Misplaced Pages

#664335

94-571: Potash is produced worldwide in amounts exceeding 71.9 million tonnes (~45.4 million tonnes K 2 O equivalent) per year as of 2021, with Canada being the largest producer, mostly for use in fertilizer . Various kinds of fertilizer-potash constitute the single greatest industrial use of the element potassium in the world. Potassium was first derived in 1807 by electrolysis of caustic potash ( potassium hydroxide ). Potash refers to potassium compounds and potassium-bearing materials, most commonly potassium carbonate. The word "potash" originates from

188-743: A catalyst for synthetic rubber manufacturing. Also combined with silica sand to produce potassium silicate , sometimes known as waterglass , for use in paints and arc welding electrodes. These non-fertilizer uses have accounted for about 15% of annual potash consumption in the United States. No substitutes exist for potassium as an essential plant nutrient and as an essential nutritional requirement for animals and humans. Manure and glauconite (greensand) are low-potassium-content sources that can be profitably transported only short distances to crop fields. Tonne The tonne ( / t ʌ n / or / t ɒ n / ; symbol:  t )

282-658: A ton typically refers to a short ton of 2,000 lb (907.2 kg) and to a lesser extent to a long ton of 2,240 lb (1,016 kg), with the term tonne rarely used in speech or writing. Both terms are acceptable in Canadian English . Ton and tonne are both derived from a Germanic word in general use in the North Sea area since the Middle Ages (cf. Old English and Old Frisian tunne , Old High German and Medieval Latin tunna , German and French tonne ) to designate

376-728: A decision on its future. The German sailors opened the seacocks and scuttled all the ships . Most ships were salvaged, but the remaining wrecks are now a favoured haunt of recreational divers. One month into World War II, a German U-boat sank the Royal Navy battleship HMS  Royal Oak in Scapa Flow. As a result, barriers were built to close most of the access channels; these had the additional advantage of creating causeways enabling travellers to go from island to island by road instead of being obliged to rely on ferries. The causeways were constructed by Italian prisoners of war, who also constructed

470-537: A distinctive dialect of the Scots language and have a rich body of folklore. Orkney contains some of the oldest and best-preserved Neolithic sites in Europe; the " Heart of Neolithic Orkney " is a designated UNESCO World Heritage Site . Orkney also has an abundance of marine and avian wildlife. Pytheas of Massalia visited Britain – probably sometime between 322 and 285 BC – and described it as triangular in shape, with

564-401: A factor in the growing potash and fertilizer use. With more money in the household budget, consumers added more meat and dairy products to their diets. This shift in eating patterns required more acres to be planted, more fertilizer to be applied and more animals to be fed—all requiring more potash. After years of trending upward, fertilizer use slowed in 2008. The worldwide economic downturn is

658-512: A large cask, or tun . A full tun, standing about a metre high, could easily weigh a tonne. See also the common German word de:Mülltonne (literal translation: garbage drum ). The spelling tonne pre-dates the introduction of the SI in 1960; it has been used with this meaning in France since 1842, when there were no metric prefixes for multiples of 10 and above, and is now used as the standard spelling for

752-576: A major producer. The Permian Basin deposit includes the major mines outside of Carlsbad , New Mexico, to the world's purest potash deposit in Lea County, New Mexico (near the Carlsbad deposits), which is believed to be roughly 80% pure. ( Osceola County, Michigan , has deposits 90+% pure; the only mine there was converted to salt production, however.) Canada is the largest producer, followed by Russia and Belarus. The most significant reserve of Canada's potash

846-548: A name that stems from a 16th-century mistranslation by George Buchanan , which has rarely been used locally. Usage of the plural "Orkneys" dates from the 18th century or earlier and was used by for example Sir Walter Scott . From the mid-19th century onwards this plural form has fallen out of use in the local area although it is still often used, particularly by publications based outside Scotland. A charred hazelnut shell, recovered in 2007 during excavations in Tankerness on

940-586: A northern tip called Orcas . This may have referred to Dunnet Head , from which Orkney is visible. Writing in the 1st century AD, the Roman geographers Ptolemy and Pomponius Mela called the islands Orcades (Ancient Greek: Όρκάδες), as did Tacitus in AD 98, claiming that his father-in-law Agricola had "discovered and subjugated the Orcades hitherto unknown" (although both Mela and Pliny had previously referred to

1034-598: A raiding base before being killed in 954. Thorfinn's death and presumed burial at the broch of Hoxa , on South Ronaldsay , led to a long period of dynastic strife. Initially a pagan culture, detailed information about the turn to the Christian religion in the islands of Scotland during the Norse era is elusive. The Orkneyinga Saga suggests the islands were Christianised by Olaf Tryggvasson in 995 when he stopped at South Walls on his way from Ireland to Norway. The King summoned

