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59-694: Cerro Potosí was the richest province in the Spanish empire , providing a great percentage of the silver that was shipped to Europe . Potosi is also the location of the San Cristóbal silver, zinc and lead mines, developed by the US company Apex Silver Mines Limited of Colorado and sold in November 2008 to the Japanese Sumitomo Corporation . In March 2023, social organisations in four regions of Potosí, with

118-484: A discussion with a physician or licensed health care provider (PLHCP) of prior respiratory health, chest X-ray, pulmonary function test, latent tuberculosis infection, and any other tests deemed necessary by the PLHCP. These medical exams are to occur within 30 days of the initial assignment that includes silica exposure and must be made available for renewal at least every three years unless the PLHCP deems otherwise. As part of

177-456: A few centimetres every year. In 2014, UNESCO added Cerro Rico and Potosí to its list of endangered sites, owing to "uncontrolled mining operations" that risk "degrading the site". Originally, the Spanish Empire used a forced labor system called " Repartimiento de Indios " (also known as " Repartimiento ") to extract silver from Cerro Rico, though in region of the former Inca Empire , it

236-421: A lack of protective equipment against the constant inhalation of dust, many of the miners contract silicosis . They have a life expectancy of around 40 years. The mountain is still a significant contributor to the city's economy, employing some 15,000 miners. As a result of centuries long mining, in 2011 a sinkhole in the top appeared and had to be filled with ultra-light cement. The summit also continues to sink

295-474: A mode detailed analysis of the lungs, and can reveal cavitation due to concomitant mycobacterial infection. Classification of silicosis is made according to the disease's severity (including radiographic pattern), onset, and rapidity of progression. These include: Using the Hierarchy of Controls , there are various methods of preventing exposure to respirable crystalline silica. The best way to prevent silicosis

354-535: A plural mining economy (state, private, and cooperative). However, over the last ten years much conflict has arisen between cooperative miners and state miners. In 2006, state miners and cooperatives clashed at Huanuni leaving 16 dead leading to the firing of Morales' first Mining Minister, a member of FENCOMIN. Most recently in 2016, Bolivia's Deputy Interior Minister Rodolfo Illanes was tortured and killed, allegedly by Bolivian cooperative miners. This outburst of violence has led to clashes between cooperative miners and

413-519: A specific tissue response to crystalline silica. In acute silicosis, microscopic pathology shows a periodic acid-Schiff positive alveolar exudate ( alveolar lipoproteinosis ) and a cellular infiltrate of the alveolar walls. Silicon (Si) is the second most common element in the Earth's crust after oxygen . The compound silica , also known as silicon dioxide (SiO 2 ), is formed from silicon and oxygen atoms. Since oxygen and silicon make up about 75% of

472-446: A workplace, and the use of water-integrated tools is not feasible, an industrial vacuum should be used to contain and transport dust to a safe location for disposal. Dust can also be controlled through personal dry air filtering. The use of personal protective equipment (PPE) is a measure of last resort when attempting to control exposure to respirable crystalline silica. Preventing silicosis may require specific measures. One example

531-427: Is a form of occupational lung disease caused by inhalation of crystalline silica dust. It is marked by inflammation and scarring in the form of nodular lesions in the upper lobes of the lungs . It is a type of pneumoconiosis . Silicosis, particularly the acute form, is characterized by shortness of breath , cough, fever, and cyanosis (bluish skin). It may often be misdiagnosed as pulmonary edema (fluid in

590-583: Is a mountain in the Andes near the Bolivian city of Potosí . Cerro Rico, which is popularly conceived of as being "made of" silver ore, is famous for providing vast quantities of silver for the Spanish Empire , most of which was shipped to metropolitan Spain. It is estimated that eighty-five percent of the silver produced in the central Andes during this time came from Cerro Rico. As a result of mining operations in

