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84-670: Potonchán , was a Chontal Maya city, capital of the minor kingdom known as Tavasco or Tabasco . It occupied the left bank of the Tabasco River, which the Spanish renamed the Grijalva River , in the current Mexican state of Tabasco . Juan de Grijalva arrived to this town on June 8, 1518, and christened the river with his name and met with the Maya chief Tabscoob to whom, it is said, he gave his green velvet doublet. Later, on March 12, 1519,

168-427: A 1 g lateral acceleration earthquake load. Such an acceleration will cause lateral loads on the walls, resulting in shear and bending and inducing tensile stresses. To withstand such loads, the codes typically call for a tensile modulus of rupture strength of at least 50 lbf/in (0.345 newton/mm ) for the finished block. In addition to being an inexpensive material with a small resource cost, adobe can serve as

252-421: A 10-inch wall R 0 =4.1 hr ft °F/Btu. Another source provides the following properties: conductivity=0.30 Btu/(hr ft °F) or 0.52 W/(m K); specific heat capacity=0.24 Btu/(lb °F) or 1 kJ/(kg K) and density=106 lb/ft or 1700 kg/m , giving heat capacity=25.4 Btu/(ft °F) or 1700 kJ/(m K). Using the average value of the thermal conductivity as k = 32 Btu/(hr ft °F) or 0.55 W/(m K), the thermal diffusivity

336-846: A chimney can greatly influence the construction of the roof supports, creating an extra need for care in choosing the materials. The builders can make an adobe chimney by stacking simple adobe bricks in a similar fashion as the surrounding walls. In 1927, the Uniform Building Code (UBC) was adopted in the United States. Local ordinances, referencing the UBC added requirements to building with adobe. These included: restriction of building height of adobe structures to 1-story, requirements for adobe mix (compressive and shear strength) and new requirements which stated that every building shall be designed to withstand seismic activity, specifically lateral forces. By

420-454: A factor which has contributed to its longevity as a building material. Thermodynamic material properties have significant variation in the literature. Some experiments suggest that the standard consideration of conductivity is not adequate for this material, as its main thermodynamic property is inertia, and conclude that experimental tests should be performed over a longer period of time than usual - preferably with changing thermal jumps. There

504-420: A few hours, the bricks are turned on edge to finish drying. Slow drying in shade reduces cracking. The same mixture, without straw, is used to make mortar and often plaster on interior and exterior walls. Some cultures used lime -based cement for the plaster to protect against rain damage. Depending on the form into which the mixture is pressed, adobe can encompass nearly any shape or size, provided drying

588-466: A greater expanse is covered when placing the bricks onto the roof. Following each individual brick should be a layer of adobe mortar, recommended to be at least 25 mm (1 in) thick to make certain there is ample strength between the brick's edges and also to provide a relative moisture barrier during rain. Roof design evolved around 1850 in the American Southwest. Three inches of adobe mud

672-583: A horizontal bearing plate for the roof beams and to redistribute lateral earthquake loads to shear walls more able to carry the forces. To protect the interior and exterior adobe walls, finishes such as mud plaster, whitewash or stucco can be applied. These protect the adobe wall from water damage, but need to be reapplied periodically. Alternatively, the walls can be finished with other nontraditional plasters that provide longer protection. Bricks made with stabilized adobe generally do not need protection of plasters. The traditional adobe roof has been constructed using

756-624: A mix of not more than 1 ⁄ 3 clay, not less than 1 ⁄ 2 sand, and never more than 1 ⁄ 3 silt. During the Great Depression , designer and builder Hugh W. Comstock used cheaper materials and made a specialized adobe brick called "Bitudobe." His first adobe house was built in 1936. In 1948, he published the book Post-Adobe; Simplified Adobe Construction Combining A Rugged Timber Frame And Modern Stabilized Adobe, which described his method of construction, including how to make "Bitudobe." In 1938, he served as an adviser to

