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88-614: Clement XI was a patron of the arts and of science. He was also a great benefactor of the Vatican Library ; his interest in archaeology is credited with saving much of Rome's antiquity. He authorized expeditions which succeeded in rediscovering various ancient Christian writings and authorized excavations of the Roman catacombs . Giovanni Francesco Albani was born in 1649 in Urbino to the Albani family ,

176-670: A Doctor of the Church , providing him the supplementary titles of " Doctor magnificus " ("Magnificent Doctor") and " Doctor Marianus " ("Marian Doctor"). Clement XI created a total of 70 cardinals in 15 consistories. Notably, two cardinals of his own creation were Michelangelo dei Conti, who became his immediate successor, Pope Innocent XIII , and Lorenzo Corsini, who later became Pope Clement XII . The pope also nominated eight cardinals " in pectore ", later publishing their names which validated their appointments as cardinals. During his pontificate, Gabriele Filippucci resigned his cardinalate which

264-434: A protectorate of a stronger power, modern international law does not recognise any way of making this relationship compulsory on the weaker power. Suzerainty is a practical, de facto situation, rather than a legal, de jure one. Current examples include Bhutan and India . India is responsible for military training, arms supplies, and the air defense of Bhutan . The tributary system of China or Cefeng system

352-617: A cardinal for ten years previously. Having accepted election after some hesitation, he was ordained a bishop on 30 November 1700 and assumed the pontifical name of "Clement XI". Cardinal protodeacon Benedetto Pamphili crowned him on 8 December 1700 and he took possession of the Basilica of Saint John Lateran on 10 April 1701. Soon after his accession to the pontificate, the War of the Spanish Succession broke out. In 1703 Pope Clement XI ordered

440-439: A conclave was convoked to elect a successor. Albani was regarded as a fine diplomat known for his skills as a peacemaker and so was unanimously elected pope on 23 November 1700. He agreed to the election after three days of consultation. Unusually, from the viewpoint of current practice, his election came within three months after his ordination as a priest and within two months after he celebrated his first Mass, though he had been

528-484: A destination for scholarship. Nicholas combined some 350 Greek, Latin and Hebrew codices inherited from his predecessors with his own collection and extensive acquisitions, among them manuscripts from the imperial Library of Constantinople . Pope Nicholas also expanded his collection by employing Italian and Byzantine scholars to translate the Greek classics into Latin for his library. The knowledgeable pope already encouraged

616-518: A distinguished family of Albanian origin in central Italy. His mother Elena Mosca (1630–1698) was a high-standing Italian of bergamasque origin, descended from the noble Mosca family of Pesaro . His father Carlo Albani (1623–1684) was a patrician. His mother descended in part from the Staccoli family, who were patricians of Urbino , in part from the Giordani, who were nobles of Pesaro. The original name of

704-602: A large collection of texts related to Hinduism, with the oldest editions dating to 1819. During the library's restoration between 2007 and 2010, all of the 70,000 volumes in the library were tagged with electronic chips to prevent theft. Notable manuscripts in the library include: The library contains over 100 Quran manuscripts from various collections, cataloged by the Italian Jewish linguist Giorgio Levi Della Vida : Vaticani arabi 73; Borgiani arabi 25; Barberiniani orientali 11; Rossiani 2. The largest manuscript in

792-467: A medieval manuscript once owned by Francesco Petrarch . One of the stolen leaves contains an exquisite miniature of a farmer threshing grain. A fourth leaf from an unknown source was also discovered in his possession by U.S. Customs agents. Melnikas was trying to sell the pages to an art dealer, who then alerted the library director. The library is located inside the Vatican Palace , and the entrance

880-613: A modern library. They visited the Library of Congress , and libraries in Princeton, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Pittsburg, Chicago, Champaign, Toronto, and Ann Arbor. Once back in Rome, a reorganization plan was implemented. The main goals were to create a summary index by author of each manuscript, and likewise a catalogue for the incunabula. Once the project was completed, the Vatican Library was one of

