142-584: The Walkway over the Hudson (also known as the Poughkeepsie Bridge , Poughkeepsie Railroad Bridge , Poughkeepsie–Highland Railroad Bridge , and High Bridge ) is a steel cantilever bridge spanning the Hudson River between Poughkeepsie, New York , on the east bank and Highland, New York , on the west bank. Built as a double track railroad bridge, it was completed on January 1, 1889, and formed part of
284-434: A 2,641 feet (805 m) approach viaduct on the eastern bank and a 1,033 feet (315 m) approach viaduct on the western bank. All seven spans were built of newly available Bessemer process "mild" (between 0.16% and 0.29% carbon) steel, while the two approach viaducts were built of iron. It formed part of the most direct rail route between the industrial northeastern states and the midwestern and western states. The bridge
426-412: A BOS process is manufactured in one-twelfth the time. Today, electric arc furnaces (EAF) are a common method of reprocessing scrap metal to create new steel. They can also be used for converting pig iron to steel, but they use a lot of electrical energy (about 440 kWh per metric ton), and are thus generally only economical when there is a plentiful supply of cheap electricity. The steel industry
568-684: A carbon-intermediate steel by the 1st century AD. There is evidence that carbon steel was made in Western Tanzania by the ancestors of the Haya people as early as 2,000 years ago by a complex process of "pre-heating" allowing temperatures inside a furnace to reach 1300 to 1400 °C. Evidence of the earliest production of high carbon steel in South Asia is found in Kodumanal in Tamil Nadu ,
710-444: A change of volume. In this case, expansion occurs. Internal stresses from this expansion generally take the form of compression on the crystals of martensite and tension on the remaining ferrite, with a fair amount of shear on both constituents. If quenching is done improperly, the internal stresses can cause a part to shatter as it cools. At the very least, they cause internal work hardening and other microscopic imperfections. It
852-581: A claim that it no longer owned the lines at issue pursuant to prior litigation with Conrail that was decided on September 26, 1984, and won a similar legal opinion before the New York State Public Service Commission in 1995, which was left to stand on April 1, 1999, when The Poughkeepsie-Highland Railroad Bridge Company, Inc., as the successor owner to Gordon Schreiber Miller and Vito Moreno, withdrew its 1998 complaint against Central Hudson on January 27, 1999. On June 4, 1998, following
994-428: A ferrite BCC crystal form, but at higher carbon content it takes a body-centred tetragonal (BCT) structure. There is no thermal activation energy for the transformation from austenite to martensite. There is no compositional change so the atoms generally retain their same neighbours. Martensite has a lower density (it expands during the cooling) than does austenite, so that the transformation between them results in
1136-537: A four pier bridge design, but the Panic of 1873 killed financial support for project. In 1875 Eastman and his colleagues made a second attempt at a bridge project, developing an agreement with the American Bridge Company of Chicago (founded 1870). American Bridge developed a plan and confronted the challenge of building the support piers in deep water. Pier construction began in 1876, but the contractors encountered
1278-428: A friend in a small partnership, using a beehive oven to turn coal into coke for use in steel manufacturing, and vowed to be a millionaire by the age of thirty. The company was called Frick Coke Company. Thanks to loans from the family of lifelong friend Andrew Mellon , by 1880, Frick bought out the partnership. The company was renamed H. C. Frick & Company, employed 1,000 workers and controlled 80 percent of
1420-445: A hard but brittle martensitic structure. The steel is then tempered, which is just a specialized type of annealing, to reduce brittleness. In this application the annealing (tempering) process transforms some of the martensite into cementite, or spheroidite and hence it reduces the internal stresses and defects. The result is a more ductile and fracture-resistant steel. When iron is smelted from its ore, it contains more carbon than
1562-536: A large collection. By 1905, Frick's business, social and artistic interests had shifted from Pittsburgh to New York . He took his art collection with him to New York, rented the William H. Vanderbilt House , and served on many corporate boards. For example, as a board member of the Equitable Life Insurance Company, Frick attempted the removal of James Hazen Hyde (the founder's only son and heir) from
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#17330850578211704-574: A major role in the formation of the giant U.S. Steel manufacturing concern. He had extensive real estate holdings in Pittsburgh and throughout the state of Pennsylvania . He later built the Neoclassical Frick Mansion in Manhattan (now designated a U.S. National Historic Landmark ), and upon his death donated his extensive collection of old master paintings and fine furniture to create
1846-422: A march was held there as part of the worldwide 2017 Women's March the day after the inauguration of Donald Trump as president, drawing an estimated 5,000 participants, extending the entire length of the walkway. Steel Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon with improved strength and fracture resistance compared to other forms of iron. Because of its high tensile strength and low cost, steel
1988-640: A member of the New York State Assembly . Eastman had met Andrew Carnegie , principal owner of the Keystone Bridge Company of Pittsburgh and previously a manager at the Pennsylvania Railroad (PRR). J. Edgar Thomson , President of the PRR, was persuaded to provide financial support, and Keystone became the contractor for the initial attempt to build a bridge at Poughkeepsie. Keystone prepared
2130-412: A narrow range of concentrations of mixtures of carbon and iron that make steel, several different metallurgical structures, with very different properties can form. Understanding such properties is essential to making quality steel. At room temperature , the most stable form of pure iron is the body-centred cubic (BCC) structure called alpha iron or α-iron. It is a fairly soft metal that can dissolve only
2272-636: A pedestrian walkway as part of the new Walkway Over the Hudson State Historic Park . The New York State Bridge Authority owns and is charged with maintaining the bridge structure (as directed by the Governor and Legislature in July 2010). The park is operated by the New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation . In 2017, the walkway hosted 593,868 visitors. The park connects
2414-475: A precaution, and emergency repairs to reduce bridge sway (by the addition of new steel X-braces, supplanting the original turnbuckle-adjusted tension rods) were hurriedly installed. The bridge became a National Recreation Trail in 2009. The opening ceremony of the Walkway Over the Hudson State Historic Park was held on October 3, 2009, as part of wider NY400 celebrations, featured music by Pete Seeger , and
2556-560: A railroad bridge across the Hudson River at Poughkeepsie, in a letter published in the Poughkeepsie Eagle newspaper. The proposal seemed so absurd that the Eagle ridiculed it, and it was effectively forgotten for a few years. Over the years, many plans had been made for a fixed span across the Hudson River south of Albany to replace numerous car float and ferry operations. One of
2698-422: A revolver and a sharpened steel file, entered Frick's office in downtown Pittsburgh . Frick, realizing what was happening, attempted to rise from his chair while Berkman pulled a revolver and fired at nearly point-blank range . The bullet hit Frick in the left earlobe, penetrated his neck near the base of the skull, and lodged in his back. The impact knocked Frick down, and Berkman fired again, striking Frick for