840-410: A mixture of soil/clay, water, sand and organic materials. The mixture was then formed and pressed into wood forms, producing rows of dried earth bricks that would then be laid across a support structure of wood and plastered into place with more adobe. Depending on the materials available, a roof may be assembled using wood or metal beams to create a framework to begin layering adobe bricks. Depending on

924-456: A result, family cohesion has suffered and traditions, especially those pertaining to the traditional economy, are not as well preserved. There is also a major alcoholism problem caused by difficulty adapting to mainstream Mexican society and the comparative wealth experienced by recent arrivals to the cities. Adobe Adobe ( / ə ˈ d oʊ b i / ə- DOH -bee ; Spanish pronunciation: [aˈðoβe] )

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1008-403: A significant heat reservoir due to the thermal properties inherent in the massive walls typical in adobe construction. In climates typified by hot days and cool nights, the high thermal mass of adobe mediates the high and low temperatures of the day, moderating the temperature of the living space. The massive walls require a large and relatively long input of heat from the sun ( radiation ) and from

1092-499: A translator, told some natives that were in a boat that "he would do no harm, to those who came in peace and that he only wanted to speak with them." But Cortés, seeing that the natives were still threatening, ordered weapons brought on the boats and handed them to archers and musketeers, and he began planning how to attack the town. On the day following March 13, 1519, the chaplain Juan Díaz and Brother Bartolomé of Olmedo, officiated what

1176-485: A while, the chief Tabscoob appeared with his nobles to greet Grijalva. During the talk, both figures exchanged gifts: to Grijalva, Tabscoob presented some gold plates in the form of armor and some feathers; whereas Grijalva gave the Mayan chief his green velvet doublet. Tabscoob told the Spanish captain of a place called Culua that was "toward where the sun set..." there was much more of that material. Grijalva in turn, spoke with

1260-507: A year after, on March 12, 1519, the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés arrived at the mouth of the Grijalva river. He decided to have his ships drop anchor and enter the river in skiffs , in search of the great city of Indians described by Juan de Grijalva. Cortés landed right at the mouth of the river, at a place named "Punta de los Palmares." "On the twelfth day of the month of March of the year one-thousand five-hundred nineteen, we arrived at

1344-500: Is a building material made from earth and organic materials. Adobe is Spanish for mudbrick . In some English-speaking regions of Spanish heritage, such as the Southwestern United States , the term is used to refer to any kind of earthen construction, or various architectural styles like Pueblo Revival or Territorial Revival . Most adobe buildings are similar in appearance to cob and rammed earth buildings. Adobe

1428-424: Is among the earliest building materials, and is used throughout the world. Adobe architecture has been dated to before 5,100 BCE. Adobe bricks are rectangular prisms small enough that they can quickly air dry individually without cracking. They can be subsequently assembled, with the application of adobe mud to bond the individual bricks into a structure. There is no standard size, with substantial variations over

1512-424: Is an effective R-value for a north facing 10-in wall of R0=10 hr ft °F/Btu, which corresponds to thermal conductivity k=10 in x 1 ft/12 in /R0=0.33 Btu/(hr ft °F) or 0.57 W/(m K) in agreement with the thermal conductivity reported from another source. To determine the total R-value of a wall, scale R 0 by the thickness of the wall in inches. The thermal resistance of adobe is also stated as an R-value for

1596-476: Is calculated to be 0.013 ft /h or 3.3x10 m /s. Poured and puddled adobe (puddled clay, piled earth), today called cob , is made by placing soft adobe in layers, rather than by making individual dried bricks or using a form. "Puddle" is a general term for a clay or clay and sand-based material worked into a dense, plastic state. These are the oldest methods of building with adobe in the Americas until holes in

1680-469: Is celebrated for the flood season. During the 1980s, the Catholic Church sought to decrease the influence of Protestant missionaries, who had established themselves in the region as stalwarts against alcoholism and la costumbre , or traditional Maya religious practices. In response, the Catholic Church formed groups of neighborhood catechists to take a hardline stance. They gave Catholic studies of