649-594: Is an occupational hazard to construction, railroad, demolition, mining , sandblasting , quarry, tunnelling, ceramics and foundry workers, as well as grinders, stone cutters, stone countertops , refractory brick workers, tombstone workers, workers in the oil and gas industry , pottery workers, fiberglass manufacturing, glass manufacturing, flint knappers and others. Brief or casual exposure to low levels of crystalline silica dust are said to not produce clinically significant lung disease. In less developed countries where work conditions are poor and respiratory equipment

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708-514: Is caused by long-term exposure to sand dust in desert areas, with cases reported from the Sahara, Libyan desert and the Negev. The disease is caused by deposition of this dust in the lung. Desert lung disease may be related to Al Eskan disease, a lung disorder thought to be caused by exposure to sand dust containing organic antigens, which was first diagnosed after the 1990 Gulf war. The relative importance of

767-463: Is composed of pure silicon dioxide, not combined with other elements, whereas silicates (e.g., talc , asbestos , and mica ) are SiO 2 combined with an appreciable portion of cations . Silica flour is nearly pure SiO 2 finely ground. Silica flour has been used as a polisher or buffer, as well as paint extender, abrasive, and filler for cosmetics. Silica flour has been associated with all types of silicosis, including acute silicosis. Silicosis

826-705: Is divided into 16 provinces which are further subdivided into 40 municipalities ( municipios ) and 219 cantons ( cantones ). The main languages spoken in the department are Quechua , Spanish and Aymara . The following table shows the number of speakers of recognized languages in Potosí and in all of Bolivia. 20°40′S 66°40′W  /  20.667°S 66.667°W  / -20.667; -66.667 Cerro Rico Cerro Rico (Spanish for "Rich Mountain"), Cerro Potosí ("Potosí Mountain") or Sumaq Urqu ( Quechua sumaq "beautiful, good, pleasant", urqu "mountain", "beautiful (good or pleasant) mountain"),

885-514: Is due to deposition of fine respirable dust (less than 10 micrometers in diameter ) containing crystalline silicon dioxide in the form of alpha-quartz, cristobalite, or tridymite. There are three key elements to the diagnosis of silicosis. First, the patient history should reveal exposure to sufficient silica dust to cause this illness. Second, chest imaging (usually chest x-ray) that reveals findings consistent with silicosis. Third, there are no underlying illnesses that are more likely to be causing

944-408: Is during tunnel construction where purpose-designed cabins are used in addition to air scrubbers to filter the air during construction. Items to be considered when selecting respiratory protection include whether it provides the correct level of protection, if facial fit testing has been provided, if the wearer is absent of facial hair, and how filters will be replaced. Exposure to siliceous dusts in

1003-429: Is in Potosí, has been given many privileges including favorable tax treatment to miners and exemption from labor and environmental regulations for cooperatives since the election of socialist president Evo Morales in 2006. After centuries of brutal Spanish extraction and forced labor, decades of foreign control and private investment in the late 20th century, and the failure of the state-run mining company COMIBOL led to

1062-416: Is known as "America's worst industrial disaster". The prevalence of silicosis led some men to grow what is called a miner's mustache, in an attempt to intercept as much dust as possible. Chronic simple silicosis has been reported to occur from environmental exposures to silica in regions with high silica soil content and frequent dust storms. Also, the mining establishment of Delamar Ghost Town , Nevada,

1121-692: Is seldom used, the life expectancy is low (e.g. for silver miners in Potosí , Bolivia, is around 40 years due to silicosis). Recently, silicosis in Turkish denim sandblasters was detected as a new cause of silicosis due to recurring, poor working conditions. Silicosis is seen in horses associated with inhalation of dust from certain cristobalite -containing soils in California. Social realist artist Noel Counihan depicted men who worked in industrial mines in Australia in