2840-447: A second time in the neck and causing him to bleed extensively. Carnegie Steel vice president (later, president) John George Alexander Leishman , who was with Frick, was then able to grab Berkman's arm and prevented a third shot, possibly saving Frick's life. Frick was seriously wounded but rose and (with the assistance of Leishman) tackled his assailant. All three men crashed to the floor, where Berkman managed to stab Frick four times in
2982-534: A small concentration of carbon, no more than 0.005% at 0 °C (32 °F) and 0.021 wt% at 723 °C (1,333 °F). The inclusion of carbon in alpha iron is called ferrite . At 910 °C, pure iron transforms into a face-centred cubic (FCC) structure, called gamma iron or γ-iron. The inclusion of carbon in gamma iron is called austenite. The more open FCC structure of austenite can dissolve considerably more carbon, as much as 2.1%, (38 times that of ferrite) carbon at 1,148 °C (2,098 °F), which reflects
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#17330850578213124-448: A steel's final rolling, it is heat treated for strength; however, this is relatively rare. Steel was known in antiquity and was produced in bloomeries and crucibles . The earliest known production of steel is seen in pieces of ironware excavated from an archaeological site in Anatolia ( Kaman-Kalehöyük ) which are nearly 4,000 years old, dating from 1800 BC. Wootz steel
3266-727: A target of even more union organizers. Because of this strike, people like Alan Petrucelli had thought that he is depicted as the "rich man" in Maxo Vanka 's murals in St. Nicholas Croatian Church , but the Society to Preserve the Millvale Murals of Maxo Vanka (which works to preserve the artwork) says it depicts Andrew Mellon . In 1892, during the Homestead strike, anarchist Alexander Berkman attempted to assassinate Frick. On July 23, Berkman, armed with
3408-545: A water fountain for dogs. Dual entrances are off Washington Street and Orchard Place. A new glassed-in elevator, opened on June 20, 2019, that takes visitors to the Walkway from Upper Landing Park has been rebuilt with new "energy chain" technology which will make operations more reliable. On October 25, 2021, Governor Kathy Hochul dedicated the new East Gate Plaza for the Walkway Over The Hudson. The location, outside
3550-672: Is continuously cast into long slabs, cut and shaped into bars and extrusions and heat treated to produce a final product. Today, approximately 96% of steel is continuously cast, while only 4% is produced as ingots. The ingots are then heated in a soaking pit and hot rolled into slabs, billets , or blooms . Slabs are hot or cold rolled into sheet metal or plates. Billets are hot or cold rolled into bars, rods, and wire. Blooms are hot or cold rolled into structural steel , such as I-beams and rails . In modern steel mills these processes often occur in one assembly line , with ore coming in and finished steel products coming out. Sometimes after
3692-403: Is common for quench cracks to form when steel is water quenched, although they may not always be visible. There are many types of heat treating processes available to steel. The most common are annealing , quenching , and tempering . Annealing is the process of heating the steel to a sufficiently high temperature to relieve local internal stresses. It does not create a general softening of
3834-403: Is desirable. To become steel, it must be reprocessed to reduce the carbon to the correct amount, at which point other elements can be added. In the past, steel facilities would cast the raw steel product into ingots which would be stored until use in further refinement processes that resulted in the finished product. In modern facilities, the initial product is close to the final composition and
3976-449: Is distinguishable from wrought iron (now largely obsolete), which may contain a small amount of carbon but large amounts of slag . Iron is commonly found in the Earth's crust in the form of an ore , usually an iron oxide, such as magnetite or hematite . Iron is extracted from iron ore by removing the oxygen through its combination with a preferred chemical partner such as carbon which
4118-408: Is heat treated to contain both a ferritic and martensitic microstructure to produce a formable, high strength steel. Transformation Induced Plasticity (TRIP) steel involves special alloying and heat treatments to stabilize amounts of austenite at room temperature in normally austenite-free low-alloy ferritic steels. By applying strain, the austenite undergoes a phase transition to martensite without
4260-535: Is known as stainless steel . Tungsten slows the formation of cementite , keeping carbon in the iron matrix and allowing martensite to preferentially form at slower quench rates, resulting in high-speed steel . The addition of lead and sulphur decrease grain size, thereby making the steel easier to turn , but also more brittle and prone to corrosion. Such alloys are nevertheless frequently used for components such as nuts, bolts, and washers in applications where toughness and corrosion resistance are not paramount. For
4402-687: Is often considered an indicator of economic progress, because of the critical role played by steel in infrastructural and overall economic development . In 1980, there were more than 500,000 U.S. steelworkers. By 2000, the number of steelworkers had fallen to 224,000. The economic boom in China and India caused a massive increase in the demand for steel. Between 2000 and 2005, world steel demand increased by 6%. Since 2000, several Indian and Chinese steel firms have expanded to meet demand, such as Tata Steel (which bought Corus Group in 2007), Baosteel Group and Shagang Group . As of 2017 , though, ArcelorMittal
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4544-507: Is one of the largest manufacturing industries in the world, but also one of the most energy and greenhouse gas emission intense industries, contributing 8% of global emissions. However, steel is also very reusable: it is one of the world's most-recycled materials, with a recycling rate of over 60% globally . The noun steel originates from the Proto-Germanic adjective * * stahliją or * * stakhlijan 'made of steel', which
4686-463: Is one of the most commonly manufactured materials in the world. Steel is used in buildings, as concrete reinforcing rods, in bridges, infrastructure, tools, ships, trains, cars, bicycles, machines, electrical appliances, furniture, and weapons. Iron is always the main element in steel, but many other elements may be present or added. Stainless steels , which are resistant to corrosion and oxidation , typically need an additional 11% chromium . Iron
4828-544: Is one of the world's most-recycled materials, with a recycling rate of over 60% globally; in the United States alone, over 82,000,000 metric tons (81,000,000 long tons; 90,000,000 short tons) were recycled in the year 2008, for an overall recycling rate of 83%. As more steel is produced than is scrapped, the amount of recycled raw materials is about 40% of the total of steel produced - in 2016, 1,628,000,000 tonnes (1.602 × 10 long tons; 1.795 × 10 short tons) of crude steel
4970-550: Is operated as part of the New York State Historic Park System, open from 7:00 a.m. to dusk. Limited, wheelchair-friendly parking is available on either end of the bridge: There are restrooms located at the ends of the walkway, although at the time of a 2008 engineering survey of the bridge, there was "not a johnny on the spot." Pets are permitted, but owners should bring equipment to clean up. Bicycles and roller blades (but not skateboards) are permitted, and
5112-510: Is possible only by reducing iron's ductility. Steel was produced in bloomery furnaces for thousands of years, but its large-scale, industrial use began only after more efficient production methods were devised in the 17th century, with the introduction of the blast furnace and production of crucible steel . This was followed by the Bessemer process in England in the mid-19th century, and then by
