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119-622: In 1560, the Scottish reformation parliament introduced a Protestant confession of faith and abolished papal authority in Scotland. Priests who continued the old religion in Scotland slowly began to die out. Catholicism all but disappeared aside from in the north-east and south-west of the country, or in hubs where local noblemen held on to the old faith. At this time, exiled clergy attempted to recover and reform existing Scottish ecclesiastical institutions abroad, or establish new ones, in accordance with

238-537: A Franciscan , canon of San Lorenzo in Damaso , secretary to Cardinal Francesco Barberini and honorary chamberlain of Pope Urban VIII . Conn also acted as papal agent at the court of Queen Henrietta Maria . Thomas Chalmers, a student from 1630 to 1637, was almoner to Cardinals Richelieu and Mazarin . William Ballantine , a student from 1641 to 1646, was named the first Prefect of the Scottish Mission in 1653 and

357-510: A " Popish Plot " to kill Charles and to put the Duke of York on the throne. The fabricated plot caused a wave of anti-Catholic hysteria to sweep across the nation. In England, the Earl of Shaftesbury , a former government minister and now a leading opponent of Catholicism, proposed an Exclusion Bill that would have excluded James from the line of succession. Some members of Parliament even proposed to pass

476-725: A Roman Catholic. With the assistance of French troops, James landed in Ireland in March 1689. The Irish Parliament did not follow the example of the English Parliament; it declared that James remained King and passed a massive bill of attainder against those who had rebelled against him. At James's urging, the Irish Parliament passed an Act for Liberty of Conscience that granted religious freedom to all Roman Catholics and Protestants in Ireland. James worked to build an army in Ireland, but

595-496: A brief Anglican service that did little more than recognise the marriage by proxy. Many British people, distrustful of Catholicism, regarded the new Duchess of York as an agent of the Papacy . James was noted for his deep devotion, once remarking, "If occasion were, I hope God would give me his grace to suffer death for the true Catholic religion as well as banishment." In 1677, King Charles II arranged for James's daughter Mary to marry

714-634: A captured Irish regiment in December 1652, then appointed Lieutenant-General in 1654. In 1657, France, then engaged in the Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659) , agreed an alliance with the Commonwealth of England , and when Charles responded by signing a treaty with Spain , James was expelled from France. James quarrelled with his brother over this choice, but ultimately joined Spanish forces in Flanders led by

833-510: A century of political and civil strife by confirming the primacy of the English Parliament over the Crown. James succeeded to the throne with widespread support, largely due to a reluctance to undermine the principle of hereditary succession, and the belief that a Catholic monarchy was purely temporary. However, tolerance of his personal views did not extend to Catholicism in general, and both

952-465: A father, and played with them "like an ordinary private father of a child", a contrast to the distant parenting common with royalty at the time. James's wife was devoted to him and influenced many of his decisions. Even so, he kept mistresses, including Arabella Churchill and Catherine Sedley , and was reputed to be "the most unguarded ogler of his time". Samuel Pepys recorded in his diary that James "did eye my wife mightily". James's taste in women

1071-631: A funeral oration by Henri-Emmanuel de Roquette . James was not buried, but put in one of the side chapels. Lights were kept burning round his coffin until the French Revolution . In 1734, the Archbishop of Paris heard evidence to support James's canonisation, but nothing came of it. During the French Revolution, James's tomb was raided. James's younger daughter Anne succeeded when William died in 1702. The Act of Settlement provided that, if

1190-517: A middle ground between these views. James, second surviving son of King Charles I and his wife, Henrietta Maria of France , was born at St James's Palace in London on 14 October 1633. Later that same year, he was baptized by William Laud , the Anglican Archbishop of Canterbury . He was educated by private tutors, along with his older brother, the future King Charles II , and the two sons of

1309-576: A mission of secular priests should formally be set up with a superior, and one of their own remaining in Rome as an agent to protect its interests. The first of these agents sent to Rome was William Leslie, who was to become a significant figure in the history of the College. He kept a watchful eye over its affairs. Disputes with the Jesuits continued, they argued that the oath deterred students and desired full control over