1764-436: Is even and the mixture includes reinforcement for larger bricks. Reinforcement can include manure, straw, cement, rebar , or wooden posts. Straw, cement, or manure added to a standard adobe mixture can produce a stronger, more crack-resistant brick. A test is done on the soil content first. To do so, a sample of the soil is mixed into a clear container with some water, creating an almost completely saturated liquid. The container

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1848-439: Is generally done in under one of these awnings. One modern element of house construction that has been incorporated is the use of nails. The Yoko'tan family is nuclear, monogamous, and cohesive. There is a tendency to marry young, and gender roles are specifically defined. Nonetheless, women are accorded more respect in traditional villages than in villages with high mestizo populations. The original mythology and cosmogony of

1932-567: Is humid and tropical, and the fauna was typical of tropical regions until the environment was altered by human industrialization . The mangrove is the predominant form of vegetation. The territory of the Yokot'an was the cradle of the Olmec civilization, which lived there from about 1400 BCE until about 400 BCE. The Maya civilization reached its height in about the year 300 of the Common Era . At this time,

2016-540: Is no longer profitable. The agriculture of the Yokot'an has been studied extensively and has been shown to be related to ancient Maya agrarian methods. They cultivate high-altitude lands that are enriched with mineral-rich loam by flooding. The principal crop is maize . Agriculture has been in decline since the Spanish conquest of Mexico , when animal husbandry was introduced. Maize, beans, and squash are planted seasonally. While fishing may have been as an important part of

2100-523: Is shaken vigorously for one minute. It is then allowed to settle for a day until the soil has settled into layers. Heavier particles settle out first, sand above, silt above that, and very fine clay and organic matter will stay in suspension for days. After the water has cleared, percentages of the various particles can be determined. Fifty to 60 percent sand and 35 to 40 percent clay will yield strong bricks. The Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service at New Mexico State University recommends

2184-608: Is stabilized with either emulsified asphalt or Portland cement up to 10% by weight. No more than half the clay content should be expansive clays , with the remainder non-expansive illite or kaolinite. Too much expansive clay results in uneven drying through the brick, resulting in cracking, while too much kaolinite will make a weak brick. Typically the soils of the Southwest United States, where such construction has been widely used, are an adequate composition. Adobe walls are load bearing, i.e. they carry their own weight into

2268-686: Is that "poton" comes from the name the Chontal Maya called themselves: the Putún Maya which was also spelled Poton; thus it most likely translates as "Poton place." The city of Potonchán was located on the left on delivered of the Tabasco River, which was christened the Grijalva River by the Spaniards, and according to the chronicles of Bernal Diaz del Castillo , it was a league from the coast. The city

2352-470: Is useful in binding the brick together and allowing the brick to dry evenly, thereby preventing cracking due to uneven shrinkage rates through the brick. Dung offers the same advantage. The most desirable soil texture for producing the mud of adobe is 15% clay, 10–30% silt, and 55–75% fine sand. Another source quotes 15–25% clay and the remainder sand and coarser particles up to cobbles 50 to 250 mm (2 to 10 in), with no deleterious effect. Modern adobe

2436-479: The 1976 Guatemala earthquake , the 2003 Bam earthquake , and the 2010 Chile earthquake . Buildings made of sun-dried earth are common throughout the world (Middle East, Western Asia, North Africa, West Africa, South America, Southwestern North America, Southwestern and Eastern Europe.). Adobe had been in use by indigenous peoples of the Americas in the Southwestern United States, Mesoamerica , and

2520-697: The Andes for several thousand years. Puebloan peoples built their adobe structures with handsful or basketsful of adobe, until the Spanish introduced them to making bricks. Adobe bricks were used in Spain from the Late Bronze and Iron Ages (eighth century BCE onwards). Its wide use can be attributed to its simplicity of design and manufacture, and economics. The word adobe / ə ˈ d oʊ b iː / has existed for around 4,000 years with relatively little change in either pronunciation or meaning. The word can be traced from