5254-434: Is possible to make very high-carbon (and other alloy material) steels, but such are not common. Cast iron is not malleable even when hot, but it can be formed by casting as it has a lower melting point than steel and good castability properties. Certain compositions of cast iron, while retaining the economies of melting and casting, can be heat treated after casting to make malleable iron or ductile iron objects. Steel
5396-400: Is quite ductile , or soft and easily formed. In steel, small amounts of carbon, other elements, and inclusions within the iron act as hardening agents that prevent the movement of dislocations . The carbon in typical steel alloys may contribute up to 2.14% of its weight. Varying the amount of carbon and many other alloying elements, as well as controlling their chemical and physical makeup in
5538-457: Is related to * * stahlaz or * * stahliją 'standing firm'. The carbon content of steel is between 0.02% and 2.14% by weight for plain carbon steel ( iron - carbon alloys ). Too little carbon content leaves (pure) iron quite soft, ductile, and weak. Carbon contents higher than those of steel make a brittle alloy commonly called pig iron . Alloy steel is steel to which other alloying elements have been intentionally added to modify
5680-441: Is the base metal of steel. Depending on the temperature, it can take two crystalline forms (allotropic forms): body-centred cubic and face-centred cubic . The interaction of the allotropes of iron with the alloying elements, primarily carbon, gives steel and cast iron their range of unique properties. In pure iron, the crystal structure has relatively little resistance to the iron atoms slipping past one another, and so pure iron
5822-529: Is the world's largest steel producer . In 2005, the British Geological Survey stated China was the top steel producer with about one-third of the world share; Japan , Russia , and the United States were second, third, and fourth, respectively, according to the survey. The large production capacity of steel results also in a significant amount of carbon dioxide emissions inherent related to
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5964-498: Is then lost to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. This process, known as smelting , was first applied to metals with lower melting points, such as tin , which melts at about 250 °C (482 °F), and copper , which melts at about 1,100 °C (2,010 °F), and the combination, bronze, which has a melting point lower than 1,083 °C (1,981 °F). In comparison, cast iron melts at about 1,375 °C (2,507 °F). Small quantities of iron were smelted in ancient times, in
6106-666: The Poughkeepsie Journal . In August 1974, the Penn Central applied for $ 1.75 million to repair and improve the bridge from the federal government through the Regional Rail Reorganization Act of 1973. By 1975, efforts had shifted to acquiring a combination of state and railroad funding. In November 1975, a formal agreement between the New York State Department of Transportation and the trustees of
6248-500: The Empire State Trail . On May 22, 2013, the Walkway Over the Hudson organization opened a new east pavilion, built entirely through donations of money and services. The pavilion will be occupied by the volunteers who serve as walkway ambassadors who greet and offer assistance to visitors. In October 2013, a "mobile web tour" was introduced, consisting of QR codes at locations on the walkway which link to Web content related to
6390-631: The Golconda area in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka , regions of India , as well as in Samanalawewa and Dehigaha Alakanda, regions of Sri Lanka . This came to be known as wootz steel , produced in South India by about the sixth century BC and exported globally. The steel technology existed prior to 326 BC in the region as they are mentioned in literature of Sangam Tamil , Arabic, and Latin as
6532-714: The Hudson Valley Rail Trail in Highland to the Dutchess Rail Trail , and forms part of the Empire State Trail . At a length of 6,768 feet (2,063 m), it was the world's longest pedestrian footbridge from its opening until October 2016, when it became the second-longest after being surpassed by the 7,974-foot (2,430 m) Mile Into the Wild Walkway in Keenesburg , Colorado , United States . The Walkway over
6674-529: The Lehigh and Hudson River was not part of the Penn Central was because a Penn Central predecessor, the Pennsylvania Railroad , had prevented the New Haven from acquiring it in 1905. The Lehigh and Hudson River and Erie Lackawanna were finally joined with the Penn Central when all were taken over by Conrail in 1976. On May 8, 1974, a tie fire damaged about 700 feet (210 m) of decking and underlying girders on
6816-577: The Lehigh and Hudson River Railway , which connected with the Penn Central Belvidere Division in Belvidere, New Jersey , 72 miles south of the old interchange with the New Haven at Maybrook Yard in Maybrook, New York . The service ended in a dispute over haulage charges and the traffic was diverted to the longer all-Penn Central route through Selkirk, New York . Ironically, the only reason
6958-665: The Maybrook Railroad Line of the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad . It was taken out of service on May 8, 1974, after it was damaged by a tie fire. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979, and its entry updated in 2008. The bridge was designated as a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Civil Engineers in 2009. It was reopened on October 3, 2009, as
7100-524: The Michigan Central cantilever bridge at Niagara (see Niagara Cantilever Bridge ), was subcontracted to build the Poughkeepsie Bridge. Dawson, Symmes and Usher were the foundation engineers, while John F. O'Rourke, P. P. Dickinson and Arthur B. Paine were the structural engineers. The bridge was designed by Charles Macdonald and Arthur B. Paine. As is typical for cantilever bridges, construction
7242-674: The New Haven in 1969 discouraged connecting traffic with the Erie Lackawanna , which competed with other Penn Central routes. After 1971, only one through train in each direction, for Erie Lackawanna , crossed the bridge. While the Penn Central did not connect with the old New Haven on the west side of the bridge, it came close. For a short time in 1969 and 1970, Penn Central ran a daily train between Cedar Hill Yard in New Haven, Connecticut , and Potomac Yard in Alexandria, Virginia , by way of
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#17330850578217384-625: The South Fork Dam breach immediately after the flood. However, the report was delayed, subverted, and whitewashed, before being released two years after the disaster. A detailed discussion of what happened during the ASCE investigation, its participating engineers, and the science behind the 1889 flood was published in 2018. In 1881, Frick, already wealthy, took control of his grandfather's whiskey company, Old Overholt . Frick split ownership with Andrew Mellon and Charles W. Mauck; each owned one-third of
7526-617: The Westmoreland , a private railroad car , from the Pullman Company in 1910. The car cost nearly $ 40,000, and featured a kitchen, pantry, dining room, servant's quarters, two staterooms, and a lavatory. Frick frequently used the car for travel between his residences in New York City , Pittsburgh , and Prides Crossing, Massachusetts , as well for trips to places such as Palm Beach, Florida , and Aiken, South Carolina . The car remained in
7668-586: The cementation process was described in a treatise published in Prague in 1574 and was in use in Nuremberg from 1601. A similar process for case hardening armour and files was described in a book published in Naples in 1589. The process was introduced to England in about 1614 and used to produce such steel by Sir Basil Brooke at Coalbrookdale during the 1610s. The raw material for this process were bars of iron. During