968-517: A number of individuals: Alexis Falconieri , Bartholomew degli Amidei and Benedict Dellantella, (1 December 1717) and John Francis Régis (24 May 1716). He also beatified the sisters Theresa (20 May 1705) and Sancha (10 May 1705). He canonized Andrew Avellino , Catherine of Bologna , Felix of Cantalice and Pope Pius V on 22 May 1712, Humility on 27 January 1720, Stephen of Obazine in 1701 and Boniface of Lausanne in 1702. Clement XI, on 8 February 1720, named Saint Anselm of Canterbury as

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1056-473: A person, state, or other polity which controls the foreign policy and relations of a tributary state but allows the tributary state internal autonomy . Where the subordinate party is called a vassal , vassal state , or tributary state , the dominant party is called a suzerain . The rights and obligations of a vassal are called vassalage, and the rights and obligations of a suzerain are called suzerainty . Suzerainty differs from sovereignty in that

1144-571: A synod of Catholic bishops in northern Albania that discussed promotion of the Council of Trent decrees within Albanian dioceses, stemming conversions among locals to Islam and securing agreement to deny communion to crypto-Catholics who outwardly professed the Muslim faith. Despite initially holding an ambiguous neutrality in world affairs, Clement XI was later forced to name Charles, Archduke of Austria , as

1232-476: A time, and it sees 4,000 to 5,000 scholars a year, mostly academics doing post-graduate research. While the Vatican Library has always included Bibles, canon law texts, and theological works, it specialized from the beginning in secular books. Its collection of Greek and Latin classics was at the center of the revival of classical culture during the Renaissance . The oldest documents in the library date back to

1320-557: A very proficient Latinist and gained a doctorate in both canon and civil law. He was one of those who frequented the academy of Queen Christina of Sweden . He would serve as a papal prelate under Pope Alexander VIII and was appointed by Pope Innocent XII as the Referendary of the Apostolic Signatura . Throughout this time, he also served as the governor of Rieti , Sabina and Orvieto . Pope Alexander VIII elevated him to

1408-693: A very short-lived suzerainty over the Baltic countries of Estonia , Latvia , and Lithuania . New monarchies were created in Lithuania and the United Baltic Duchy (which comprised the modern countries of Latvia and Estonia). The German aristocrats Wilhelm Karl, Duke of Urach (in Lithuania), and Adolf Friedrich, Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (in the United Baltic Duchy), were appointed as rulers. This plan

1496-425: A very strong fever that immediately forced him to his bed, with the pope declining a meal that evening. His pulse was exceptionally slow and he even coughed up a thick liquid that was streaked with blood. Unable to sleep that night, his fever abated somewhat. But the following day saw his fever return much more violently, and he had an irregular pulse. The sputum was foamy, once more with blood, indicating that there

1584-451: Is a papyrus room and a storage area for manuscripts. The first floor houses the restoration laboratory, and the photographic archives are on the second floor. The library has 42 kilometres (26 mi) of shelving. The library closed for renovations on 17 July 2007 and reopened on 20 September 2010. The three-year, 9 million euro renovation involved the complete shut down of the library to install climate controlled rooms. In

1672-419: Is a research library for history , law , philosophy , science , and theology . The Vatican Library is open to anyone who can document their qualifications and research needs. Photocopies for private study of pages from books published between 1801 and 1990 can be requested in person or by mail. Pope Nicholas V (1447–1455) envisioned a new Rome, with extensive public works to lure pilgrims and scholars to

1760-442: Is expected that the initial phase will take four years. DigiVatLib is the name of the Vatican Library's digital library service. It provides free access to the Vatican Library's digitized collections of manuscripts and incunabula. The scanning of documents is impacted by the material used to produce the texts. Books using gold and silver in the illuminations require special scanning equipment. Digital copies are being served using

1848-537: Is through the Belvedere Courtyard . When Pope Sixtus V (1585-1590) commissioned the expansion and the new building of the Vatican Library, he had a three-story wing built right across Bramante's Cortile del Belvedere, thus bisecting it and changing Bramante's work significantly. At the bottom of a grand staircase a large statue of Hippolytus decorates the La Galea entrance hall. In the first semi-basement there