2604-595: The Middle Egyptian ( c.  2000 BC ) word ḏbt "mud brick" (with vowels unwritten). Middle Egyptian evolved into Late Egyptian and finally to Coptic ( c.  600 BC ), where it appeared as ⲧⲱⲃⲉ tōbə . This was adopted into Arabic as الطوب aṭ-ṭawbu or aṭ-ṭūbu , with the definite article al- attached to the root tuba . This was assimilated into the Old Spanish language as adobe [aˈdobe] , probably via Mozarabic . English borrowed

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2688-719: The Nahuatl word for chontalli , which means "foreigner", has been applied to various ethnic groups in Mexico. The Chontal refer to themselves as the Yokot'anob or the Yokot'an , meaning "the speakers of Yoko ochoco ", but writers about them refer to them as the Chontal of Centla, the Tabasco Chontal, or in Spanish, Chontales . They consider themselves the descendants of the Olmecs , and are not related to

2772-547: The Oaxacan Chontal . The Yokot'an inhabit 21 towns in a large area known as "la Chontalpa " that extends across five municipalities of Tabasco : Centla , El Centro , Jonuta , Macuspana , and Nacajuca . In Nacajuca, they form a majority of the population. The terrain is highly varied — no single landform dominates — and it has many bodies of water. The land is traversed by seasonally-flooding rivers, and there are numerous lakes, lagoons, and wetlands. The climate

2856-467: The hunting of small game. In the Terminal Classic period Chontal Maya merchants controlled river and coastal trade routes in the Maya lowlands. Another source of income is palm-wood artisanry. In the past, the manufacture of oyster -shell lime for mortar was an important economic activity, but the availability of mass-produced building materials has reduced demand to the point where its production

2940-532: The Gospel, discouraged the making of ofrendas (dedications to saints upon the building or purchase of a new house). They even discouraged music and dance. This strong Catholic stance against la costumbre prompted a general withdrawal of the people from service to the Church and the decentralization of feast day celebration. Now the feasts are celebrated privately, among the family. Most Yoko'tan are bilingual. Yoko ochoco

3024-486: The Grijalva river, that is called Tabasco(...) and in the skiffs we all went to disembark at the Punta de los Palmares," that was by the town of Potonchán or Tabasco, about half a league. They walked along the river and on the shore among bushes all full of Indian warriors(...) and so on, they were together in the village more than two thousand warriors prepared to make war with us..." To discover their intentions, Cortés, by way of

3108-492: The Indians flee and take refuge in the mountains. In this manner, Cortés took possession of the great main square of Potonchán, in which there were rooms and great halls and which had three houses of idols. "...we came upon a great courtyard, which had some chambers and great halls, and had three houses of idols. In the "cúes" [temples] of that court, which Cortés ordered that we would repair (...) and there Cortés took possession of

3192-510: The Indians gave the Europeans 20 young women, including a woman who has been referred to as Malintze , Malintzin, and Malinalli by differing sources. The Spaniards gave her the name Dona Marina, and she served as counselor and interpreter for Cortés. Later, Cortés had a son with her. Chontal Maya people The Chontal Maya are a Maya people of the Mexican state of Tabasco . "Chontal", from

3276-504: The Indians lost, owing primarily to the higher technology of the Spaniard's weapons. "... And we came upon them with all the Captaincies and squads. They had departed in search of us, and they brought great plumes, drums and small trumpets. Their faces were red with ochre , pale and dark. They had great bows and arrows and spears and bucklers (...) and they were in such large squads that all

3360-469: The Mayan chief with courtesy, admitting that he came in the name of a great lord named Charles V , who was very good, and he wanted to have them as vassals. Tabscoob responded that they lived happily as they were, and that they needed no other lord, and that if he wanted to preserve his friendship with Tabscoob, Grijalva's expedition should leave. Grijalva, after stocking water and provisions, embarked on his way to Culua (modern-day San Juan de Ulúa ). Nearly

3444-504: The Spaniards that, if they disembarked, they would be killed. They began to shoot arrows at Cortés' soldiers, initiating combat. "... and they surrounded us with their canoes with such a spray of arrows that they made us stop with water up to our waists, and there was so much mud that we could get out and many Indians charged us with spears and others pierced us with arrows, ensuring that we did not touch land as soon as we would have liked, and with so much mud we couldn't even move, and Cortés