SECTION 10

#1733085790665

1128-560: A study conducted between 1977 and 1987 of cardiovascular disease among potash workers, the overall mortality rates were low, but a noticeable difference in above-ground workers was documented. Potassium is the third major plant and crop nutrient after nitrogen and phosphorus . It has been used since antiquity as a soil fertilizer (about 90% of current use). Fertilizer use is the main driver behind potash consumption, especially for its use in fertilizing crops that contribute to high-protein diets. As of at least 2010, more than 95% of potash

1222-521: Is caustic and hygroscopic . At the beginning of 2008, potash prices started a meteoric climb from less than US$ 200 a tonne to a high of US$ 875 in February 2009. These subsequently dropped dramatically to an April 2010 low of US$ 310 level, before recovering in 2011–12, and relapsing again in 2013. For reference, prices in November 2011 were about US$ 470 per tonne, but as of May 2013 were stable at US$ 393. After

1316-418: Is a unit of mass equal to 1,000  kilograms . It is a non-SI unit accepted for use with SI . It is also referred to as a metric ton in the United States to distinguish it from the non-metric units of the short ton ( United States customary units ) and the long ton ( British imperial units ). It is equivalent to approximately 2,204.6 pounds , 1.102 short tons, and 0.984 long tons. The official SI unit

1410-529: Is almost entirely Old Red Sandstone , mostly of Middle Devonian age. As in the neighbouring mainland county of Caithness , this sandstone rests upon the metamorphic and igneous rocks of the Moine series, as may be seen on the Mainland, where a narrow strip is exposed between Stromness and Inganess, and again in the small island of Graemsay ; they are represented by grey gneiss and granite . The Middle Devonian

1504-445: Is an established spelling alternative to metric ton . In the United States and United Kingdom, tonne is usually pronounced the same as ton ( / t ʌ n / ), but the final "e" can also be pronounced, i.e. " tunnie " ( / ˈ t ʌ n i / ). In Australia, the common and recommended pronunciation is / t ɒ n / . In the United States, metric ton is the name for this unit used and recommended by NIST; an unqualified mention of

1598-474: Is being mined today. The deposits are a naturally occurring mixture of potassium chloride (KCl) and sodium chloride (NaCl), more commonly known as table salt . Over time, as the surface of the earth changed, these deposits were covered by thousands of feet of earth. Potash (especially potassium carbonate) has been used in bleaching textiles, making glass , ceramic, and making soap , since the Bronze Age . Potash

1692-502: Is divided into three main groups. The lower part of the sequence, mostly Eifelian in age, is dominated by lacustrine beds of the lower and upper Stromness Flagstones that were deposited in Lake Orcadie . The later Rousay flagstone formation is found throughout much of the North and South Isles and East Mainland. The Old Man of Hoy is formed from sandstone of the uppermost Eday Group that

1786-438: Is little need to distinguish between metric and other tons, and the unit is spelled either as ton or tonne with the relevant prefix attached. A metric ton unit (mtu) can mean 10 kg (22 lb) within metal trading, particularly within the United States. It traditionally referred to a metric ton of ore containing 1% (i.e. 10 kg) of metal. The following excerpt from a mining geology textbook describes its usage in

1880-412: Is located in the province of Saskatchewan and is mined by The Mosaic Company , Nutrien and K+S . In China , most potash deposits are concentrated in the deserts and salt flats of the endorheic basins of its western provinces, particularly Qinghai . Geological expeditions discovered the reserves in the 1950s but commercial exploitation lagged until Deng Xiaoping 's Reform and Opening Up Policy in

1974-683: Is mined for use in agricultural purposes. Elemental potassium does not occur in nature because it reacts violently with water. As part of various compounds, potassium makes up about 2.6% of the Earth's crust by mass and is the seventh most abundant element, similar in abundance to sodium at approximately 1.8% of the crust. Potash is important for agriculture because it improves water retention, yield, nutrient value, taste, color, texture and disease resistance of food crops. It has wide application to fruit and vegetables, rice, wheat and other grains, sugar, corn, soybeans, palm oil and cotton, all of which benefit from

SECTION 20

#1733085790665

2068-425: Is often reported as K 2 O equivalent (that is, how much it would be if in K 2 O form), however, to allow apples-to-apples comparison between different fertilizers using different types of potash. Most of the world reserves of potassium (K) were deposited as sea water in ancient inland oceans . After the water evaporated, the potassium salts crystallized into beds of potash ore. These are the locations where potash