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1936-450: Is variously counted as 3,500 in 1475 or 2,527 in 1481, when librarians Bartolomeo Platina and Pietro Demetrio Guazzelli produced a signed listing. At the time it was the largest collection of books in the Western world. Pope Julius II commissioned the expansion of the building. Around 1587, Pope Sixtus V commissioned the architect Domenico Fontana to construct a new building for

2024-738: The Balochistan States , 1969 for Chitral and the Frontier States , and 1974 for Hunza and Nagar . All these territories have since been merged into Pakistan. These states were subject to the 'paramountcy' of the British Crown. The term was never precisely defined but it meant that the Indian states were subject to the suzerainty of the British Crown exercised through the Viceroy of India . After

2112-538: The British Government on an equal footing." This meant that the Indian states were crown dependencies or protectorates of the British Indian government. They could not make war or have any direct dealings with foreign states. Neither did they enjoy full internal autonomy. The British government could and did interfere in their internal affairs if the imperial interests were involved or if it proved necessary in

2200-568: The CIFS protocol, from network-attached storage hardware by Dell EMC . The Vatican Apostolic Archive , located in Vatican City , is the central archive for all of the acts promulgated by the Holy See , as well as the state papers , correspondence, papal account books, and many other documents which the church has accumulated over the centuries. In the 17th century, under the orders of Pope Paul V ,

2288-830: The Empire of Vietnam , the Independent State of Croatia in Croatia and the Lokot Autonomy in Central Russia . In J.R.R. Tolkien's The Return of the King , the Mouth of Sauron proposes terms of surrender that would effectively give Mordor suzerainty over Gondor and Rohan: "The rabble of Gondor and its deluded allies shall withdraw at once beyond the Anduin, first taking oaths never again to assail Sauron

2376-911: The First Boer War (1880–81), the South African Republic was granted its independence, albeit under British suzerainty. During the Second Boer War (1899–1902), the South African Republic was annexed as the Transvaal Colony , which existed until 1910, when it became the Province of Transvaal in the Union of South Africa . Following the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918), the German Empire received

2464-633: The Indian National Congress resolved not to interfere directly but called on the princes to increase civil liberties and reduce their own privileges. With the impending independence of India in 1947, the Governor-General Lord Mountbatten announced that the British paramountcy over Indian states would come to an end. The states were advised to accede to one of the new dominions, India or Pakistan . An Instrument of Accession

2552-1049: The Jesuit Daniele Farlati and Dom Jacopo Coleti . Clement XI made a concerted effort to acquire Christian manuscripts in Syriac from Egypt and other places in the Middle East, greatly expanding the Vatican Library 's collection of Syriac works. Clement XI extended the feast of Our Lady of the Rosary to the Universal Church of the Roman Rite in 1716. Clement XI confirmed the cultus of Ceslas Odrowaz (27 August 1712), Jakov Varingez (29 December 1700), Peregrine Laziosi (11 September 1702), John of Perugia (11 September 1704), Peter of Sassoferrato (11 September 1704), Buonfiglio Monaldi (1 December 1717), Pope Gregory X (8 July 1713) and Humbeline of Jully (1703). He formally beatified

2640-665: The King of Spain , since the imperial army had conquered much of northern Italy and was threatening Rome itself in January 1709. By the Treaty of Utrecht that put an end to the war, the Papal States lost its suzerainty over the Farnese Duchy of Parma and Piacenza in favour of Austria , and lost Comacchio as well, a blow to the prestige of the Papal States. In 1713 Clement XI issued

2728-700: The Malabar district of the Madras Presidency . In 1956, the States Reorganisation Act separated these islands from the mainland administrative units, forming a new union territory by combining all the islands. The princely states of the British Raj which acceded to Pakistan maintained their sovereignty with the Government of Pakistan acting as the suzerain until 1956 for Bahawalpur , Khairpur , and

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2816-530: The Palazzo Muti , as well as donating a summerhouse near the shores of Lake Albano . He also performed the baptism of James' son, the Jacobite Prince of Wales, Charles Edward Stuart . During his reign as a pope the famous Illyricum Sacrum was commissioned, and today it is one of the main sources of the field of Balkan region during Middle Ages , with over 5,000 pages divided in several volumes written by

