rely on late-dating Indian texts, in which verses and mantras are often kept in more archaic forms. According to Edward Conze,

14520-542: Was still mentioned in Sri Lanka and Tibet as a centre of Esoteric Buddhism as late as the 14th century. During the period of the decline of Buddhism in India , the stupa was neglected and was buried under rubble and grass. A 14th-century inscription in Sri Lanka mentions repairs made to the stupa, and after that it was forgotten. The stupa is related to the Vajrayana teachings of Kalachakra , still practiced today in Tibetan Buddhism . The Dalai Lama of Tibet conducted

14641-626: Was usually connected to the Hindu notion of Vishnu (in Vaishnavism ) or Shiva (in Shaivism ) as the Supreme Lord , Creator, and Ruler of the world. Some attributes of such a god were transmitted to the bodhisattva, but the mainstream of those who venerated Avalokiteśvara upheld the Buddhist rejection of the doctrine of any creator god. In Sanskrit, Avalokiteśvara is also referred to as Lokeśvara ("Lord of

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