7810-540: The open-hearth furnace . With the invention of the Bessemer process, a new era of mass-produced steel began. Mild steel replaced wrought iron . The German states were the major steel producers in Europe in the 19th century. American steel production was centred in Pittsburgh , Bethlehem, Pennsylvania , and Cleveland until the late 20th century. Currently, world steel production is centered in China, which produced 54% of
7952-445: The 17th century, it was realized that the best steel came from oregrounds iron of a region north of Stockholm , Sweden. This was still the usual raw material source in the 19th century, almost as long as the process was used. Crucible steel is steel that has been melted in a crucible rather than having been forged , with the result that it is more homogeneous. Most previous furnaces could not reach high enough temperatures to melt
8094-470: The 17th century, the first step in European steel production has been the smelting of iron ore into pig iron in a blast furnace . Originally employing charcoal, modern methods use coke , which has proven more economical. In these processes, pig iron made from raw iron ore was refined (fined) in a finery forge to produce bar iron , which was then used in steel-making. The production of steel by
8236-600: The Arabs from Persia, who took it from India. It was originally created from several different materials including various trace elements , apparently ultimately from the writings of Zosimos of Panopolis . In 327 BC, Alexander the Great was rewarded by the defeated King Porus , not with gold or silver but with 30 pounds of steel. A recent study has speculated that carbon nanotubes were included in its structure, which might explain some of its legendary qualities, though, given
8378-629: The Frick family until it was scrapped by Helen Clay Frick in 1965. Photographs of family and friends travelling on the Westmoreland form part of the Frick archive, as do the original construction plans and upholstery fabric samples. Frick and his wife Adelaide had booked tickets to travel back to New York on the inaugural trip of the RMS Titanic in 1912, along with J.P. Morgan . The couple canceled their trip after Adelaide sprained her ankle in Italy and missed
8520-543: The Highland side, crossed to the Poughkeepsie side and turned around at the parking lot and finished back in Highland. The race was won by James Boeding in a time of 16:26. The female winner was Kira DiCaprio in 20:12. There were 660 recorded finishers of the race. The 5K race, called "Treetops to Rooftops," has become an annual event, organized by the Mid-Hudson Road Runners Club. The inaugural Walkway Marathon
8662-526: The Hudson now refers to itself as the world's longest elevated pedestrian bridge as it has a much higher elevation than the Mile Into The Wild. The Walkway over the Hudson allows bicycles and the Mile Into The Wild does not. Also, the Walkway over the Hudson does not have an admission fee. In 1868, no bridge spanned the Hudson south of the Troy–Waterford Bridge . That year, an engineer proposed
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#17330850578218804-446: The Hudson, attached to the south side of the bridge since 1949. Central Hudson de-energized those power lines and relocated them under the river by early 1985, thereby ending Miller's only source of bridge income. For the next fourteen years, Miller and his successor, Vito Moreno, spent little to nothing on maintenance or insurance; critical bridge navigation lights were mostly inoperative, resulting in large U.S. Coast Guard fines against
8946-463: The Linz-Donawitz process of basic oxygen steelmaking (BOS), developed in 1952, and other oxygen steel making methods. Basic oxygen steelmaking is superior to previous steelmaking methods because the oxygen pumped into the furnace limited impurities, primarily nitrogen, that previously had entered from the air used, and because, with respect to the open hearth process, the same quantity of steel from
9088-619: The Maybrook Line between Hopewell Junction and Maybrook, New York , in 1983–1984. Conrail made initial plans to sell the bridge to bridge enthusiast and lawyer Donald L. Pevsner, by an option granted to him on February 1, 1984. Conrail and Central Hudson Gas and Electric were involved with negotiations regarding Central Hudson's two electrical circuits traversing the bridge. The New York State Supreme Court endorsed an agreement in September 1984 whereby Conrail would make every attempt to obtain
9230-451: The Miller corporation that all went unpaid. Further, all of the 2,200-pound brackets that connected Central Hudson's de-energized high-tension power lines to the south side of the bridge continued to deteriorate by rusting. Though Central Hudson admitted that it normally had a legal duty to remove its abandoned power lines, it refused to remove its abandoned bridge-affixed lines, instead relying on
9372-437: The Penn Central was approved, allowing the $ 359,000 insurance payout for the bridge to be spent on repairs, with the state paying the rest. In December, U.S. Representative Benjamin A. Gilman announced that $ 486,000 appropriated by the state legislature for repairs was undergoing final review by the state. Authorization for the state to spend its share on bridge repairs had still not been given when, on April 1, 1976, ownership of
9514-610: The Poughkeepsie entrance, doubled the gathering space on top of the Washington Street stairs. The space is suitable for community and other events. The project cost $ 2 million and was funded through State Parks Capital Funds, the Environmental Protection Fund and support from the Friends of the Walkway. The first footrace on the walkway occurred the day after the official opening on October 4, 2009. The 5k race started on
9656-539: The United States to France by seeking an appointment for him to become United States Ambassador to France . Frick had engaged a similar stratagem when orchestrating the ouster of the man who had saved his life, John George Alexander Leishman , from the presidency of Carnegie Steel a decade beforehand. In that instance, Leishman had chosen to accept the post as ambassador to Switzerland. Hyde, however, rebuffed Frick's plan. He did, however, move to France, where he served as an ambulance driver during World War I and lived until
9798-425: The United States, a grandson of Abraham Overholt (Oberholzer), the owner of the prosperous Overholt Whiskey distillery (see Old Overholt ). His father was of Swiss ancestry; his mother was of German ancestry. Frick's father, John W. Frick, was unsuccessful in business pursuits. Henry Clay Frick attended Otterbein College for one year, but did not graduate. In 1871, at 21 years old, Frick joined two cousins and
9940-434: The addition of heat. Twinning Induced Plasticity (TWIP) steel uses a specific type of strain to increase the effectiveness of work hardening on the alloy. Henry Clay Frick Henry Clay Frick (December 19, 1849 – December 2, 1919) was an American industrialist , financier , and art patron . He founded the H. C. Frick & Company coke manufacturing company, was chairman of the Carnegie Steel Company and played
10082-436: The austenite grain boundaries until the percentage of carbon in the grains has decreased to the eutectoid composition (0.8% carbon), at which point the pearlite structure forms. For steels that have less than 0.8% carbon (hypoeutectoid), ferrite will first form within the grains until the remaining composition rises to 0.8% of carbon, at which point the pearlite structure will form. No large inclusions of cementite will form at
10224-471: The austenite is for it to precipitate out of solution as cementite , leaving behind a surrounding phase of BCC iron called ferrite with a small percentage of carbon in solution. The two, cementite and ferrite, precipitate simultaneously producing a layered structure called pearlite , named for its resemblance to mother of pearl . In a hypereutectoid composition (greater than 0.8% carbon), the carbon will first precipitate out as large inclusions of cementite at