2904-685: The Prime Minister of India , Jawaharlal Nehru gave India suzerainty over Kingdom of Sikkim in exchange for it retaining its independence. This continued until 1975, when the Sikkimese monarchy was abolished in favour of a merger into India. Sikkim is now one of the states of India . Located in the Arabian Sea , Lakshadweep is a Union territory of India off the coast of the southwestern state of Kerala . The Aminidivi group of islands ( Amini , Kadmat , Kiltan , Chetlat and Bitra ) came under

2992-516: The Quirinal Palace . He took medication that day but experienced pains in his thorax and had trouble breathing from the cold air in his rooms. The following day, Clement XI celebrated Mass in his private chapel before meeting various prelates which included the Archbishop of Ravenna Geronimo Crispi. However, at around noon, he was suddenly struck with an extraordinary chill which was accompanied by

3080-570: The Ryukyu Islands , France took Vietnam, and Britain took Upper Burma . Since colonial times, Britain had regarded Tibet as being under Chinese suzerainty, but in 2008 the British Foreign Secretary David Miliband called that word an "anachronism" in a statement, and recognized Tibet as part of China. Suzerainty treaties and similar covenants and agreements between Middle Eastern states were quite prevalent during

3168-524: The Sala di Consultazione or main reference room of the Vatican Library looms a statue of St Thomas Aquinas ( c.  1910 ), sculpted by Cesare Aureli . A second version of this statue ( c.  1930 ) stands under the entrance portico of the Pontifical University of St Thomas Aquinas, Angelicum . The collection was originally organized through notebooks used to index the manuscripts. As

3256-721: The Thirty Years' War . A token 39 of the Heidelberg manuscripts were sent to Paris in 1797 and were returned to Heidelberg at the Peace of Paris in 1815. A gift of 852 others was made in 1816 by Pope Pius VII to the University of Heidelberg , including the Codex Manesse . Aside from these cases, the Palatine Library remains in the Vatican Library to this day. In 1657, the manuscripts of

3344-702: The Universal Prayer and highly recommended it to others. Pope Clement XI had a famous sundial added in the church of Santa Maria degli Angeli e dei Martiri and had an obelisk erected in the Piazza della Rotonda in front of the Pantheon , and a port built on the Tiber River , the beautiful Porto di Ripetta , demolished at the end of the 19th century. He established a committee, overseen by his favourite artists, Carlo Maratta and Carlo Fontana , to commission statuary of

3432-540: The Vatican Library or informally as the Vat , is the library of the Holy See , located in Vatican City , and is the city-state's national library . It was formally established in 1475, although it is much older—it is one of the oldest libraries in the world and contains one of the most significant collections of historical texts. It has 75,000 codices from throughout history, as well as 1.1 million printed books, which include some 8,500 incunabula . The Vatican Library

3520-473: The bull Unigenitus in response to the spread of the Jansenist heresy. There followed great upheaval in France , where apart from theological issues, a strong Gallican tendency persisted. The bull, which was produced with the contribution of Gregorio Selleri, a lector at the College of Saint Thomas, the future Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas Angelicum , condemned Jansenism by extracting and anathematizing as heretical 101 propositions from

3608-425: The Albani was Lazzi (Laçi) which they changed to Albani in memory of their origin. Francesco Albani funded an expedition in Albania to locate the exact settlement of his family's origins. In the final report, the two most probable locations which were presented to him were Laç near Lezhë and Laç near Kukës, both in northern Albania. Albani was educated at the Collegio Romano in Rome from 1660 onwards. He became

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3696-411: The Archives were separated from the Vatican Library, where scholars had some very limited access to them, and remained absolutely closed to outsiders until 1881, when Pope Leo XIII opened them to researchers, more than a thousand of whom now examine its documents each year. Suzerainty Suzerainty ( / ˈ s uː z ər ə n t i , - r ɛ n t i / ) includes the rights and obligations of

3784-404: The Dukes of Urbino were acquired. In 1661, the Greek scholar Leo Allatius was made librarian. Queen Christina of Sweden 's important library (mostly amassed by her generals as loot from Habsburg Prague and German cities during the Thirty Years' War ) was purchased on her death in 1689 by Pope Alexander VIII . It represented, for all practical purposes, the entire royal library of Sweden at