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1428-554: A palace and a pension. William summoned a Convention Parliament to decide how to handle James's flight. It convened on 22 January 1689. While the Parliament refused to depose him, they declared that James, having fled to France and dropped the Great Seal into the Thames, had effectively abdicated , and that the throne had thereby become vacant. To fill this vacancy, James's daughter Mary

1547-399: A papal diplomat and was named Cardinal in 1801. Walter Lovi (1796–1878) was a priest and architect active in the mid-nineteenth century who studied at the college from 1823 until 1825. In the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries there were several notable students. Frederick Rolfe (1860–1913), better known as Baron Corvo; a writer, artist, photographer and eccentric, was expelled from

1666-755: A simultaneous rising in Scotland , in April a Scottish Convention followed England in ruling that James had "forfeited" the throne, which was offered to William and Mary. After his defeat at the Battle of the Boyne in July 1690, James returned to France, where he spent the rest of his life in exile at Saint-Germain , protected by Louis XIV . While contemporary opponents often portrayed him as an absolutist tyrant, some 20th-century historians have praised James for advocating religious tolerance, although more recent scholarship has tended to take

1785-660: A sizable court household. In 1664, Charles II granted American territory between the Delaware and Connecticut rivers to James. Following its capture by the British, the former Dutch territory of New Netherland and its principal port, New Amsterdam , were renamed the Province and City of New York in James's honour. James gave part of the colony to proprietors George Carteret and John Berkeley . Fort Orange , 150 miles (240 km) north on

1904-651: A teacher and then a Scottish National Party politician and Member of Parliament . Later he resumed studies for the priesthood at St John's Seminary, Wonersh and was ordained in 1989. Paul Laverty (born 1957), a screenwriter and lawyer, studied for priesthood but did not continue to ordination and obtained a degree in philosophy from the Pontifical Gregorian University . 41°57′27″N 12°27′25″E  /  41.95750°N 12.45694°E  / 41.95750; 12.45694 Scottish Reformation Parliament The Scottish Reformation Parliament

2023-524: A temporary phenomenon, but when the prince's birth opened the possibility of a permanent Roman Catholic dynasty, such men had to reconsider their position. Threatened by a Roman Catholic dynasty, several influential Protestants claimed the child was supposititious and had been smuggled into the Queen's bedchamber in a warming pan. They had already entered into negotiations with the Prince of Orange when it became known

2142-467: A wave of sympathy for the King and James. Several notable Whigs , including the Earl of Essex and the Duke of Monmouth, were implicated. Monmouth initially confessed to complicity in the plot and implicated fellow conspirators, but later recanted. Essex committed suicide, and Monmouth, along with several others, was obliged to flee into exile in continental Europe. Charles II reacted to the plot by increasing

2261-611: A wholesale purge of those in offices under the Crown opposed to his plan, appointing new lord-lieutenants of counties and remodelling the corporations governing towns and livery companies . In October, James gave orders for the lord-lieutenants to provide three standard questions to all Justices of the Peace : 1. Would they consent to the repeal of the Test Act and the Penal Laws? 2. Would they assist candidates who would do so? 3. Would they accept

2380-684: A year to markets primarily in the English Caribbean across the Atlantic. Many were branded on the chest with the letters "DY" for "Duke of York", the RAC's Governor. As historian William Pettigrew writes, the RAC "shipped more enslaved African women, men, and children to the Americas than any other single institution during the entire period of the transatlantic slave trade". James's time in France had exposed him to

2499-423: The Archbishop of Canterbury , submitted a petition requesting the reconsideration of the King's religious policies, they were arrested and tried for seditious libel . Public alarm increased when Queen Mary gave birth to a Roman Catholic son and heir, James Francis Edward , on 10 June that year. When James's only possible successors were his two Protestant daughters, Anglicans could see his pro-Catholic policies as