10366-494: The boundaries in hypoeutectoid steel. The above assumes that the cooling process is very slow, allowing enough time for the carbon to migrate. As the rate of cooling is increased the carbon will have less time to migrate to form carbide at the grain boundaries but will have increasingly large amounts of pearlite of a finer and finer structure within the grains; hence the carbide is more widely dispersed and acts to prevent slip of defects within those grains, resulting in hardening of
10508-410: The bridge and no funds to pay for necessary insurance and maintenance: the railroad just wanted to be rid of the bridge, whatever the ethics of such disposal. This decision was made personally by then-Conrail Chairman L. Stanley Crane , at a time when Conrail was owned by the U.S. government. Pevsner refused, and let his option expire on November 1, 1984. One day later, on November 2, 1984, Conrail sold
10650-496: The bridge changed with the inception of Conrail. Having been forced to include the route over the bridge (the Maybrook Line ) In its new system at the behest of Connecticut Senator Abraham Ribicoff , Conrail announced that it would not promise to repair and use the bridge despite a Connecticut foundation's offer to pay half the repair cost if the bridge were used again. The railroad further said that other work required to make
10792-463: The bridge for $ 1 to a group of investors from St. Davids, Pennsylvania , called Railway Management Associates to "get it off the books". The only known member of this investor group was a convicted bank swindler and ex-felon named Gordon Schreiber Miller. For less than a year, Miller collected $ 10,000 in monthly rent paid by Central Hudson Gas & Electric Corporation for its two 115,000-volt and 69,000-volt circuits representing six power cables across
10934-488: The bridge was completed in 1907 to handle heavier freight trains by engineer Ralph Modjeski , of the famed bridge civil engineering firm Modjeski and Masters, who added a third line of trusses down the middle, a central girder, and interleaved columns. In 1917–18, the double tracks on the bridge were converted to gauntlet track operation to center the weight of heavier New Haven Railroad 2-10-2 steam locomotives. Even so, trains were restricted to 12 miles per hour. In 1959,
11076-432: The bridge's eastern section. It was likely started by a spark from an eastbound Penn Central freight train that had just crossed the span. The Penn Central had neglected the bridge's fire-protection system, which had no water on the day of the fire, and had laid off employees who kept watch for such fires. A photograph of the last train, a run-through from the Erie Lackawanna , was included in a 40th anniversary web feature by
11218-633: The celebrated Frick Collection and art museum. However, as a founding member of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club , he was also in large part responsible for the alterations to the South Fork Dam that caused its failure, leading to the catastrophic Johnstown Flood . His vehement opposition to unions also caused violent conflict, most notably in the Homestead Strike . Frick was born in West Overton , Westmoreland County , Pennsylvania , in
11360-521: The characteristics of steel. Common alloying elements include: manganese , nickel , chromium , molybdenum , boron , titanium , vanadium , tungsten , cobalt , and niobium . Additional elements, most frequently considered undesirable, are also important in steel: phosphorus , sulphur , silicon , and traces of oxygen , nitrogen , and copper . Plain carbon-iron alloys with a higher than 2.1% carbon content are known as cast iron . With modern steelmaking techniques such as powder metal forming, it
11502-481: The club or the flood. This strategy was a success, and Knox and Reed were able to fend off all lawsuits that would have placed blame upon the club's members. With a volumetric flow rate that temporarily equalled that of the Mississippi River, the flood killed 2,208 people and caused US$ 17 million of damage (about $ 450 million in 2015 dollars). The American Society of Civil Engineers launched an investigation of
11644-779: The coal output in Pennsylvania, operating coal mines in Westmoreland and Fayette counties, where he also operated banks of beehive coke ovens. Some of the brick and stone structures are still visible in both Fayette and Westmoreland Counties. Shortly after marrying Adelaide Howard Childs, in 1881, Frick met Andrew Carnegie in New York City while the Fricks were on their honeymoon. This introduction would lead to an eventual partnership between H. C. Frick & Company and Carnegie Steel Company and, eventually, to United States Steel . This partnership ensured that Carnegie's steel mills had adequate supplies of coke . Frick became chairman of
11786-543: The collapse of the strike. Frick married Adelaide Howard Childs of Pittsburgh on December 15, 1881. They had four children: Childs Frick (born March 12, 1883), Martha Howard Frick (born August 9, 1885), Helen Clay Frick (born September 3, 1888) and Henry Clay Frick, Jr. (born July 8, 1892). In 1882, after the formation of the partnership with Andrew Carnegie, Frick and his wife bought a home they eventually called Clayton , an estate in Pittsburgh's East End. They moved into
11928-431: The company. The family's whiskey company was a sentimental side business for Frick, and was headquartered in Pittsburgh's Frick Building . In 1907, as prohibition became more popular across the country, Frick and Mellon removed their names from the distilling license, although they retained ownership in the company. Upon Frick's death in 1919, he left his share of the company to Mellon. Frick and Carnegie's partnership
12070-465: The company. Carnegie made multiple attempts to force Frick out of the company they had created by making it appear that the company had nowhere left to go and that it was time for Frick to retire. Despite the contributions Frick had made towards Andrew Carnegie's fortune, Carnegie disregarded him in many executive decisions including finances. At the suggestion of his friend Benjamin Ruff, Frick helped to found
12212-401: The connecting New York, Ontario & Western ceased when that railroad shut down on March 30, 1957. Another connection, the coal-, slate-, and cement-hauling Lehigh and New England Railroad , shut down in 1961. At the same time, some new traffic began crossing the bridge, such as the New Haven's "Super Jet", one of the first trains to carry truck trailers. The Penn Central 's acquisition of
12354-524: The construction of a solid board fence topped with barbed wire around mill property. The workers dubbed the newly fortified mill "Fort Frick." With the mill ringed by striking workers, Pinkerton agents planned to access the plant grounds from the river. Three hundred Pinkerton detectives assembled on the Davis Island Dam on the Ohio River about five miles (8 km) below Pittsburgh at 10:30 p.m. on
12496-464: The dam sat the city of Johnstown. Cambria Iron Company operated a large iron and steel work in Johnstown and its owner, Daniel J. Morrell , was concerned about the safety of the dam and the thoroughness of repairs made to it. The Club fatally lowered the dam by between 0.6 and 0.9 metres (2.0 and 3.0 ft). Poor repairs and maintenance, unusually high snow melt and heavy spring rains combined to cause
12638-556: The dam to give way on May 31, 1889, resulting in the Johnstown Flood . A screen placed across the spillway by the club to prevent fish from escaping also partly blocked the main spillway. When word of the dam's failure was telegraphed to Pittsburgh , Frick and other members of the club gathered to form the Pittsburgh Relief Committee for assistance to the flood victims, as well as determining never to speak publicly about