3872-558: The Great in arms, open or secret. ... West of the Anduin as far as the Misty Mountains and the Gap of Rohan shall be tributary to Mordor, and men there shall bear no weapons, but shall have leave to govern their own affairs." In Season 7 of Supernatural , Castiel briefly attains god-like powers and takes direct control of Heaven. He then meets with the King of Hell, Crowley, to propose an arrangement in which Crowley maintains control over Hell's internal affairs but pledges allegiance to Castiel. He also requires Crowley to give him control over

3960-425: The Orient to bring back manuscripts, and is generally regarded as the founder of the library's Oriental section. A School of library science is associated with the Vatican Library. In 1959, the Vatican Film Library was established. This is not to be confused with the Knights of Columbus Vatican Film Library , which was established in 1953 at Saint Louis University in St. Louis, Missouri . The library has

4048-408: The actors, the more likely they were to participate in the tributary system. In practice the behaviours which were collectively seen as a tributary system, involving tribute and gift exchange in return for symbolic subordination, were only formalized during the early years of the Ming dynasty . Tributary members were virtually autonomous and carried out their own agendas despite paying tribute; this

4136-579: The apostles to complete the decoration of Basilica of Saint John Lateran . He also founded an academy of painting and sculpture on the Campidoglio . He also enriched the Vatican Library with numerous Oriental codices and lent his patronage to the first archaeological excavations in the Roman catacombs . In his native Urbino he restored numerous edifices and founded a public library. Vatican Library The Vatican Apostolic Library ( Latin : Bibliotheca Apostolica Vaticana , Italian : Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana ), more commonly known as

4224-413: The cardinalate in 1690 despite his protests and made him the Cardinal-Deacon of Santa Maria in Aquiro but he later opted for the Diaconia of Sant'Adriano al Foro and later, as the Cardinal-Priest, for the titulus of San Silvestro in Capite . He was then ordained to the priesthood in September 1700 and celebrated his first Mass in Rome on 6 October 1700. After the death of Pope Innocent XII in 1700,

4312-494: The city to begin its transformation. Nicolas wanted to create a "public library" for Rome that was meant to be seen as an institution for humanist scholarship. His death prevented him from carrying out his plan, but his successor Pope Sixtus IV (1471–1484) established what is now known as the Vatican Library. In March 2014, the Vatican Library began an initial four-year project of digitising its collection of manuscripts, to be made available online. The Vatican Apostolic Archive

4400-418: The collection grew to more than a few thousand, shelf lists were used. The first modern catalogue system was put in place under Father Franz Ehrle between 1927 and 1939, using the Library of Congress card catalogue system. Ehrle also set up the first program to take photographs of important works or rare works. The library catalogue was further updated by Rev. Leonard E. Boyle when it was computerized in

4488-419: The contrary by Lafitau. On 14 March, Clement XI took ill while Lafitau was trying to get the pope's nephew to persuade the pope to name the French Chief minister Guillaume Dubois to the cardinalate. However, Clement XI was in a state of delirium and was not responsive to his pleas. On 16 March, Quadragesima Sunday , the pope did not participate in the services, however, celebrated Mass in his private chapel at

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4576-405: The dominant power allows tributary states to be technically independent but enjoy only limited self-rule. Although the situation has existed in a number of historical empires, it is considered difficult to reconcile with 20th- or 21st-century concepts of international law , in which sovereignty is a binary concept, which either exists or does not. While a sovereign state can agree by treaty to become

4664-409: The early 1990s. Historically, during the Renaissance era , most books were not shelved but stored in wooden benches, which had tables attached to them. Each bench was dedicated to a specific topic. The books were chained to these benches , and if a reader took out a book, the chain remained attached to it. Until the early 17th century, academics were also allowed to borrow books. For important books,

4752-404: The facilities were for such an important collection. Several American organizations, including the American Library Association and the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace , offered to assist in implementing a modern cataloguing system. Along with this, librarians from the Vatican Library were invited to visit several libraries in the United States to receive training on the functioning of