2162-600: Is particularly suitable for surface mining. It was explored in the 1960s but the works stopped due to flooding in 1967. Attempts to continue mining in the 1990s were halted by the Eritrean–Ethiopian War and have not resumed as of 2009. All commercial potash deposits come originally from evaporite deposits and are often buried deep below the earth's surface. Potash ores are typically rich in potassium chloride (KCl), sodium chloride (NaCl) and other salts and clays, and are typically obtained by conventional shaft mining with

2256-424: Is significant, and use of other letter combinations can lead to ambiguity. For example, T, MT, mT, are the SI symbols for the tesla , megatesla, and millitesla, respectively, while Mt and mt are SI-compatible symbols for the megatonne (one teragram) and millitonne (one kilogram). If describing TNT equivalent units of energy, one megatonne of TNT is equivalent to approximately 4.184 petajoules . In English, tonne

2350-499: Is skimmed for the amine + KCl, which is then dried and packaged for use as a K rich fertilizer—KCl dissolves readily in water and is available quickly for plant nutrition . Recovery of potassium fertilizer salts from sea water has been studied in India . During extraction of salt from seawater by evaporation, potassium salts get concentrated in bittern , an effluent from the salt industry. Potash deposits are distributed unevenly throughout

2444-400: Is the joule . One tonne of TNT is approximately equivalent to 4.2 gigajoules. In the petroleum industry the tonne of oil equivalent (toe) is a unit of energy : the amount of energy released by burning one tonne of crude oil , approximately 42 GJ. There are several slightly different definitions. This is ten times as much as a tonne of TNT because atmospheric oxygen is used. Like

2538-496: Is the megagram ( Mg ), a less common way to express the same amount. The BIPM symbol for the tonne is t, adopted at the same time as the unit in 1879. Its use is also official for the metric ton in the United States, having been adopted by the United States National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). It is a symbol, not an abbreviation, and should not be followed by a period . Use of lower case

2632-481: Is the mass of one cubic metre of pure water at 4 °C (39 °F). As a non-SI unit, the use of SI metric prefixes with the tonne does not fall within the SI standard. For multiples of the tonne, it is more usual to speak of thousands or millions of tonnes. Kilotonne, megatonne, and gigatonne are more usually used for the energy of nuclear explosions and other events in equivalent mass of TNT , often loosely as approximate figures. When used in this context, there

2726-618: Is up to 800 metres (870 yd) thick in places. It lies unconformably upon steeply inclined flagstones, the interpretation of which is a matter of continuing debate. The Devonian and older rocks of Orkney are cut by a series of WSW–ENE to N–S trending faults, many of which were active during deposition of the Devonian sequences. A strong synclinal fold traverses Eday and Shapinsay, the axis trending north-south. Middle Devonian basaltic volcanic rocks are found on western Hoy, on Deerness in eastern Mainland and on Shapinsay. Correlation between

2820-466: Is used as a proxy for energy, usually of explosions (TNT is a common high explosive ). Prefixes are used: kiloton(ne), megaton(ne), gigaton(ne), especially for expressing nuclear weapon yield , based on a specific combustion energy of TNT of about 4.2  MJ / kg (or one thermochemical calorie per milligram ). Hence, 1 t TNT = approx. 4.2  GJ , 1 kt TNT = approx. 4.2  TJ , 1 Mt TNT = approx. 4.2  PJ . The SI unit of energy

2914-402: Is used for industrial water treatment and is the precursor of potassium carbonate, several forms of potassium phosphate, many other potassic chemicals, and soap manufacturing. Potassium carbonate is used to produce animal feed supplements, cement , fire extinguishers , food products, photographic chemicals , and textiles. It is also used in brewing beer , pharmaceutical preparations, and as

Potash - Misplaced Pages Continue

3008-672: The -aibh representing a fossilized prepositional case ending. Some earlier sources alternatively hypothesise that Orkney comes from the Latin orca , whale. The Anglo-Saxon monk Bede refers to the islands as Orcades insulae in Ecclesiastical History of the English People . Norwegian settlers arriving from the late ninth century reinterpreted orc as the Old Norse orkn " seal " and added eyjar "islands" to

3102-609: The jarl Sigurd the Stout and said, "I order you and all your subjects to be baptised. If you refuse, I'll have you killed on the spot and I swear I will ravage every island with fire and steel." Unsurprisingly, Sigurd agreed and the islands became Christian at a stroke, receiving their own bishop in the early 11th century. Thorfinn the Mighty was a son of Sigurd and a grandson of King Malcolm II of Scotland ( Máel Coluim mac Cináeda ). Along with Sigurd's other sons he ruled Orkney during

3196-546: The Belarusian Potash Company . The latter was a joint venture between Belaruskali and Uralkali , but on July 30, 2013, Uralkali announced that it had ended the venture. Potash is water soluble and transporting it requires special transportation infrastructure. Excessive respiratory disease due to environmental hazards, such as radon and asbestos , has been a concern for potash miners throughout history. Potash miners are liable to develop silicosis . Based on