12780-432: The day, the bridge has seven main spans. The total length is 6,768 feet (2,063 m), including approaches, and the top of the deck is 212 feet (65 m) above water. It is a multispan cantilever truss bridge, having two river-crossing cantilever spans of 548 feet (167 m) each, one center span of 546 feet (166 m), two anchor (connecting) spans of 525 feet (160 m), two shore spans of 201 feet (61 m) each,
12922-422: The desired properties. Nickel and manganese in steel add to its tensile strength and make the austenite form of the iron-carbon solution more stable, chromium increases hardness and melting temperature, and vanadium also increases hardness while making it less prone to metal fatigue . To inhibit corrosion, at least 11% chromium can be added to steel so that a hard oxide forms on the metal surface; this
13064-472: The disastrous voyage. Frick died of a heart attack on December 2, 1919, at age 69. He was buried in Pittsburgh's Homewood Cemetery . Frick left a will in which he bequeathed 150 acres (0.61 km ) of undeveloped land to the City of Pittsburgh for use as a public park, together with a $ 2 million trust fund to assist with the maintenance of the park. Frick Park opened in 1927. Between 1919 and 1942, money from
13206-552: The documents regarding the business and financial dealings from 1849 to 1919. These original documents record the evolution of the period of American steel and coal industrial growth. Documentation includes first business activities, first coal firm, H.C. Frick & Company , to the formation of United States Steel Corporation on March 2, 1901. Correspondence sent and received from prominent businessmen such as Andrew Carnegie , Charles Schwab , Andrew Mellon , Henry Oliver , H. H. Rogers , Henry Phipps , and J. P. Morgan are part of
13348-449: The entire Maybrook route usable would raise the reactivation cost to $ 45.8 million. Seven years passed; pieces of the bridge's eastern approach viaduct over Poughkeepsie began falling onto U.S. Route 9 below, damaging passing vehicles. In response, the city sued Conrail and forced it to spend $ 300,000 in 1983 to remove the decking over the superstructure. Conrail then sought to dispose of the unused bridge and eventually abandoned and tore up
13490-503: The exclusive South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club high above Johnstown, Pennsylvania. The charter members of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club were Benjamin Ruff; T. H. Sweat, Charles J. Clarke, Thomas Clark, Walter F. Fundenberg, Howard Hartley, Henry C. Yeager, J. B. White, Henry Clay Frick, E. A. Meyers, C. C. Hussey, D. R. Ewer, C. A. Carpenter, W. L. Dunn, W. L. McClintock, and A. V. Holmes. The sixty-odd club members were
13632-556: The failure of a pier foundation and related construction difficulties in 1877. By early 1878 the company was bankrupt, and Eastman died later that year. It took several more years to find new investors for the project. In 1886, the Manhattan Bridge Building Company was organized to finance the construction. Among the prominent backers was Henry Clay Frick , the coal tycoon and associate of Carnegie. The Union Bridge Company of Athens, Pennsylvania , which had completed
13774-413: The final steel (either as solute elements, or as precipitated phases), impedes the movement of the dislocations that make pure iron ductile, and thus controls and enhances its qualities. These qualities include the hardness , quenching behaviour , need for annealing , tempering behaviour , yield strength , and tensile strength of the resulting steel. The increase in steel's strength compared to pure iron
13916-625: The finest steel in the world exported to the Roman, Egyptian, Chinese and Arab worlds at that time – what they called Seric Iron . A 200 BC Tamil trade guild in Tissamaharama , in the South East of Sri Lanka, brought with them some of the oldest iron and steel artifacts and production processes to the island from the classical period . The Chinese and locals in Anuradhapura , Sri Lanka had also adopted
14058-503: The form of charcoal) in a crucible, was produced in Merv by the 9th to 10th century AD. In the 11th century, there is evidence of the production of steel in Song China using two techniques: a "berganesque" method that produced inferior, inhomogeneous steel, and a precursor to the modern Bessemer process that used partial decarburization via repeated forging under a cold blast . Since
14200-519: The gauntlet tracks were replaced by a centered single track. During World War II , the bridge was a vital link for war freight traffic, guarded around the clock by United States Army soldiers. At its peak, nearly 3,500 train cars crossed over the Hudson on a daily basis. Traffic across the bridge began a slow decline in the 1950s as industry shrank in New England and with it the need for the raw materials railroads excelled at transporting. Traffic from
14342-599: The hardenability of thick sections. High strength low alloy steel has small additions (usually < 2% by weight) of other elements, typically 1.5% manganese, to provide additional strength for a modest price increase. Recent corporate average fuel economy (CAFE) regulations have given rise to a new variety of steel known as Advanced High Strength Steel (AHSS). This material is both strong and ductile so that vehicle structures can maintain their current safety levels while using less material. There are several commercially available grades of AHSS, such as dual-phase steel , which
14484-496: The home in early 1883. The Frick children were born in Pittsburgh and were raised at Clayton. Two of them, Henry, Jr. and Martha, died in infancy or childhood. In 1904, he built Eagle Rock, a summer estate at Prides Crossing in Beverly, Massachusetts on Boston 's fashionable North Shore . The 104-room mansion designed by Little & Browne was razed in 1969. Frick was a fervent art collector whose wealth allowed him to accumulate
14626-425: The intervention of 8,000 armed state militia under the command of Major General George R. Snowden . During the confrontation Frick issued an ultimatum to Homestead workers, which restated his refusal to speak with union representatives and threatened to have striking workers evicted from their homes. Among working-class Americans, Frick's actions against the strikers were condemned as excessive, and he soon became
14768-451: The leading business tycoons of Western Pennsylvania, and included among their number Frick's best friend, Andrew Mellon , his attorneys Philander Knox and James Hay Reed , as well as Frick's occasional business partner Andrew Carnegie . The club members made inadequate repairs to what was at that time the world's largest earthen dam , behind which formed a private lake called Lake Conemaugh . Less than 20 miles (32 km) downstream from
14910-436: The leg with the pointed steel file before finally being subdued by other employees and a carpenter, who had rushed into the office. Frick was back at work within a week; Berkman was charged and found guilty of attempted murder. Berkman's actions in planning the assassination clearly indicated a premeditated intent to kill, and he was sentenced to 22 years in prison. Negative publicity from the attempted assassination resulted in
15052-512: The long nonpayment of Dutchess and Ulster County taxes on the bridge by prior owners Gordon Schreiber Miller and his successor, Vito Moreno, Moreno deeded the bridge to a nonprofit volunteer organization called Walkway Over the Hudson, which took title through its nonprofit New York corporation, the Poughkeepsie-Highland Railroad Bridge Company, Inc., hoping to turn it into a pedestrian and cyclist walkway. The deed
15194-439: The main production route. At the end of 2008, the steel industry faced a sharp downturn that led to many cut-backs. In 2021, it was estimated that around 7% of the global greenhouse gas emissions resulted from the steel industry. Reduction of these emissions are expected to come from a shift in the main production route using cokes, more recycling of steel and the application of carbon capture and storage technology. Steel