4840-479: The first century. The library was founded primarily as a manuscript library, a fact reflected in the comparatively high ratio of manuscripts to printed works in its collection. Such printed books as have made their way into the collection are intended solely to facilitate the study of the much larger collection of manuscripts. The collection also includes 330,000 Greek, Roman, and papal coins and medals. Every year about 6,000 new books are acquired. The library

4928-427: The heathen. Clement XI died in Rome on 19 March 1721 at 12:45pm and was buried in the pavement of Saint Peter's Basilica rather than in an ornate tomb like those of his predecessors. On March 10, Clement XI had a meeting at about 11:00am with the Bishop of Sisteron Pierre François Lafitau. When the pope met with the bishop, he said that his time was drawing to a close and that he would soon die, despite protests to

5016-490: The inclusion of pagan classics. Nicolas was important in saving many of the Greek works and writings during this time period that he had collected while traveling and acquired from others. In 1455, the collection had grown to 1200 books, of which 400 were in Greek. Nicholas died in 1455. In 1475 his successor Pope Sixtus IV founded the Palatine Library . During his papacy, acquisitions were made in "theology, philosophy and artistic literature". The number of manuscripts

5104-399: The interest of so-stated "good governance". In some cases, the British government also deposed these Indian princes. According to historians Sugata Bose and Ayesha Jalal the system of paramountcy was a system of limited sovereignty only in appearance. In reality, it was a system of recruitment of a reliable base of support for the imperial state. The support of the Imperial State obviated

5192-538: The library moved to the Lateran Palace and lasted until the end of the 13th century and the reign of Pope Boniface VIII , who died in 1303, by which time he possessed one of the most notable collections of illuminated manuscripts in Europe. However, in that year, the Lateran Palace was burnt and the collection plundered by Philip IV of France . The Avignon period was during the Avignon Papacy , when seven successive popes resided in Avignon , France . This period saw great growth in book collection and record-keeping by

5280-408: The library's manuscripts within four years. NTT is donating the equipment and technicians, estimated to be worth 18 million Euros. It noted that there is the possibility of subsequently digitizing another 79,000 of the library's holdings. These will be high-definition images available on the library's Internet site. Storage for the holdings will be on a three petabyte server provided by EMC . It

5368-435: The library, Vat. Ar. 1484 , measures 540x420mm. The smallest, Vat. Ar. 924, is a circle of 45mm diameter preserved in an octagonal case. In 2012, plans were announced to digitize, in collaboration with the Bodleian Library , a million pages of material from the Vatican Library. On 20 March 2014, the Holy See announced that NTT Data Corporation and the library had concluded an agreement to digitize approximately 3,000 of

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5456-402: The library, which is still used today. After this, it became known as the Vatican Library. During the Counter-Reformation , access to the library's collections was limited following the introduction of the Index of banned books . Scholars' access to the library was restricted, particularly Protestant scholars. Restrictions were lifted during the course of the 17th century, and Pope Leo XIII

5544-487: The most modern in all of Europe. This joint effort highlighted the importance of international relationships in the field of librarianship and led to the founding in 1929 of the International Federation of Library Associations , still at work. In 1992 the library had almost 2 million catalogued items. Among a number of thefts from the Library committed in modern times, in 1995 art history teacher Anthony Melnikas from Ohio State University stole three leaves from

5632-570: The need for the rulers to seek legitimacy through patronage and dialogue with their populations. Through their direct as well as indirect rule through the princes, the colonial state turned the population of India into 'subjects' rather than citizens. The Government of India Act 1935 envisaged that India would be a federation of autonomous provinces balanced by Indian princely states. This plan never came to fruition. The political conditions were oppressive in several princely states giving rise to political movements. Under pressure from Mahatma Gandhi ,

5720-440: The papal sacristan Niccolo Agostino degli Abbati Olivieri, Bishop of Porfirio , administered the Extreme Unction . On 19 March, the fever returned violently, and Clement XI slowly lost his ability to speak as his eyes clouded over and his respiration slowly diminished as the pope died just after midday. In his book " Journal of a Soul ", while he was preparing for the Second Vatican Council , Pope John XXIII resolved to pray