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3528-601: The Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés arrived. Cortés, unlike Grijalva, was received by the natives in a warlike fashion, leading to the Battle of Centla . After the native defeat, Cortés founded the first Spanish settlement in New Spain , the town of Santa María de la Victoria , on top of Potonchán. The word Potonchán comes from the Nahuatl : "pononi" means "smell" and "chan" is a toponymic termination; therefore, it translates as "place that smells." Another, more plausible, etymology

3612-485: The Yokot'an economy as agriculture in Pre-Columbian times, today, due to environmental degradation , it doesn't have the same importance. The people continue, however, to fish, especially during periods of abundance. There are three main groups of fishermen. The " libre " ("free") fishermen use very simple "hoop and basket" technology and work in small groups led by an elected "boss". Members of official cooperatives enjoy

3696-585: The Yokot'an is only beginning to be studied. Their myths are filled with supernatural water- and mangrove-creatures, and the story of La Llorona is also told. Public religious displays center around feast days due the adoption of the Catholic faith. The most important feasts are of Our Lady of Mount Carmel , the Immaculate Conception (December 8), and the Archangel Michael (September 29). April 29

3780-423: The Yokot'an were also at their cultural apex. They had already begun to decline by the time of the Spanish conquest of Yucatán , and are mentioned in the narratives of Bernal Díaz del Castillo and Hernán Cortés . In 1518, Juan de Grijalva arrived in Yokot'an lands, and was greeted with hostility. The next year, Cortés's expedition reached Tabasco, and he met with Tabscoob and other chiefs , who supplied him

3864-688: The Yucatán Peninsula, from the Laguna de Términos in Campeche to the center of Sula in Honduras . At a point located between the current states of Tabasco and Campeche, the Mexica port of Xicalango was found with whom Potochán fought countless wars for control of the territory. The last of these great wars was won by Potonchán just before the year 1512. In tribute, the people of Xicalango presented several women to

3948-510: The architects Franklin & Kump Associates, who built the Carmel High School , which used his Post-adobe system. The ground supporting an adobe structure should be compressed, as the weight of adobe wall is significant and foundation settling may cause cracking of the wall. Footing depth is to be below the ground frost level. The footing and stem wall are commonly 24 and 14 inches thick, respectively. Modern construction codes call for

4032-492: The arrival of Juan de Grijalva's expedition in 1518, it "had more than two thousand Indians..." For his part, Bernal Diaz del Castillo in Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España , says that when they reached Potonchán, it had "over twelve thousand warriors ready to attack [in the main square], plus the riverbank was all full of Indians in the bushes...." Peter Martyr says in his chronicle, that "the great city flanks

4116-419: The battle ended, Cortés and his men returned to Potonchán, and where they healed the wounded and buried the dead. On the following day, ambassadors sent by Tabscoob arrived at the Spanish camp with gifts because, according to Indian tradition, the loser must give gifts to the winner. Among the gifts were gold, jewelry, jade, turquoise, animal skins, domestic animals, feathers of precious birds, etc. Furthermore,

4200-584: The benefits of official organization, but are often underpaid. The third group consists of well-equipped business owners who work with contractors. The raising of livestock, unlike fishing, is a growing sector of the economy, often at the expense of agriculture. Many shallow lagoons formerly used for fishing have been drained for use as pastureland. The Yoko'tan hunt game such as the White-tailed deer , but small game has much more importance. Hats are woven from palm and sleeping mats called petates are woven from

4284-460: The best upon which the sun shines; if it were to be more settled, it would serve well as a capital: it is called the Potonchán province." Once ashore, Juan de Grijalva, with the help of Mayan interpreters that he had taken earlier, began to strike up a friendly dialog. In addition to flattering the natives with gifts, Grijalva begged them to call their boss to meet and hold talks with him. And so, after