1180-933: Is the governor; until then, the office was called the prefect, and until 2006 the prefect was appointed by the President of Bolivia . The current governor, Jhonny Mamani of the Movement for Socialism – Political Instrument for the Sovereignty of the Peoples was elected on 7 March 2021. Under the 2009 Constitution, each Bolivian department has an elected Departmental Legislative Assembly. The first elections were held 4 April 2010. The current executive committee consists of Jacinto Sunagua Dorado as president, Raimunda Cordero Caba as vice-president and Alberto Quispe Mamani as secretary and Blanca Celia Burgos Quispe and Leon Jancko Condori as first and second committee member, respectively. The department

1239-506: Is the most common occupational lung disease worldwide. It occurs everywhere, but is especially common in developing countries. From 1991 to 1995, China reported more than 24,000 deaths due to silicosis each year. It also affects developed nations. In the United States, it is estimated that between one and two million workers have had occupational exposure to crystalline silica dust and 59,000 of these workers will develop silicosis sometime in

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1298-422: Is to avoid worker exposure to dust containing respirable crystalline silica. The next best preventive measure is to control the dust. Water-integrated tools are often used where dust is created during certain tasks. To avoid dust accumulating on clothing and skin, wear a disposable protective suit or seal clothes in an airtight bag and, if possible, shower once returning home. When dust starts accumulating around

1357-613: The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) reviewed the medical data and classified crystalline silica as " carcinogenic to humans." The risk was best seen in cases with underlying silicosis, with relative risks for lung cancer of 2–4. Numerous subsequent studies have been published confirming this risk. In 2006, Pelucchi et al. concluded, "The silicosis-cancer association is now established, in agreement with other studies and meta-analysis." When small silica dust particles are inhaled, they can embed themselves deeply into

1416-416: The 1940s dying of silicosis in his series of six prints, 'The miners' (1947 linocuts). A recent rise of cases in Australia has been associated with the manufacture and installation of engineered stone bench tops in kitchens and bathrooms. Engineered stone contains a very high proportion of silica. The Australian Government Department of Health established a National Dust Disease Taskforce in response to

1475-561: The British Ceramics Federation provide, as a free download, a guidance booklet. Archived 2023-04-19 at the Wayback Machine Silicosis is a permanent disease with no cure. Treatment options currently available focus on alleviating the symptoms and preventing any further progress of the condition. These include: Globally, silicosis resulted in 46,000 deaths in 2013, down from 55,000 deaths in 1990. Silicosis

1534-592: The Earth's crust, the compound silica is quite common. It is found in many rocks, such as granite , sandstone , gneiss and slate , and in some metallic ores. Silica can be a main component of sand. It can also be in soil, mortar, plaster, and shingles. The cutting, breaking, crushing, drilling, grinding, or abrasive blasting of these materials may produce fine to ultra fine airborne silica dust. Silica occurs in three forms: crystalline , microcrystalline (or cryptocrystalline ) and amorphous (non-crystalline). "Free" silica

1593-638: The abnormalities. Physical examination is usually unremarkable unless there is complicated disease. The examination findings are not specific for silicosis. Pulmonary function testing may reveal airflow limitation, restrictive defects, reduced diffusion capacity, mixed defects, or may be normal, especially without complicated disease. Most cases of silicosis do not require tissue biopsy for diagnosis, but this may be necessary in some cases, primarily to exclude other conditions. Assessment of alveolar crystal burden in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid may aid diagnosis. For uncomplicated silicosis, chest x-ray will confirm

1652-503: The ceramics industry is reduced by either processing and using the source materials as aqueous suspension or as damp solids, or by the use of dust control measures such as local exhaust ventilation . These have been mandated by legislation, such as The Pottery (Health and Welfare) Special Regulations 1950 . The Health and Safety Executive in the UK has produced guidelines on controlling exposure to respirable crystalline silica in potteries, and

1711-450: The construction of the Hawk's Nest Tunnel near Gauley Bridge, West Virginia , caused the death of at least 400 workers. Other accounts place the mortality figure at well over 1000 workers, primarily African American transient workers from the southern United States. Workers who became ill were fired and left the region, making an exact mortality account difficult. The Hawks Nest Tunnel Disaster