5808-425: The peace with the more powerful neighbor and be eligible for diplomatic or military help under certain conditions. Political actors within the tributary system were largely autonomous and in almost all cases virtually independent. The term "tribute system" as applied to China is a Western invention. There was no equivalent term in the Chinese lexicon to describe what would be considered the "tribute system" today, nor

5896-430: The period between the two World Wars at the instigation of Pope Pius XI , himself a scholar and former librarian, with the cooperation of librarians from around the world. Until this point in time, while it had drawn on the expertise of numerous experts, the Vatican Library was dangerously lacking in organization and its junior librarians were undertrained. Foreign researchers, particularly Americans, noticed how inadequate

5984-504: The pope accepted on 7 June 1706. Clement XI also accepted the resignation of Francesco Maria de' Medici from the cardinalate on 19 June 1709. Another important decision of Clement XI was in regard to the Chinese Rites controversy : the Jesuit missionaries were forbidden to take part in honors paid to Confucius or the ancestors of the Emperors of China , which Clement XI identified as "idolatrous and barbaric", and to accommodate Christian language to pagan ideas under plea of conciliating

6072-476: The pope himself would issue a reminder slip. Privileges to use the library could be withdrawn for breaking the house rules, for instance by climbing over the tables. Most famously Pico Della Mirandola lost the right to use the library when he published a book on theology that the Papal curia did not approve of. In the 1760s, a bill issued by Clement XIII heavily restricted access to the library's holdings. The Vatican Library can be accessed by 200 scholars at

6160-438: The popes in Avignon, between the death of Boniface and the 1370s when the papacy returned to Rome . The Pre-Vatican period ranged from about 1370 to 1447. The library was scattered during this time, with parts in Rome, Avignon, and elsewhere. Pope Eugenius IV possessed 340 books by the time of his death. In 1451, bibliophile Pope Nicholas V sought to establish a public library at the Vatican, in part to re-establish Rome as

6248-416: The pre-monarchic and monarchy periods in Ancient Israel . The Hittites , Egyptians , and Assyrians had been suzerains to the Israelites and other tribal kingdoms of the Levant from 1200 to 600 BC. The structure of Jewish covenant law was similar to the Hittite form of suzerain. Each treaty would typically begin with an "Identification" of the Suzerain, followed by an historical prologue cataloguing

6336-526: The relationship between the two groups "with emphasis on the benevolent actions of the suzerain towards the vassal". Following the historical prologue came the stipulation. This included tributes, obligations and other forms of subordination that would be imposed on the Israelites. According to the Hittite form, after the stipulations were offered to the vassal, it was necessary to include a request to have copies of

6424-641: The rule of Tipu Sultan in 1787. They passed on to British control after the Third Anglo-Mysore War and were attached to the South Canara district. The rest of the islands became a suzerainty of the Arakkal Kingdom of Cannanore in return for a payment of annual tribute. After a while, the British took over the administration of those islands for non-payment of arrears. These islands were attached to

6512-576: The time. Had it remained where it was in Stockholm , it would all have been lost in the destruction of the royal palace by fire in 1697. Among the most famous holdings of the library is the Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209 , the oldest known nearly complete manuscript of the Bible . The Secret History of Procopius was discovered in the library and published in 1623. Pope Clement XI sent scholars into

6600-409: The treaty that would be read throughout the kingdom periodically. The treaty would have divine and earthly witnesses purporting the treaty's validity, trustworthiness, and efficacy. This also tied into the blessings that would come from following the treaty and the curses from breaching it. For disobedience, curses would be given to those who had not remained steadfast in carrying out the stipulations of

6688-559: The treaty. Below is a form of a Hittite suzerainty treaty. The British East India Company conquered Bengal in 1757, and gradually extended its control over the whole of India . It annexed many of the erstwhile Indian kingdoms ("states", in British terminology) but entered into alliances with others. Some states were created by the East India Company itself through the grant of jagirs to influential allies. The states varied enormously in size and influence, with Hyderabad at

6776-564: The upper end with 16.5 million people and an annual revenue of 100 million rupees and states like Babri at the lower end with a population of 27 people and annual revenue of 80 rupees. The principle of paramountcy was explicitly stated in a letter by Lord Reading to the Nizam of Hyderabad , Mir Osman Ali Khan , in 1926, "The sovereignty of the British Crown is supreme in India and therefore no ruler of an Indian State can justifiably claim to negotiate with