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4368-523: The chief Tascoob, one of which was Malintzin (famed as " La Malinche "), who was later given to Cortés after the Battle of Centla in 1519. The little that is known of Potonchán is thanks to the chronicles of the Spanish conquistadors . With regards to its population, it is known that it was one of the most populated Mayan cities of the Tabasco Plain, because the cleric Juan Díaz, in his " Itinerary ," speaks of

4452-428: The coast, about six miles away from land, we saw a very large stream of water coming out of a major river, the fresh water was spewing approximately six miles out to sea. And with that current we could not enter by said river, which we named the Grijalva River. We were being followed by more than two thousand Indians and they were making signs of war (...) This river flows from very high mountains, and this land seems to be

4536-609: The fibers of cañita , the Cyperus giganteus , but the primary craft of the Yoko'tan people is the dugout canoe and its smaller counterpart, the cayuco , which is used for fishing and to reach the many islands used for planting. Traditional houses are rectangular in shape, made of palm, wood and are supported by six to eight posts. The roofs are steep to minimize the effect of the heavy rains, and are built by hired professionals. Houses tend to be surrounded by overhangs for outdoor work. Kitchen work

4620-516: The first in New Spain to give obedience to His Majesty. In 1614, the first church was built in Nacajuca, then considered the center of the Yokot'an world. Nacajuca was the only urban center to survive the colonial period , partly due to the introduction of animal husbandry, which limited the range of cultivation. The traditional economy is based on agriculture , fishing , the raising of livestock , and

4704-412: The foundation rather than by another structure, hence the adobe must have sufficient compressive strength. In the United States, most building codes call for a minimum compressive strength of 300 lbf/in (2.07 newton/mm ) for the adobe block. Adobe construction should be designed so as to avoid lateral structural loads that would cause bending loads. The building codes require the building sustain

4788-401: The ground were used as forms, and later wooden forms used to make individual bricks were introduced by the Spanish. Bricks made from adobe are usually made by pressing the mud mixture into an open timber frame. In North America, the brick is typically about 25 by 36 cm (10 by 14 in) in size. The mixture is molded into the frame, which is removed after initial setting. After drying for

4872-474: The king that decree was made... " The next day, Captain Cortés sent Pedro de Alvarado with a hundred soldiers so that he could go up to six miles inland, and he sent Francisco de Lugo, with another hundred soldiers, to a different part. Francisco de Lugo ran into warrior squads, starting a new battle. Upon hearing the shots and drums, Alvarado went in aid of Lugo, and together, after a long fight, they were able to make

4956-400: The land, for his Majesty and in his royal name, in the following manner: His sword drawn, he dealt three stabs to a large ceiba tree in a sign of possession. The tree was in the square of that great town and he said that if there were one person that contradicted him, he would defend it with his sword and all those that were present said it was okay to take the land (...) And before a notary of

5040-402: The name of chief or lord of Tabasco. The encounter between Juan de Grijalva and the Mayan chief Tabscoob occurred in Potonchán on June 8, 1518. For its internal government, having the same Mayan costumes and laws, they adopted the same governmental system that existed from when they were united until the collapse of the Mayan empire. That is, with the three existing social classes: nobility and

5124-447: The natives flee. The Spaniards returned to town to inform Cortés. Hernán Cortés was informed by an Indian prisoner that the Indians would attack the town, and so he ordered that all the horses be unloaded from the ships and that soldiers prepare their weapons. The next day, early in the morning, Cortés and his men went through plains to Cintla or Centla, subject towns of Potonchán, where the day before Alvarado and Lugo had fought against

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5208-402: The natives. There they found thousands of Indians, beginning Battle of Centla. The Spaniards were attacked by Chontal Maya Indians. The Spaniards defended themselves with firearms like muskets and cannons, which produced terror in the Indians, but what terrified them more was seeing the Spanish cavalry, which they had never seen. The Indians believed that both rider and horse were one. In the end

5292-504: The pieces, and it is preferred to ram the mud in situ , resulting in a different typology known as rammed earth . In dry climates, adobe structures are extremely durable, and account for some of the oldest existing buildings in the world. Adobe buildings offer significant advantages due to their greater thermal mass , but they are known to be particularly susceptible to earthquake damage if they are not reinforced. Cases where adobe structures were widely damaged during earthquakes include