1770-469: The cooperatives. A former miner discussed the great risks of working at Cerro Rico with a reporter, but said that those working there had few other alternatives for earning a living. "You have to be crazy to work in the mines, with the conditions. But there are no other alternatives." Cerro Rico de Potosí was accidentally discovered in 1545 by Diego de Huallpa, a Quechua silver miner for the Spanish, while he

1829-619: The course of their lives. According to CDC data, silicosis in the United States is relatively rare. The incidence of deaths due to silicosis declined by 84% between 1968 and 1999, and only 187 deaths in 1999 had silicosis as the underlying or contributing cause. Additionally, cases of silicosis in Michigan, New Jersey, and Ohio are highly correlated to industry and occupation. The latest data from The Health and Safety Executive shows that there are typically between 10 and 20 annual silicosis deaths in recent years, with an average of 12 per year over

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1888-465: The development of a written exposure control plan, medical exams to highly exposed workers (optional for exposed employees), and training for workers on silica risks and how to limit exposures. Special equipment may be needed to prevent machine water from evaporating and leaving behind dust. The standard also provides requirements for cleaning up the slurry left behind when water-integrated tools are used as an engineering control. The medical exams include

1947-467: The displacement of 25,000 miners following plummeting mineral prices in the 1990s, "informal, self-managed associations" began selling "unrefined product to private operators". FENCOMIN (National Federation of Mining Cooperatives in Bolivia) was a vital player in insuring the successful popular election of Evo Morales and also functioned as one of the leaders in drafting Bolivia's new constitution establishing

2006-503: The early 21st century, an epidemic of silicosis was caused by the unsafe manufacturing of engineered stone countertops containing quartz (and obsidian), which became popular. Because chronic silicosis is slow to develop, signs and symptoms may not appear until years after exposure. Signs and symptoms include: In advanced cases, the following may also occur: Patients with silicosis are particularly susceptible to tuberculosis (TB) infection—known as silicotuberculosis . The reason for

2065-774: The increased risk—3 fold increased incidence—is not well understood. It is thought that silica damages pulmonary macrophages , inhibiting their ability to kill mycobacteria . Even workers with prolonged silica exposure, but without silicosis, are at a similarly increased risk for TB. Pulmonary complications of silicosis also include chronic bronchitis and airflow limitation (indistinguishable from that caused by smoking), non-tuberculous Mycobacterium infection, fungal lung infection, compensatory emphysema , and pneumothorax . There are some data revealing an association between silicosis and certain autoimmune diseases , including nephritis , scleroderma , and systemic lupus erythematosus , especially in acute or accelerated silicosis. In 1996,

2124-435: The introduction of a silver extraction method known as patio process , using mercury to form silver amalgams and extract silver from low-grade ores. Repartimiento was also a system of cyclical labor, so after their required time was done, many Amerindians would continue working at the mines as free wage laborers or mingas , despite the harsh conditions. Given the use of mercury and the high amount of silver extracted from

2183-569: The largest silver mines in Bolivia , and in the world, the Cerro Rico de Potosí mine to date has yielded an estimated 60,000 tons of silver, and deposits are thought to still contain estimated reserves of 1.76 billion ounces (50,000 tons) of silver and 540 million tons of ore grading 0.17% tin. The mine is located in the south of the country in Potosí Department . Silicosis Silicosis

2242-428: The last 10 years. In 2019 in the UK, there were 12 deaths in 10 years. Although silicosis has been a known occupational disease for centuries, the industrialization of mining has led to an increase in silicosis cases. Pneumatic drilling in mines and less commonly, mining using explosives , would raise fine-ultra fine crystalline silica dust (rock dust). In the United States, a 1930 epidemic of silicosis due to