3290-629: The Broch of Burroughston and Broch of Gurness . The nature and origin of these buildings is a subject of debate. Other structures from this period include underground storehouses and aisled roundhouses , the latter usually in association with earlier broch sites. During the Roman invasion of Britain the "King of Orkney" was one of 11 British leaders who is said to have submitted to the Emperor Claudius in AD 43 at Camulodunum (modern Colchester). After

3384-772: The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance countries. After the dissolution of the USSR , Russian and Belarusian potash producers entered into direct competition with producers elsewhere in the world for the first time. In the beginning of the 20th century, potash deposits were found in the Dallol Depression in the Musely and Crescent localities near the Ethiopean- Eritrean border. The estimated reserves in Musely and Crescent are 173 and 12 million tonnes respectively. The latter

3478-674: The Fair Isle Channel . The islands are mainly low-lying except for some sharply rising sandstone hills on Mainland, Rousay and Hoy (where the tallest point in Orkney, Ward Hill , can be found) and rugged cliffs on some western coasts. Nearly all of the islands have lochs , but the watercourses are merely streams draining the high land. The coastlines are indented, and the islands themselves are divided from each other by straits generally called "sounds" or "firths". The tidal currents , or "roosts" as some of them are called locally, off many of

3572-586: The Middle Dutch potaschen , denoting "pot ashes" in 1477. The old method of making potassium carbonate ( K 2 CO 3 ) was by collecting or producing wood ash (the occupation of ash burners ), leaching the ashes, and then evaporating the resulting solution in large iron pots, which left a white residue denominated "pot ash". Approximately 10% by weight of common wood ash can be recovered as potash. Later, "potash" became widely applied to naturally occurring minerals that contained potassium salts and

3666-589: The Northern Isles , comprising Orkney and Shetland, in 875 (it is clear that this story, which appears in the Orkneyinga Saga , is based on the later voyages of Magnus Barelegs and some scholars believe it to be apocryphal). Rognvald Eysteinsson received Orkney and Shetland from Harald as an earldom as reparation for the death of his son in battle in Scotland, and then passed the earldom on to his brother Sigurd

3760-595: The Orkney Islands , is an archipelago off the north coast of mainland Scotland . The plural name the Orkneys is also sometimes used, but is now considered incorrect. Part of the Northern Isles along with Shetland , Orkney is 10 miles (16 km) north of Caithness and has about 70 islands, of which 20 are inhabited. The largest island, the Mainland , has an area of 523 square kilometres (202 sq mi), making it

3854-679: The Picts . Orkney was colonised and later annexed by the Kingdom of Norway in 875 and settled by the Norsemen . In 1472, the Parliament of Scotland absorbed the Earldom of Orkney into the Kingdom of Scotland , following failure to pay a dowry promised to James III of Scotland by the family of his bride, Margaret of Denmark . In addition to the Mainland, most of the remaining islands are divided into two groups:

Potash - Misplaced Pages Continue

3948-667: The Standing Stones of Stenness , the Maeshowe passage grave , the Ring of Brodgar and other standing stones. Many of the Neolithic settlements were abandoned around 2500 BC, possibly due to changes in the climate. In September 2021, archaeologists announced the discovery of two polished stone balls in a 5500-year-old Neolithic burial tomb in Sanday . According to Dr Hugo Anderson, the second object

4042-421: The gram and the kilogram, the tonne gave rise to a (now obsolete) force unit of the same name, the tonne-force, equivalent to about 9.8 kilonewtons . The unit is also often called simply "tonne" or "metric ton" without identifying it as a unit of force. In contrast to the tonne as a mass unit, the tonne-force is not accepted for use with SI. Orkney Orkney ( / ˈ ɔːr k n i / ), also known as

4136-626: The sixth-largest Scottish island and the tenth-largest island in the British Isles . Orkney's largest settlement, and also its administrative centre, is Kirkwall . Orkney is one of the 32 council areas of Scotland, as well as a constituency of the Scottish Parliament , a lieutenancy area , and an historic county . The local council is Orkney Islands Council . The islands have been inhabited for at least 8,500 years, originally occupied by Mesolithic and Neolithic tribes and then by

4230-476: The 16th century, boats from mainland Scotland and the Netherlands dominated the local herring fishery. There is little evidence of an Orcadian fleet until the 19th century, but it grew rapidly, and 700 boats were involved by the 1840s with Stronsay and later Stromness becoming leading centres of development. White fish never became as dominant as in other Scottish ports. Agricultural improvements beginning in