15336-450: The most part, however, p-block elements such as sulphur, nitrogen , phosphorus , and lead are considered contaminants that make steel more brittle and are therefore removed from steel during the melting processing. The density of steel varies based on the alloying constituents but usually ranges between 7,750 and 8,050 kg/m (484 and 503 lb/cu ft), or 7.75 and 8.05 g/cm (4.48 and 4.65 oz/cu in). Even in
15478-615: The most persistent was originally chartered in 1868 as the Hudson Highland Suspension Bridge Company, whose proposed bridge would have crossed from Anthony's Nose to Fort Clinton , now roughly the site of the Bear Mountain Bridge . It was never built. The State of New York chartered the Poughkeepsie Bridge Company in 1872 with the support of Harvey G. Eastman , Mayor of Poughkeepsie and
15620-413: The night of July 5, 1892. They were given Winchester rifles, placed on two specially-equipped barges and towed upriver with the object of removing the workers by force. Upon their landing, a large mêlée between workers and Pinkerton detectives ensued. Ten men were killed, nine of them workers, and there were seventy injuries. The Pinkerton agents were thrown back, and the riot was ultimately quelled only by
15762-613: The outbreak of World War II. The Frick Collection is home to one of the finest collections of European paintings in the United States. It contains many works of art dating from the pre-Renaissance up to the post-Impressionist eras, displayed at the Henry Clay Frick House (built in 1913) in no logical or chronological order. It includes several very large paintings by J. M. W. Turner and John Constable . In addition to paintings, it also contains an exhibition of carpets, porcelain, sculptures, and period furniture. Frick purchased
15904-436: The oxidation rate of iron increases rapidly beyond 800 °C (1,470 °F), it is important that smelting take place in a low-oxygen environment. Smelting, using carbon to reduce iron oxides, results in an alloy ( pig iron ) that retains too much carbon to be called steel. The excess carbon and other impurities are removed in a subsequent step. Other materials are often added to the iron/carbon mixture to produce steel with
16046-403: The permits by May 1985 to demolish the bridge, and Central Hudson would make every attempt to find an alternative route for its circuits by May 1985. Conrail knew that there was lead paint on the bridge, permits for demolition might be difficult to obtain, and demolition costs would be high. Later in 1984, Conrail advised Pevsner to take title of the bridge in a shell corporation, with no assets but
16188-571: The previous owners. Walkway then solicited funding from both the State and Federal governments for historic preservation, and from private philanthropic organizations. Funding sources as of January 13, 2016, include: The total budget as of October 2009 totaled about $ 38.8 million. The Walkway Group raised a total of $ 30.7 million as of October 23, 2009. The $ 8.1 million deficit was financed by lines of credit from Ulster Savings Bank ($ 4 million) and M&T Bank ($ 4.1 million) that were drawn-upon to complete
16330-449: The product but only locally relieves strains and stresses locked up within the material. Annealing goes through three phases: recovery , recrystallization , and grain growth . The temperature required to anneal a particular steel depends on the type of annealing to be achieved and the alloying constituents. Quenching involves heating the steel to create the austenite phase then quenching it in water or oil . This rapid cooling results in
16472-741: The production methods of creating wootz steel from the Chera Dynasty Tamils of South India by the 5th century AD. In Sri Lanka, this early steel-making method employed a unique wind furnace, driven by the monsoon winds, capable of producing high-carbon steel. Since the technology was acquired from the Tamilians from South India, the origin of steel technology in India can be conservatively estimated at 400–500 BC. The manufacture of wootz steel and Damascus steel , famous for its durability and ability to hold an edge, may have been taken by
16614-512: The project in 2009. These lines of credit were converted to loans, with an additional $ 2.3 million allocated to 2014 elevator construction, and were guaranteed and paid-off by The Dyson Foundation (see above). The project was separated into four phases, with the first two completed as of October 2009: The piers were inspected in 2008 and given a clean bill of health. Similarly, Bergmann Associates, P.C. (of Rochester and Albany , New York), project engineers and managers, has stated in writing that
16756-415: The similar Kinzua Bridge , in northwestern Pennsylvania, which blew over in a microburst tornado when the bolts connecting the steel framework to the piers failed. Ironically, renovation work was going on to strengthen the corroded areas when the tornado destroyed most of this former Erie Railroad viaduct. During Hurricane Irene , residents living within 500 feet of the Poughkeepsie Bridge were evacuated as
16898-455: The sold-out ceremony. Crowd management presented a problem, prompting criticism and an apology from walkway organizational leaders, but ultimately no incident or injury. Though typically closed at sunset each day, the walkway often has events after sundown. Some of these openings (such as for Independence Day and in December) include fireworks displays. In July 2012, in a photograph taken from
17040-471: The solid-state, by heating the ore in a charcoal fire and then welding the clumps together with a hammer and in the process squeezing out the impurities. With care, the carbon content could be controlled by moving it around in the fire. Unlike copper and tin, liquid or solid iron dissolves carbon quite readily. All of these temperatures could be reached with ancient methods used since the Bronze Age . Since
17182-422: The spot. In summer 2014, a 21-story glass elevator connecting Upper Landing Park to the walkway was opened. This allows visitors to reach the center of the span via a more direct route. It also connects the walkway to the Poughkeepsie waterfront area, which is near the railroad station, Mid-Hudson Children's Museum , and Waryas Park. On June 29, 2018, the $ 5.4 million, 3,500-square-foot Ulster Welcome Center at
17324-401: The steel. At the very high cooling rates produced by quenching, the carbon has no time to migrate but is locked within the face-centred austenite and forms martensite . Martensite is a highly strained and stressed, supersaturated form of carbon and iron and is exceedingly hard but brittle. Depending on the carbon content, the martensitic phase takes different forms. Below 0.2% carbon, it takes on
17466-556: The steel. The early modern crucible steel industry resulted from the invention of Benjamin Huntsman in the 1740s. Blister steel (made as above) was melted in a crucible or in a furnace, and cast (usually) into ingots. The modern era in steelmaking began with the introduction of Henry Bessemer 's process in 1855, the raw material for which was pig iron. His method let him produce steel in large quantities cheaply, thus mild steel came to be used for most purposes for which wrought iron
17608-551: The structural steel and the laying of concrete slabs for the walkway were completed. The volunteer head of "Walkway", as it is known locally, said in 2008, "We think people will come from all over. It's the equivalent of the Eiffel Tower , or the Golden Gate Bridge ." The project initially received support from local residents, city and state officials totaling about $ 1,000,000, plus forgiveness of $ 550,000 in taxes inherited from