2301-619: The lungs), pneumonia , or tuberculosis . Using workplace controls, silicosis is almost always a preventable disease. Silicosis resulted in at least 43,000 deaths globally in 2013, down from at least 50,000 deaths in 1990. The name silicosis (from the Latin silex , or flint) was originally used in 1870 by Achille Visconti (1836–1911), prosector in the Ospedale Maggiore of Milan. The recognition of respiratory problems from breathing in dust dates to ancient Greeks and Romans. Agricola , in

2360-404: The material if a governmental ban is not put in place. Silicosis has also been identified as one of many long-term health outcomes for first responders from the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, after having been exposed to dust containing high concentrations of respirable crystalline silica, as well as other metals and toxins. A non-occupational form of silicosis has been described that

2419-548: The mid-16th century, wrote about lung problems from dust inhalation in miners. In 1713, Bernardino Ramazzini noted asthmatic symptoms and sand-like substances in the lungs of stone cutters. The negative effects of milled calcined flint on the lungs of workers had been noted less than 10 years after its introduction as a raw material to the British ceramics industry in 1720. With industrialization, as opposed to hand tools, came increased production of dust. The pneumatic hammer drill

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2478-458: The mines, mercury poisoning among the Amerindian laborers was common, which caused many miners to die. Other harsh conditions at both the mines and refining patios also caused the deaths of miners during the Spanish rule, and it is believed that around eight million miners died in total. However, other sources estimate that it was "hundreds of thousands," and that eight million deaths were actually

2537-506: The mountain, the city of Potosí became one of the largest cities in the New World . It is said that revolutionary hero Simon Bolívar once waved a flag from the top of this monumental mountain in a historic moment that symbolized the founding of a new nation. Just a year later, congress decided to change the colors to yellow-red-green and include a coat of arms featuring the iconic condor, alpaca and Cerro Rico mine. The Cerro Rico de Potosí

2596-424: The number of reported cases of silicosis in 2018. Workplace health and safety regulations for cutting these bench tops have been tightened in response. The Construction, Forestry, Maritime, Mining and Energy Union , the major workplace trade union representing construction workers in Australia, has called for a nationwide ban on high-silicon engineered stone by 2024, and stated that it will ban its members from using

2655-674: The permissible exposure limit (PEL) for respirable crystalline silica from 250 to 50 micrograms per cubic meter of air, averaged over an 8-hour shift. The updated standard also shifts the focus of controlling silica exposure from the use of PPE ( respirators ) to the use of engineering controls (such as using water-integrated tools or vacuum systems) and administrative controls (limiting exposure time per shift). Employers are still required to provide respirators when engineering and administrative controls cannot adequately limit exposure. Additional provisions include limiting worker access to high exposure areas, signage requirements in high exposure areas,

2714-538: The police leaving five miners dead and severing a decade of strong ties between cooperative mining and the Morales government. Reports in 2019 indicate that the current output of the mines was predominantly tin and zinc by then and only small amounts of silver. One report estimates that a full 88% of the miners in Bolivia, roughly 8,000 to 10,000 (depending on the source making the estimate), including children, were working for

2773-448: The presence of small (< 10 mm) nodules in the lungs, especially in the upper lung zones. Using the ILO classification system, these are of profusion 1/0 or greater and shape/size "p", "q", or "r". Lung zone involvement and profusion increases with disease progression. In advanced cases of silicosis, large opacity (> 1 cm) occurs from coalescence of small opacities, particularly in

2832-556: The silica particle, thus resulting in fibrosis and the formation of the nodular lesions. The inflammatory effects of crystalline silica are apparently mediated by the NLRP3 inflammasome . Characteristic lung tissue pathology in nodular silicosis consists of fibrotic nodules with concentric "onion-skinned" arrangement of collagen fibers, central hyalinization , and a cellular peripheral zone, with lightly birefringent particles seen under polarized light . The silicotic nodule represents

2891-411: The silica particles themselves and the microorganisms that they carry in these health effects remains unclear. In March 2016, OSHA officially mandated that companies must provide certain safety measures for employees who work with or around silica , in order to prevent silicosis, lung cancer , and other silica-related diseases. One of the main updates to OSHA's silica standard was the reduction of