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2618-483: The Congregation De Propaganda Fide proved a significant turning point for missionary efforts in Scotland. At this time the College also became strongly linked with the powerful Barberini family . A church, Sant'Andrea degli Scozzesi , was constructed in the 1640s adjacent to the buildings of the college for the celebration of feasts and burial of the dead. The College of the mid seventeenth century

2737-792: The Duke of Buckingham , George and Francis Villiers. At the age of three, James was appointed Lord High Admiral ; the position was initially honorary, but became a substantive office after the Restoration , when James was an adult. He was designated Duke of York at birth, invested with the Order of the Garter in 1642, and formally created Duke of York in January 1644. In August 1642, long running political disputes between Charles I and his opponents in Parliament led to

2856-480: The Earl of Melfort ; most, but not all, were Roman Catholic. In 1692, James's last child, Louisa Maria Teresa , was born. Some supporters in England attempted to assassinate William III to restore James to the throne in 1696, but the plot failed and the backlash made James's cause less popular. In the same year, Louis XIV offered to have James elected King of Poland . James rejected the offer, fearing that accepting

2975-708: The First English Civil War . James and his brother Charles were present at the Battle of Edgehill in October, and narrowly escaped capture by Parliamentarian cavalry. He spent most of the next four years in the Royalist wartime capital of Oxford , where he was made a Master of Arts by the University on 1 November 1642 and served as colonel of a volunteer regiment of foot. Following the surrender of Oxford in June 1646, James

3094-676: The Hudson River , was renamed Albany after James's Scottish title. In 1683, James became the Governor of the Hudson's Bay Company , but did not take an active role in its governance. In September 1666, Charles II put James in charge of firefighting operations during the Great Fire of London , in the absence of action by Lord Mayor Thomas Bloodworth . This was not a political office, but his actions and leadership were noteworthy. "The Duke of York hath won

3213-588: The Tories were those who opposed it. Ultimately, the succession was not altered, but James was convinced to withdraw from all policy-making bodies and to accept a lesser role in his brother's government. On the orders of the King, James left England for Brussels . In 1680, he was appointed Lord High Commissioner of Scotland and took up residence at the Holyrood Palace in Edinburgh to suppress an uprising and oversee

3332-570: The Via Quattro Fontane was threatened by radical plans for the city. When Italy entered the Second World War , Clapperton decided that staff and students should return home. Seminarians studying philosophy were sent to Blairs College while those in theology were transferred to St Peter's College, Bearsden . Clapperton was kept up to date with College affairs from his temporary posting in Banff

3451-448: The counter-reformation ethos of the Council of Trent (1545–63), which recommended the training of diocesan priests within seminaries . Petitioning began for such a Scots institution to be established in the central location of Rome where there was already an existing medieval Scots Hospice. The Scots College was established by Pope Clement VIII on 5 December 1600, when it was assigned

3570-821: The slave trade (indeed English attacks on such forts occupied by the Dutch precipitated the war itself). James remained Admiral of the Fleet during the Third Anglo-Dutch War (1672–1674), during which significant fighting also occurred off the African coast. Following the raid on the Medway in 1667, James oversaw the survey and re-fortification of the southern coast. The office of Lord High Admiral, combined with his revenue from post office and wine tariffs (positions granted him by Charles II upon his restoration), gave James enough money to keep

3689-734: The 1520s and 1530s were Lutherans such as Patrick Hamilton and George Wishart , who translated the First Helvetic Confession written by Heinrich Bullinger, marking the impact of the Swiss Reformation. With the return of Knox from Geneva Scottish Protestants rallied around him and the Scottish Reformation continued to be characterised by the example of John Calvin in Geneva. Queen dowager Mary of Guise , acting as regent for her daughter Mary, Queen of Scots , viewed