17750-555: The technology of that time, such qualities were produced by chance rather than by design. Natural wind was used where the soil containing iron was heated by the use of wood. The ancient Sinhalese managed to extract a ton of steel for every 2 tons of soil, a remarkable feat at the time. One such furnace was found in Samanalawewa and archaeologists were able to produce steel as the ancients did. Crucible steel , formed by slowly heating and cooling pure iron and carbon (typically in
17892-574: The trust fund was used to enlarge the park, increasing its size to almost 600 acres (2.4 km ). Many years after her father's death, Helen Clay Frick returned to Clayton in 1981, and lived there until her death in 1984. Frick was elected an honorary member of the Alpha chapter of Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia music fraternity at the New England Conservatory of Music on October 19, 1917. The Henry Clay Frick archive of business records consisted of
18034-522: The upper carbon content of steel, beyond which is cast iron. When carbon moves out of solution with iron, it forms a very hard, but brittle material called cementite (Fe 3 C). When steels with exactly 0.8% carbon (known as a eutectoid steel), are cooled, the austenitic phase (FCC) of the mixture attempts to revert to the ferrite phase (BCC). The carbon no longer fits within the FCC austenite structure, resulting in an excess of carbon. One way for carbon to leave
18176-558: The walkway is flat and relatively wheelchair-friendly. The walkway connects with the Dutchess Rail Trail on the Poughkeepsie side and the Hudson Valley Rail Trail on the Highland side. The Dutchess Rail Trail additionally connects with the Maybrook Trailway in Hopewell Junction , making it part of a 40-mile continuous trail stretching from the village of Brewster to the village of New Paltz . All of these trails are part of
18318-593: The walkway, an amateur photographer captured what the New York Daily News described as a "breathtaking juxtaposition" capturing fireworks and a bolt of lightning in the same image. Some of the nighttime events have featured members of the Mid-Hudson Astronomical Association, who have provided telescopes for public viewing of the moon, stars, and planets from the walkway, along with lectures by local astronomer Bob Berman . On January 21, 2017,
18460-402: The western gateway officially opened. The facility has a plaza and amphitheater, 1,400 square foot covered patio and concession stand and public restrooms. On June 20, 2019, the $ 3 million Dutchess Welcome Center at the eastern end of the park was dedicated and opened to the public. The 1,800 square-foot facility features restrooms, bike racks, tourist information, an outdoor patio with benches and
18602-521: The wind loads were carefully examined for the replacement, solid-concrete Walkway decking, and that this item is not a safety problem. The decking work was completed on September 5, 2009. Walkway opened the bridge to the public on October 3, 2009, in time for the quadricentennial celebration of Henry Hudson sailing up the Hudson River , and that day handed it over to the New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation for management. Despite this, inevitable comparisons have been drawn to
18744-428: The world's steel in 2023. Further refinements in the process, such as basic oxygen steelmaking (BOS), largely replaced earlier methods by further lowering the cost of production and increasing the quality of the final product. Today more than 1.6 billion tons of steel is produced annually. Modern steel is generally identified by various grades defined by assorted standards organizations . The modern steel industry
18886-464: Was attended by Governor David Paterson , Senator Chuck Schumer , Congressman Maurice Hinchey , president of nearby Vassar College Catharine Bond Hill , John May, engineer of the last train across the bridge, and other officials. Paterson said, "This bridge is now the longest footbridge in the world." The walkway immediately saw many more visitors than the expected 267,000 per year. In its first three months, it saw about 415,000 people. The walkway
19028-406: Was carried out by constructing cribwork, masonry piers, towers, fixed truss sections on falsework, and finally cantilever sections, with the final cantilever interconnection (suspended) spans floated out or raised with falsework . The first train crossed the bridge on December 29, 1888, and it was formally opened for scheduled passenger service on January 1, 1889. Considered an engineering marvel of
19170-697: Was developed in Southern India and Sri Lanka in the 1st millennium BCE. Metal production sites in Sri Lanka employed wind furnaces driven by the monsoon winds, capable of producing high-carbon steel. Large-scale wootz steel production in India using crucibles occurred by the sixth century BC, the pioneering precursor to modern steel production and metallurgy. High-carbon steel was produced in Britain at Broxmouth Hillfort from 490–375 BC, and ultrahigh-carbon steel
19312-502: Was formerly used. The Gilchrist-Thomas process (or basic Bessemer process ) was an improvement to the Bessemer process, made by lining the converter with a basic material to remove phosphorus. Another 19th-century steelmaking process was the Siemens-Martin process , which complemented the Bessemer process. It consisted of co-melting bar iron (or steel scrap) with pig iron. These methods of steel production were rendered obsolete by
19454-504: Was held on June 13, 2015, with full and half marathons and a 5K run . A new addition in 2016 was the Think Differently Dash, a one-mile race for people with physical and developmental disabilities. On May 15, 2010, LEDs were turned on for the first time, designed to allow nighttime use of the bridge, though due to funding limitations this is expected to only be used on special occasions. Some 3,000 people paid $ 5 apiece to attend
19596-438: Was produced globally, with 630,000,000 tonnes (620,000,000 long tons; 690,000,000 short tons) recycled. Modern steels are made with varying combinations of alloy metals to fulfil many purposes. Carbon steel , composed simply of iron and carbon, accounts for 90% of steel production. Low alloy steel is alloyed with other elements, usually molybdenum , manganese, chromium, or nickel, in amounts of up to 10% by weight to improve
19738-729: Was produced in the Netherlands from the 2nd-4th centuries AD. The Roman author Horace identifies steel weapons such as the falcata in the Iberian Peninsula , while Noric steel was used by the Roman military . The Chinese of the Warring States period (403–221 BC) had quench-hardened steel, while Chinese of the Han dynasty (202 BC—AD 220) created steel by melting together wrought iron with cast iron, thus producing
19880-519: Was recorded in both counties on June 5, 1998. The former Central Hudson power lines were finally removed in 2009, as part of Walkway construction. On December 21, 2010, the Walkway corporation conveyed the entire structure to the New York State Bridge Authority, which restored high-limit liability insurance and "deep-pocket" maintenance assurance for the first time since November 2, 1984. On September 5, 2009, conversion work and repairs to
20022-708: Was strained over actions taken in response to the Homestead Steel Strike , an 1892 labor strike at the Homestead Works of the Carnegie Steel Company, called by the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers . At Homestead, striking workers, some of whom were armed, had locked the company staff out of the factory and surrounded it with pickets. Frick was known for his anti-union policy and as negotiations were still taking place, he ordered
20164-580: Was the only fixed Hudson River crossing between Albany and New York City until the construction of the Bear Mountain (road) Bridge in 1924, and was advertised as a way to avoid New York City car floats and railroad passenger ferries. Ownership of the bridge passed through several railroads including the Central New England Railway (CNE), New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad (NH), Penn Central (PC) and Conrail . A strengthening of
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