6864-452: The works of Pasquier Quesnel , declaring them to be identical in substance with propositions already condemned in the writings of Jansenius . The resistance of many French ecclesiastics and the refusal of the French parlements to register the bull led to controversies extending through the greater part of the 18th century. Because the local governments did not officially receive the bull, it

6952-600: Was a network of loose international relations focused on China which facilitated trade and foreign relations by acknowledging China's predominant role in East Asia. It involved multiple relationships of trade, military force, diplomacy and ritual. The other states had to send a tributary envoy to China on schedule, who would kowtow to the Chinese emperor as a form of tribute, and acknowledge his superiority and precedence. The other countries followed China's formal ritual in order to keep

7040-468: Was detailed by German Colonel General Erich Ludendorff , who wrote, "German prestige demands that we should hold a strong protecting hand, not only over German citizens, but over all Germans." Despite being occupied by the Axis powers , several Western and Asian countries were allowed to exercise self-rule. Several states were created in order to facilitate their occupation, including Vichy France , Manchukuo ,

7128-487: Was devised for this purpose. The Congress leaders agreed to the plan on the condition that Mountbatten ensure that the majority of the states within the Indian territory accede to India. Under pressure from the governor-general, all the Indian states acceded to India save two, Junagadh and Hyderabad . Following the independence of India in 1947, a treaty signed between the Chogyal of Sikkim , Palden Thondup Namgyal , and

7216-424: Was enriched by several bequests and acquisitions over the centuries. In 1623, in thanks for the adroit political maneuvers of Pope Gregory XV that had sustained him in his contests with Protestant candidates for the post of Elector , the hereditary Palatine Library of Heidelberg , containing about 3,500 manuscripts was given to the Holy See by Maximilian I, Duke of Bavaria . He had just acquired it as loot in

7304-418: Was it envisioned as an institution or system. John King Fairbank and Teng Ssu-yu created the "tribute system" theory in a series of articles in the early 1940s to describe "a set of ideas and practices developed and perpetuated by the rulers of China over many centuries." The Fairbank model presents the tribute system as an extension of the hierarchic and nonegalitarian Confucian social order. The more Confucian

7392-433: Was not, technically, in force in those areas – an example of the interference of states in religious affairs common before the 20th century. Clement XI supported James Francis Edward Stuart , the exiled Stuart Prince of Wales, recognizing him as James III and VIII, and paid for the residence of him and his wife, Princess Maria Clementina Sobieska , Granddaughter of John III Sobieski , King of Poland-Lithuania, in Rome,

7480-524: Was separated from the library at the beginning of the 17th century; it contains another 150,000 items. Scholars have traditionally divided the history of the library into five periods: Pre-Lateran, Lateran, Avignon, Pre-Vatican and Vatican. The Pre-Lateran period, comprising the initial days of the library, dating from the earliest days of the Church . Only a handful of volumes survive from this period, though some are very significant. The Lateran era began when

7568-399: Was something wrong with his lungs, causing his doctors to realize that his condition would more than likely prove fatal. Clement XI made his confession and the profession of faith before receiving Holy Communion at 8:00pm. James Francis Edward Stuart , the "Pretender", tried to see the dying pope, however he was denied on the grounds of the dangerous state of the pope's condition. That night,

7656-402: Was the case with Japan, Korea, Ryukyu, and Vietnam. Chinese influence on tributary states was almost always non-interventionist in nature and tributary states "normally could expect no military assistance from Chinese armies should they be invaded". The Chinese tributary system was upended in the 19th and 20th centuries as a result of Western and Japanese colonialism . Japan took Korea and

7744-575: Was to formally reopen the library to scholars in 1883. In 1756, the priest Antonio Piaggio , curator of ancient manuscripts at the Library used a machine he had invented to unroll the first Herculaneum papyri , an operation which took him months. In 1809, Napoleon Bonaparte arrested Pope Pius VII and had the contents of the library seized and removed to Paris . They were returned in 1817, three years after Napoleon's defeat and abdication. The library's first major revitalization project took place in

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