5376-451: The priesthood, tributaries, and slaves. It was like that until the arrival of Hernán Cortés in 1519. The first Spanish expedition to touch Tabascan land was led by Juan de Grijalva, who on June 8, 1518, discovered for Western eyes the territory that is now the state of Tabasco. Grijalva arrived that day at the mouth of a great river, which the crew named "Grijalva" in honor of their captain, its discoverer. Juan de Grijalva decided to go down

5460-409: The river of Tabasco, so great that it has twenty-five thousand houses..." This gives us an idea of the size of the city and of the quantity of inhabitants Potonchán would have had, as well as the natives that were living in nearby towns under control of Potonchán proper. The city was very inhabited, the houses were made mostly of adobe . Potonchán counted on intense commercial activity, in fact, this

5544-587: The river to discover the inland area, and found four canoes full of Indians, painted and making gesticulations and gestures of war. They showed their displeasure with his arrival, but Grijalva sent the Indians Julián and Melchorejo so that they could explain to the natives in the Mayan tongue that they came in peace. Thus they continued along the river and, after less than a league, discovered the population of Potonchán. "We started eight days in June 1518 and going armed to

5628-427: The savanna was covered. They came furiously and surrounded us on all sides. The first attack wounded more than seventy of us, and there were three hundred Indians for each one of us (...) and being in this, we saw how the cavalry came from behind them and we trapped them with them on one side and we on the other. And the Indians believed that the horse and the rider were one, as they had never seen horses before..." After

5712-406: The surrounding air ( convection ) before they warm through to the interior. After the sun sets and the temperature drops, the warm wall will continue to transfer heat to the interior for several hours due to the time-lag effect. Thus, a well-planned adobe wall of the appropriate thickness is very effective at controlling inside temperature through the wide daily fluctuations typical of desert climates,

5796-562: The thickness of the adobe bricks, the framework has been preformed using a steel framing and a layering of a metal fencing or wiring over the framework to allow an even load as masses of adobe are spread across the metal fencing like cob and allowed to air dry accordingly. This method was demonstrated with an adobe blend heavily impregnated with cement to allow even drying and prevent cracking. The more traditional flat adobe roofs are functional only in dry climates that are not exposed to snow loads. The heaviest wooden beams, called vigas , lie atop

5880-473: The translator who later became known as Doña Marina or La Malinche . According to Díaz, "Before we left, Cortés won the chiefs by his many kind words, telling them how our master, the Emperor, had many grand lords who gave him obedience and that they should also obey him ; that whatever they might need we would give them. All the chiefs thanked him very much and declared themselves vassals of our great emperor,

5964-429: The urban design of the city, very little is known. Owing to the nature of the place, in which many structures were made of "seto" (hedgerows) and "guano" (palms of genus Coccothrinax ). In other cases, the vestiges disappeared at the initiation of Spanish construction of the town of Santa María de la Victoria, which was built over top the indigenous structures. The Tabascan historian Manuel Gil Saenz reports that around

6048-434: The use of reinforcing steel in the footing and stem wall. Adobe bricks are laid by course. Adobe walls usually never rise above two stories as they are load bearing and adobe has low structural strength. When creating window and door openings, a lintel is placed on top of the opening to support the bricks above. Atop the last courses of brick, bond beams made of heavy wood beams or modern reinforced concrete are laid to provide

6132-418: The wall. Across the vigas lie smaller members called latillas and upon those brush is then laid. Finally, the adobe layer is applied. To construct a flat adobe roof, beams of wood were laid to span the building, the ends of which were attached to the tops of the walls. Once the vigas, latillas and brush are laid, adobe bricks are placed. An adobe roof is often laid with bricks slightly larger in width to ensure