4324-673: The 17th century resulted in the enclosure of the commons and ultimately in the Victorian era the emergence of large and well-managed farms using a five-shift rotation system and producing high-quality beef cattle. In the 17th century, Orcadians formed the overwhelming majority of employees of the Hudson's Bay Company in Canada. The harsh winter weather of Orkney and the Orcadian reputation for sobriety and their boat handling skills made them ideal candidates for

4418-520: The 1980s. The 1989 opening of the Qinghai Potash Fertilizer Factory in the remote Qarhan Playa increased China's production of potassium chloride sixfold, from less than 40,000 t (39,000 long tons; 44,000 short tons) a year at Haixi and Tanggu to just under 240,000 t (240,000 long tons; 260,000 short tons) a year. In 2013, almost 70% of potash production was controlled by Canpotex , an exporting and marketing firm, and

4512-614: The Agricolan fleet had come and gone, possibly anchoring at Shapinsay , direct Roman influence seems to have been limited to trade rather than conquest. Polemius Silvius wrote a list of Late Roman provinces, which Seeck appended to his edition of the Notitia Dignitatum . The list names six provinces in Roman Britannia: the sixth is the dubious "Orcades provincia", the possible existence of which recent researches re-evaluate. By

4606-515: The Baltic to Archangelsk , Russia. In 1700, Russian ash was dominant though Gdańsk remained notable for the quality of its potash. On the Orkney islands, kelp ash provided potash and soda ash , production starting "possibly as early as 1719" and lasting for a century. The products were "eagerly sought after by the glass and soap industries of the time." By the 18th century, higher quality American potash

4700-757: The British Isles that held out for the Jacobites and was not retaken by the British Government until 24 May 1746, over a month after the defeat of the main Jacobite army at Culloden . Orkney was the site of a Royal Navy base at Scapa Flow , which played a major role in World War I and World War II . After the Armistice in 1918, the German High Seas Fleet was transferred in its entirety to Scapa Flow to await

4794-507: The Hoy volcanics and the other two exposures has been proposed, but differences in chemistry mean this remains uncertain. Lamprophyre dykes of Late Permian age are found throughout Orkney. Glacial striation and the presence of chalk and flint erratics that originated from the bed of the North Sea demonstrate the influence of ice action on the geomorphology of the islands. Boulder clay

SECTION 50

#1733085790665

4888-412: The Mainland, has been dated to 6820–6660 BC, indicating the presence of Mesolithic nomadic tribes. The earliest known permanent settlement is at Knap of Howar , a Neolithic farmstead on the island of Papa Westray , which dates from 3500 BC. The village of Skara Brae , Europe's best-preserved Neolithic settlement, is believed to have been inhabited from around 3100 BC. Other remains from that era include

4982-460: The Mighty . Sigurd went on to conquer northern parts of mainland Britain in the late 9th century, including Caithness and Sutherland . However, Sigurd's line barely survived him and it was Torf-Einarr , Rognvald's son by a slave, who founded a dynasty that controlled the islands for centuries after his death. He was succeeded by his son Thorfinn Skull-splitter and during this time the deposed Norwegian King Eric Bloodaxe often used Orkney as

5076-639: The North Isles and the South Isles. The local climate is relatively mild and the soils are extremely fertile; most of the land is farmed, and agriculture is the most important sector of the economy. The significant wind and marine energy resources are of growing importance; the amount of electricity that Orkney generates annually from renewable energy sources exceeds its demand. Temperatures average 4 °C (39 °F) in winter and 12 °C (54 °F) in summer. The local people are known as Orcadians; they speak

5170-517: The Ring of Brodgar, and various island sites such as Tofts Ness on Sanday and the remains of two houses on Holm of Faray . Excavations at Quanterness on the Mainland have revealed an Atlantic roundhouse built about 700 BC and similar finds have been made at Bu on the Mainland and Pierowall Quarry on Westray. The most impressive Iron Age structures of Orkney are the ruins of later round towers called " brochs " and their associated settlements such as

5264-509: The Viking presence is widespread and includes the settlement at the Brough of Birsay , the vast majority of place names , and the runic inscriptions at Maeshowe. In 1468 Orkney was pledged by Christian I , in his capacity as King of Norway, as security against the payment of the dowry of his daughter Margaret , betrothed to James III of Scotland . However, the money was never paid, and Orkney

5358-522: The best place to live in the UK, according to the Halifax Quality of Life survey. In the modern era, the population peaked in the mid-19th century at just over 32,000 and declined for a century thereafter to a low of fewer than 18,000 in the 1970s. Declines were particularly significant in the outlying islands, some of which remain vulnerable to ongoing losses. Although Orkney is in many ways very distinct from