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3808-527: The 17th century. Former students Robert Phillip , later joined the French Oratory , and William Thomson, later a Franciscan , were confessors to Henrietta Maria of France . Another George Strachan of the Mearns became a Humanist scholar , Orientalist and traveller. Daniel Colville became a notable linguist and librarian at El Escorial . George Conn, who arrived in 1619 and left in the same year, later became

3927-728: The Church, accepted by Pope Clement X in 1673. A relic was obtained from the Scots College Douai , until then the main centre of devotion to the Saint, with the altar of St Margaret in Sant'Andrea degli Scozzese being provided with a painting. William Aloysius was able to have her patronage of the Scots Colleges, and of Scotland recognised by the Church. During the Glorious Revolution of 1688,

4046-546: The College, but Leslie was able to persuade the Propaganda to rule the oath perpetually binding in 1660. In the latter half of the seventeenth century, the college became a centre for the promotion of the cult of Saint Margaret of Scotland , having been gifted some relics. William Leslie, along with his relative the Rector William Aloysius Leslie, petitioned for the Saint to be added to the universal calendar of

4165-671: The College. The celebration of the Feast of St Andrew is a high point of the Scots College year. On 14 April 2016, the community of the Scots College were granted a private audience with Pope Francis at the Apostolic Palace to mark the 400th anniversary of its becoming a seminary. In 2017, seminarians from the college were invited to serve at the Easter Vigil at St. Peter's Basilica. After a 2020 review projected unaffordable upgrade costs for

4284-666: The Declaration of Indulgence? During the first three months of 1688, hundreds of those who gave negative replies to those questions were dismissed. Corporations were purged by agents, known as the Regulators, who were given wide discretionary powers, in an attempt to create a permanent royal electoral machine. Most of the regulators were Baptists , and the new town officials that they recommended included Quakers , Baptists, Congregationalists , Presbyterians and Roman Catholics, as well as Anglicans . Finally, on 24 August 1688, James ordered

4403-457: The Elector of Hanover and Anne's second cousin. James's son James Francis Edward was recognised as king at his father's death by Louis XIV of France and James II's remaining supporters (later known as Jacobites ) as "James III and VIII". He led a rising in Scotland in 1715 shortly after George I's accession, but was defeated. His son Charles Edward Stuart led a Jacobite rising in 1745 , but

4522-605: The English Parliament to introduce a new Test Act in 1673. Under this Act, all civil and military officials were required to take an oath (in which they were required to disavow the doctrine of transubstantiation and denounce certain practices of the Roman Church as superstitious and idolatrous) and to receive the Eucharist under the auspices of the Church of England . James refused to perform either action, instead choosing to relinquish

4641-466: The English and Scottish parliaments refused to pass measures viewed as undermining the primacy of the Protestant religion. His attempts to impose them by decree met with opposition, and as a result, it has been argued it was a political principle, rather than a religious one, that ultimately led to his removal. In June 1688, two events turned dissent into a crisis. Firstly, the birth of James's son and heir James Francis Edward Stuart on 10 June raised

4760-523: The English political class invited William to assume the English throne. When William landed in Brixham on 5 November 1688, James's army deserted and he went into exile in France on 23 December. In February 1689, a special Convention Parliament held James had "vacated" the English throne and installed William and Mary as joint monarchs, thereby establishing the principle sovereignty derived from Parliament, not birth. James landed in Ireland on 14 March 1689 in an attempt to recover his kingdoms, but, despite

4879-443: The Established Church, the traditional ally of the monarchy, in the difficult position of being forced to erode its own privileges. James provoked further opposition by attempting to reduce the Anglican monopoly on education. At the University of Oxford , he offended Anglicans by allowing Roman Catholics to hold important positions in Christ Church and University College , two of Oxford's largest colleges. He also attempted to force

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4998-516: The Fellows of Magdalen College to elect as their President Anthony Farmer , a man of generally ill repute who was believed to be a Roman Catholic, which was seen as a violation of the Fellows' right to elect someone of their own choosing. In 1687, James prepared to pack Parliament with his supporters, so that it would repeal the Test Act and the Penal Laws. James was convinced by addresses from Dissenters that he had their support and so could dispense with relying on Tories and Anglicans. He instituted