2950-525: The support of regional MAS-IPSP lawmakers, called for a strike spanning over 72 hours, to force the government to raise infrastructure investments in the department and to receive an increased amount of the profits generated through lithium mining in the region. Shortly after the strike an agreement with the central government was reached, stipulating the construction of motorways and a cement plant and further discussions about mining conditions. The chief executive office of Bolivia departments (since May 2010)

3009-507: The tiny alveolar sacs and ducts in the lungs, where oxygen and carbon dioxide gases are exchanged. There, the lungs cannot clear out the dust by mucus or coughing. When fine particles of crystalline silica dust are deposited in the lungs, macrophages that ingest the dust particles will set off an inflammatory response by releasing tumor necrosis factors , interleukin-1 , leukotriene B4 and other cytokines . In turn, these stimulate fibroblasts to proliferate and produce collagen around

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3068-536: The total number of deaths in the Viceroyalty of Peru, not just the mines in Potosí. It is known as the "mountain that eats men" because of the large number of workers who died in the mines. The work of historians such as Peter Bakewell, Noble David Cook, Enrique Tandeter and Raquel Gil Montero portray a more accurate description of the human-labor issue (free and non-free workers) with completely different estimates. Bolivia's cooperative mining sector, whose center

3127-404: The updated standard, OSHA created a table of specific engineering and administrative control methods to reduce silica exposure when using specific tools in 18 different applications that are known to create an exposure to silica from stationary masonry saws to using handheld grinders . An additional provision exists for small business who are provided flexibility. Both standards contained in

3186-465: The upper lung zones. With retraction of the lung tissue, there is compensatory emphysema . Enlargement of the hilum is common with chronic and accelerated silicosis. In about 5–10% of cases, the nodes will calcify circumferentially, producing so-called "eggshell" calcification . This finding is not pathognomonic (diagnostic) of silicosis. In some cases, the pulmonary nodules may also become calcified. A computed tomography or CT scan can also provide

3245-486: Was introduced in 1897 and sandblasting was introduced in about 1904, both significantly contributing to the increased prevalence of silicosis. In 1938, the United States Department of Labor , led by then Secretary of Labor Frances Perkins , produced a film titled Stop Silicosis to discuss the results of a year-long study done concerning a rise in the number of silicosis cases across the United States. In

3304-574: Was known as mita. During the first decades of extraction, the mines in Potosí had vast deposits of pure silver and silver chloride deposits, which made the extraction of silver relatively easy. Native American labor in the Andean regions was eventually preferred by the Spanish Crown, as opposed to African slave labor, due to high mortality and low productivity rates. By 1565, Cerro Rico had run out of high-grade silver ores. Extraction began anew after

3363-404: Was ruined by a dry-mining process that produced a silicosis-causing dust. After hundreds of deaths from silicosis, the town was nicknamed The Widowmaker . The problem in those days was somewhat resolved with an addition of a nozzle to the drill which sprayed a mist of water, turning dust raised by drilling into mud, but this inhibited mining work. Because of work-exposure to silica dust, silicosis

3422-504: Was searching the mountain for an Inca shrine or traditional burial offering. The red mountain, now known as Cerro Rico, sits between the Porco and Sucre mines, which had previously been discovered, being at lower altitudes and therefore easier to mine. Once Cerro Rico was found to carry predominantly silver ores, mining focus shifted to the harvesting of the more lucrative ore over ores like tin, zinc, and lead found in Porco and Sucre. Now one of

3481-430: Was the richest source of silver in the history of mankind. The extraction of mineral ores in Cerro Rico de Potosí began in 1545 by the Spanish Empire . Between the 16th and 18th century, 80% of the world's silver supply came out of this mine. After centuries of extractive mining methods that severely damaged the local ecology the mountain continues to be mined for silver to this day. Due to poor worker conditions, such as

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