5452-623: The building of St Magnus Cathedral , still today a dominating feature of Kirkwall. The Scottish crown claimed the overlordship of the Caithness and Sutherland area from Norway in 1098. The jarls thereafter owed allegiance to the Scottish crown for their territory on mainland Britain, which they held as the Mormaer of Caithness , but owed allegiance to the Norwegian crown for Orkney and Shetland. In 1195,

5546-618: The cartel ended as new potash producers emerged in the USSR and Canada. In 1943, potash was discovered in Saskatchewan , Canada, during oil drilling. Active exploration began in 1951. In 1958, the Potash Company of America became the first potash producer in Canada with the commissioning of an underground potash mine at Patience Lake . As numerous potash producers in Canada developed, the Saskatchewan government became increasingly involved in

5640-403: The commercial product derived from them. The following table lists a number of potassium compounds that have "potash" in their traditional names: Beginning from the late 19th century: one or more of potassium chloride (KCl), potassium sulfate (K 2 SO 4 ) or potassium nitrate (KNO 3 ). Does not contain potassium oxide (K 2 O), which plants do not take up; the amount of potassium

5734-521: The country. The first US patent of any kind was issued in 1790 to Samuel Hopkins for an improvement "in the making of Pot ash and Pearl ash by a new Apparatus and Process". Pearl ash was a purer quality made by calcination of potash in a reverberatory furnace or kiln. Potash pits were once used in England to produce potash that was used in making soap for the preparation of wool for yarn production. After about 1820, New York replaced New England as

SECTION 60

#1733085790665

5828-406: The end, so the name became Orkneyjar "Seal Islands". The plural suffix -jar was later removed in English leaving the modern name Orkney . According to the Historia Norwegiæ , Orkney was named after an earl called Orkan. The Norse knew Mainland, Orkney as Megenland "Mainland" or as Hrossey "Horse Island". The island is sometimes referred to as Pomona (or Pomonia ),

5922-424: The epithet "Papa" in commemoration of these preachers. Before the Gaelic presence could establish itself the Picts were gradually dispossessed by the North Germanic peoples from the late 8th century onwards. The nature of this transition is controversial, and theories range from peaceful integration to enslavement and genocide . It has been suggested that an assault by forces from Fortriu in 681 in which Orkney

6016-403: The evaporation method, hot water is injected into the potash, which is dissolved and then pumped to the surface where it is concentrated by solar induced evaporation. Amine reagents are then added to either the mined or evaporated solutions. The amine coats the KCl but not NaCl. Air bubbles cling to the amine + KCl and float it to the surface while the NaCl and clay sink to the bottom. The surface

6110-559: The extracted ore ground into a powder. Most potash mines today are deep shaft mines as much as 4,400 feet (1,400 m) underground. Others are mined as strip mines, having been laid down in horizontal layers as sedimentary rock . In above-ground processing plants, the KCl is separated from the mixture to produce a high-analysis potassium fertilizer. Other potassium salts can be separated by various procedures, resulting in potassium sulfate and potassium-magnesium sulfate. Other methods include dissolution mining and evaporation methods from brines. In

6204-459: The first half of the 11th century and extended his authority over a small maritime empire stretching from Dublin to Shetland . Thorfinn died around 1065 and his sons Paul and Erlend succeeded him, fighting at the Battle of Stamford Bridge in 1066. Paul and Erlend quarrelled as adults and this dispute carried on to the next generation. The martyrdom of Magnus Erlendsson , who was killed in April 1116 by his cousin Haakon Paulsson , resulted in

6298-461: The industry, leading to the creation of Canpotex in the 1970s. In 1964 the Canadian company Kalium Chemicals established the first potash mine using the solution process. The discovery was made during oil reserve exploration. The mine was developed near Regina, Saskatchewan. The mine reached depths greater than 1500 meters. It is now the Mosaic Corporation's Belle Plaine unit. The USSR's potash production had largely been for domestic use and use in

6392-411: The island of South Ronaldsay and Duncansby Head in Caithness . Orkney lies between 58°41′ and 59°24′ north, and 2°22′ and 3°26′ west, measuring 80 kilometres (50 mi) from northeast to southwest and 47 kilometres (29 mi) from east to west, and covers 975 square kilometres (376 sq mi). Orkney is separated from the Shetland Islands , a group further out, by a body of water called

6486-430: The islands ). The Byzantine John Tzetzes in his work Chiliades called the islands Orcades. Etymologists usually interpret the element orc- as a Pictish tribal name meaning "young pig" or "young boar ". Speakers of Old Irish referred to the islands as Insi Orc "islands of the young pigs". The archipelago is known as Ynysoedd Erch in modern Welsh and Arcaibh in modern Scottish Gaelic ,