5117-441: The French exile Condé . Given command of six regiments of British volunteers, he fought against his former French comrades at the Battle of the Dunes . After France and Spain made peace with the 1659 Treaty of the Pyrenees , James considered taking a Spanish offer to be an admiral in their navy, but declined the position. Soon after, the 1660 Stuart Restoration returned his brother to the English throne as Charles II. After

5236-422: The Governor of the Royal Adventurers into Africa (later shortened to the Royal African Company ) in October 1660, an office James retained until after the Glorious Revolution when he was forced to resign. When James commanded the Royal Navy during the Second Anglo-Dutch War (1665–1667) he immediately directed the fleet towards the capture of forts off the African coast that would facilitate English involvement in

5355-430: The Jesuits at the Roman College . However, the Alticozzi era came to a dramatic end in 1766 whereupon the death of the Old Pretender , the rectors of the British colleges in the city, with Cardinal York and others, chose to recognise Charles Edward Stuart as Charles III against the policy of the Pope. All the British Rectors, including Alticozzi, were removed from office and banished by Papal order. The Jesuit period of

5474-443: The North Sea to The Hague . Following their victory in the 1648 Second English Civil War , Parliament ordered the execution of Charles I in January 1649. The Covenanter regime proclaimed Charles II King of Scotland, and after lengthy negotiations agreed to provide troops to restore him to the English throne. The invasion ended in defeat at Worcester in September 1651. Although Charles managed to escape capture and to return to

5593-482: The Parliament approved the Treaty of Berwick (1560) , and James Stewart, Earl of Moray requested and received special confirmation that the acts of the Lords of the Congregation were lawful. The authority of the Pope in Scotland was abrogated without contradiction. The work of the 'Reformation Parliament' was popularly acclaimed but not formally ratified until seven years later by James VI. Mary never ratified it. The English correspondent Thomas Randolph described

5712-420: The Polish crown might (in the minds of the English people) disqualify him from being King of England. After Louis concluded peace with William in 1697, he ceased to offer much assistance to James. During his last years, James lived as an austere penitent . He wrote a memorandum for his son advising him on how to govern England, specifying that Catholics should possess one Secretary of State, one Commissioner of

5831-434: The Prince of Orange, had neglected to detain them or put a stop to their recruitment efforts. Argyll sailed to Scotland where he raised recruits, mainly from his own clan, the Campbells . The rebellion was quickly crushed, and Argyll was captured at Inchinnan on 18 June 1685. Having arrived with fewer than 300 men and unable to convince many more to flock to his standard, he never posed a credible threat to James. Argyll

5950-422: The Prince of Wales and government ministers. MacPherson returned in the summer of 1800 that he could recover the College properties, and found them in a state of disrepair. He was thereafter made Rector, albeit without students, and remained in Rome throughout the quarrels between Pius VII and Napoleon , protecting the properties until he was expelled by the French in June 1811. He returned to Rome in 1812 where

6069-423: The Protestant Prince William III of Orange , son of Charles's and James's sister Mary . James reluctantly acquiesced after his brother and nephew had agreed to the marriage. Despite the Protestant marriage, fears of a potential Catholic monarch persisted, intensified by the failure of Charles II and his wife, Catherine of Braganza , to produce any children. A defrocked Anglican clergyman, Titus Oates , spoke of

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6188-484: The Protestants as a serious threat and felt the use of force would be necessary against them. Civil war appeared imminent, but each side shrank from the first step. Knox at once became the clerical leader of the reformers. He preached against " idolatry " with the greatest boldness, with the result that what he later called the "rascal multitude" began the "purging" of churches and the destruction of monasteries and nunneries. Mary of Guise died on 11 June 1560, at which point