6216-425: The water's salinity. Some species have been driven to extinction and others have abandoned the affected habitats, reducing the average catch. The mangrove has receded and has thus been able to provide fewer forest resources. These actions have spurred local peoples movements against Pemex and their contractors. The environmental degradation has driven many Yokot'an, especially men, to urban centers for employment. As

6300-553: The word from Spanish in the early 18th century, still referring to mudbrick construction. In more modern English usage, the term adobe has come to include a style of architecture popular in the desert climates of North America, especially in New Mexico , regardless of the construction method. An adobe brick is a composite material made of earth mixed with water and an organic material such as straw or dung . The soil composition typically contains sand , silt and clay . Straw

6384-427: The year 1872, near the port of Frontera , excavations resulting from some "monterías" (logging camps) discovered several remains of columns, idols, jars, vases and even ruins of pyramids. Although the date of its foundation is unknown, it is known that it was due to the separation that occurred among the Maya of Mayapan and the Chontal Maya. The latter formed Potonchán's kingdom, whose head was Tabscoob, who ruled under

6468-426: The years and in different regions. In some areas a popular size measured 8 by 4 by 12 inches (20 cm × 10 cm × 30 cm) weighing about 25 pounds (11 kg); in other contexts the size is 10 by 4 by 14 inches (25 cm × 10 cm × 36 cm) weighing about 35 pounds (16 kg). The maximum sizes can reach up to 100 pounds (45 kg); above this weight it becomes difficult to move

6552-445: Was applied on top of the latillas, then 18 inches of dry adobe dirt applied to the roof. The dirt was contoured into a low slope to a downspout aka a 'canal'. When moisture was applied to the roof the clay particles expanded to create a waterproof membrane. Once a year it was necessary to pull the weeds from the roof and re-slope the dirt as needed. Depending on the materials, adobe roofs can be inherently fire-proof. The construction of

6636-482: Was fighting and he lost a shoe in the mud and came to land with one bare foot(...) and we were upon them on land crying to St. James and we made them retreat to a wall that was made of timber, until we breached it and came in to fight with them(...) we forced them through a road and there they turned to fight face-to-face and they fought very valiantly...." Alonso de Ávila arrived to the combat developing within Potonchán with his hundred men who went traveled by land, making

6720-427: Was in danger of dying out, but flourished in the 1980s after official preservation efforts. Environmental decline began with the draining of shallow lakes for pastureland when the raising of livestock was introduced. Land formerly used for cultivation was also used for grazing. More recently, Pemex has extensively polluted the waters of northern Tabasco and caused other ecologically-threatening changes such as altering

6804-537: Was located in the midst of the jungle, Potonchán was a maritime port and fluvial, which allowed it to have an intense commercial exchange both with the towns of the Yucatán Peninsula and with those of the central High Plains. The Chontal Maya took full advantage of their environment, using the rivers as routes of transportation and communication with different Mayan cities and provinces. They were good navigators and merchants and controlled many maritime routes around

6888-410: Was located on a small hill of sandstone, practically surrounded by water on three sides. On one side was, the river, and on the other two sides, swamps. It was in a region of extensive floodplains. Potonchán was the capital of the cacicazgo of Tabasco, and was one of two principal cities of the Chontal Maya, along with Itzamkanac , capital of the cacicazgo of Acalán . However, unlike Itzamkanac which

6972-462: Was the first Christian mass in the continental territory of New Spain. Afterwards, Cortés sent Alonso de Ávila with one hundred soldiers out on the road leading to the village, while Cortés and the other group of soldiers went in the boats. There, on the shore, Cortés made a "requerimiento" (requisition) in front of a notary of the king named Diego de Godoy, to let them disembark, thus issuing the first notarial act in Mexico. The natives refused, telling

7056-439: Was the predominant activity. Across the sea, Potonchán had an important river-based trade with towns like Guazacualco , Xicalango, Chakán Putum and Kaan Peech . It also had commercial ties to the Mayan provinces of Acalán and Mazatlán located in the jungles of what is today the border area of the states Tabasco and Campeche with Guatemala . This trade reached as far as the port of Nito on Guatemala's Atlantic Coast. Regarding

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