6580-462: The isles are swift, with frequent whirlpools. The islands are notable for the absence of trees, which is partly accounted for by the strong winds. Only three settlements have a population of over 500; the towns of Kirkwall and Stromness and the village of Finstown . 7,500 1,790 500 Other villages include Balfour , Dounby , Houton , Longhope , Lyness , Pierowall , St Margaret's Hope , and Whitehall . The superficial rock of Orkney

6674-436: The jarls lost control of Shetland when it became a separate lordship. In 1231 the line of Norse earls, unbroken since Rognvald, ended with Jon Haraldsson 's murder in Thurso . The Earldom of Caithness was granted to Magnus , second son of the Earl of Angus , whom Haakon IV of Norway confirmed as Earl of Orkney in 1236. Around the same time, the earldom lost the southern part of its territory on mainland Britain when it

6768-400: The late 18th century, these did not become economical until the late 19th century and so the dependence on organic sources of potash remained. Potash became an important international trade commodity in Europe from at least the early 14th century. It is estimated that European imports of potash required 6 or more million cubic metres each year from the early 17th century. Between 1420 and 1620,

6862-452: The late 19th century when large-scale production of potash from mineral salts was established in Germany . In the early 20th century, the potash industry was dominated by a cartel in which Germany had the dominant role. WWI saw a brief resurgence of American asheries, with their product typically consisting of 66% hydroxide, 17% carbonate, 16% sulfate and other impurities. Later in the century,

6956-584: The late Iron Age, Orkney was part of the Pictish kingdom, and although the archaeological remains from this period are less impressive, the fertile soils and rich seas of Orkney probably provided the Picts with a comfortable living. The Dalriadic Gaels began to influence the islands towards the close of the Pictish era, perhaps principally through the role of Celtic missionaries , as evidenced by several islands bearing

7050-513: The metric mass measurement in most English -speaking countries. In the United States, the unit was originally referred to using the French words millier or tonneau , but these terms are now obsolete. The British imperial and United States customary units are comparable to the tonne and the spelling of ton in English is the same, though they differ in mass. One tonne is equivalent to: A tonne

7144-514: The most important source; by 1840 the center was in Ohio. Potash production was always a by-product industry, following from the need to clear land for agriculture . From 1767, potash from wood ashes was exported from Canada. By 1811, 70% of the total 19.6 million lbs of potash imports to Britain came from Canada. Exports of potash and pearl ash reached 43,958 barrels in 1865. There were 519 asheries in operation in 1871. The wood-ash industry declined in

7238-570: The nutrient's quality-enhancing properties. Demand for food and animal feed has been on the rise since 2000. The United States Department of Agriculture 's Economic Research Service (ERS) attributes the trend to average annual population increases of 75 million people around the world. Geographically, economic growth in Asia and Latin America greatly contributed to the increased use of potash-based fertilizer. Rising incomes in developing countries also were

7332-443: The ornate Italian Chapel . The navy base became run down after the war, eventually closing in 1957. The problem of a declining population was significant in the post-war years, though in the last decades of the 20th century, there was a recovery and life in Orkney focused on growing prosperity and the emergence of a relatively classless society. Orkney was rated as the best place to live in Scotland in both 2013 and 2014, and in 2019

7426-488: The other islands and archipelagos of Scotland these trends are very similar to those experienced elsewhere. The archipelago's population grew by 11% in the decade to 2011 as recorded by the census . During the same period Scottish island populations as a whole grew by 4% to 103,702. Orkney is separated from the mainland of Scotland by the Pentland Firth , a ten-kilometre-wide (6 mi) seaway between Brough Ness on

7520-482: The particular case of tungsten: Tungsten concentrates are usually traded in metric tonne units (originally designating one tonne of ore containing 1% of WO 3 , today used to measure WO 3 quantities in 10 kg units. One metric tonne unit (mtu) of tungsten (VI) contains 7.93 kilograms of tungsten. In the case of uranium , MTU is sometimes used in the sense of metric ton of uranium (1,000 kg [2,200 lb]). The tonne of trinitrotoluene (TNT)

7614-448: The primary exporting cities for wood-derived potash were Gdańsk , Königsberg and Riga . In the late 15th century, London was the lead importer due to its position as the centre of soft soap making while the Dutch dominated as suppliers and consumers in the 16th century. From the 1640s, geopolitical disruptions (i.e. Russo-Polish War (1654–1667) ) meant that the centres of export moved from

7708-484: The primary reason for the declining fertilizer use, dropping prices, and mounting inventories. The world's largest consumers of potash are China, the United States, Brazil, and India. Brazil imports 90% of the potash it needs. Potash consumption for fertilizers is expected to increase to about 37.8 million tonnes by 2022. Potash imports and exports are often reported in K 2 O equivalent , although fertilizer never contains potassium oxide, per se, because potassium oxide

7802-481: The rate of 60 to 100 bushels per acre (500 to 900 m/km). In 1790, the sale of ashes could generate $ 3.25 to $ 6.25 per acre ($ 800 to $ 1,500/km) in rural New York State – nearly the same rate as hiring a laborer to clear the same area. Potash making became a major industry in British North America. Great Britain was always the most important market. The American potash industry followed the woodsman's ax across

7896-488: The rigours of the Canadian north. During this period, burning kelp briefly became a mainstay of the islands' economy. For example, on Shapinsay over 3,000 long tons (3,048  t ) of burned seaweed were produced per annum to make soda ash , bringing in £20,000 to the local economy. The industry collapsed suddenly in 1830 after the removal of tariffs on imported alkali . During the 18th century Jacobite risings , Orkney

7990-438: The short-run and even in the long run. In addition to its use as a fertilizer, potassium chloride is important in many industrialized economies, where it is used in aluminium recycling , by the chloralkali industry to produce potassium hydroxide, in metal electroplating , oil-well drilling fluid , snow and ice melting, steel heat-treating, in medicine as a treatment for hypokalemia , and water softening . Potassium hydroxide

8084-447: The surprise breakup of the world's largest potash cartel at the end of July 2013, potash prices were poised to drop some 20 percent. At the end of December 2015, potash traded for US$ 295 a tonne. In April 2016 its price was US$ 269. In May 2017, prices had stabilised at around US$ 216 a tonne down 18% from the previous year. By January 2018, prices have been recovering to around US$ 225 a tonne. World potash demand tends to be price inelastic in

8178-529: The world. As of 2015, deposits are being mined in Canada, Russia, China, Belarus, Israel, Germany, Chile, the United States, Jordan, Spain, the United Kingdom, Uzbekistan and Brazil, with the most significant deposits present under the great depths of the Prairie Evaporite Formation in Saskatchewan , Canada. Canada and Russia are the countries where the bulk of potash is produced; Belarus is also

8272-442: Was "annihilated" may have led to a weakening of the local power base and helped the Norse come to prominence. Both Orkney and Shetland saw a significant influx of Norwegian settlers during the late 8th and early 9th centuries. Vikings made the islands the headquarters of their pirate expeditions carried out against Norway and the coasts of mainland Scotland. In response, Norwegian king Harald Fairhair (Harald Hårfagre) annexed

8366-500: Was absorbed by the Kingdom of Scotland in 1472. The history of Orkney prior to this time is largely the history of the ruling aristocracy. From then on ordinary people emerge with greater clarity. An influx of Scottish entrepreneurs helped to create a diverse and independent community that included farmers, fishermen and merchants that called themselves comunitas Orcadie and who proved themselves increasingly able to defend their rights against their feudal overlords. From at least

8460-410: Was as the "size of a cricket ball, perfectly spherical and beautifully finished". During the Bronze Age , fewer large stone structures were built (although the great ceremonial circles continued in use ) as metalworking was slowly introduced to Britain from Europe over a lengthy period. There are relatively few Orcadian sites dating from this era although there is the impressive Plumcake Mound near

8554-603: Was increasingly exported to Britain. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, potash production provided settlers in North America badly needed cash and credit as they cleared wooded land for crops. To make full use of their land, settlers needed to dispose of excess wood. The easiest way to accomplish this was to burn any wood not needed for fuel or construction. Ashes from hardwood trees could then be used to make lye , which could either be used to make soap or boiled down to produce valuable potash. Hardwood could generate ashes at

8648-452: Was largely Jacobite in its sympathies. At the end of the 1715 rebellion, a large number of Jacobites who had fled north from mainland Scotland sought refuge in Orkney and were helped on to safety in Sweden. In 1745, the Jacobite lairds on the islands ensured that Orkney remained pro-Jacobite in outlook and was a safe place to land supplies from Spain to aid their cause. Orkney was the last place in

8742-584: Was made the separate earldom of Sutherland. In 1290, the death of the child princess Margaret, Maid of Norway in Orkney, en route to mainland Scotland, created a disputed succession that led to the Wars of Scottish Independence . In the 14th century the earls of Orkney also lost Caithness, after which the earldom just covered the islands of Orkney itself. In 1379 the earldom passed to the Sinclair family, who were also barons of Roslin near Edinburgh . Evidence of

8836-668: Was principally obtained by leaching the ashes of land plants. Beginning in the 14th century potash was mined in Ethiopia . One of the world's largest deposits, 140 to 150 million tons, is located in the Dallol area of the Afar Region . Potash was one of the most important industrial chemicals. It was refined from the ashes of broadleaved trees and produced primarily in the forested areas of Europe, Russia , and North America . Although methods for producing artificial alkalis were invented in

#664335