6307-635: The Queen was pregnant, and the birth of a son reinforced their convictions. On 30 June 1688, a group of seven Protestant nobles invited William, Prince of Orange , to come to England with an army. By September, it had become clear that William sought to invade. Believing that his own army would be adequate, James refused the assistance of King Louis XIV of France, fearing that the English would oppose French intervention. When William arrived on 5 November 1688, many Protestant officers, including Churchill , defected and joined William, as did James's own daughter Anne . James lost his nerve and declined to attack

6426-409: The Solicitor General, Heneage Finch . The case of Godden v Hales affirmed his dispensing power, with eleven out of the twelve judges ruling in the king's favour after six judges were dismissed for refusing to promise to support the king. In 1687, James issued the Declaration of Indulgence , also known as the Declaration for Liberty of Conscience, in which he used his dispensing power to negate

6545-407: The Treasury, the Secretary at War, with the majority of the officers in the army. James died aged 67 of a brain haemorrhage on 16 September 1701 at Saint-Germain-en-Laye . James's heart was placed in a silver-gilt locket and given to the convent at Chaillot , and his brain was placed in a lead casket and given to the Scots College in Paris. His entrails were placed in two gilt urns and sent to

6664-399: The Via Cassia seminary, the Scottish Bishops announced a plan to relocate to a more central location in Rome beginning in 2021. A temporary move was announced in May 2023 to the Beda College in September 2023, until a permanent location is found. The careers of some of the early students at the college demonstrate the opportunities available to educated Scottish Catholics on the continent in

6783-554: The administration was turned over to Italian Jesuits at the request of the Scottish clergy due to their discontent with the administration. The College was not untouched by the Jansenist crisis which embroiled the Scottish Church in the 1730s and 1740s. Happy years followed under the rector-ship of Lorenzo Alticozzi, who cleared debts and was able to refurbish and enlarge the college villa at Marino . Notable students of this era included George Hay , John Geddes and Charles Erskine . The students were educated in philosophy and theology by

6902-427: The beginning of 1686, two papers were found in Charles II's strong box and his closet, in his own hand, stating the arguments for Catholicism over Protestantism. James published these papers with a declaration signed by his sign manual and challenged the Archbishop of Canterbury and the whole Anglican episcopal bench to refute Charles's arguments: "Let me have a solid answer, and in a gentlemanlike style; and it may have

7021-551: The beliefs and ceremonies of the Roman Catholic Church, and both he and his wife Anne became drawn to that faith. James took Catholic Eucharist in 1668 or 1669, although his conversion was kept secret for almost a decade as he continued to attend Anglican services until 1676. In spite of his conversion, James continued to associate primarily with Anglicans, including John Churchill and George Legge , as well as French Protestants such as Louis de Duras, 2nd Earl of Feversham . Growing fears of Roman Catholic influence at court led

7140-406: The ceremony surrounding the selection of the Lords of the Articles on 9 August 1560. The lords convened at Holyroodhouse then rode to the Tollbooth near St Giles. Mary, Queen of Scots was represented by the crown, mace and sword . After a speech by William Maitland , the articles of the peace with France were read and confirmed. The Lords of the Articles were chosen – these decided the agenda for

7259-421: The chapel and crypt were decorated with twenty stained glass windows created by Giovanni D'Aloisio depicting scenes from the history of the Church in Scotland. The subjects of these windows were suggested by Mgr David McRoberts while Mgr Charles Burns acted as historical adviser to the artists. The windows were accompanied by Latin inscriptions narrating the story of each scene. In 1984, Pope John Paul II visited

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7378-412: The chapel there is a crypt, the main body of which was dedicated to Saint Margaret , with altarpiece by Arthur Fleischmann . In addition, there were altars of Saint Patrick , Saint Ninian and Saint Columba , each with their own mosaics. Fixed to the walls of the crypt were the original tombstones of James Francis Edward Stuart , Charles Edward Stuart and Henry Benedict Stuart . The stairways around

7497-546: The collapse of the Commonwealth in 1660, Charles II was restored to the thrones of England, Ireland and Scotland. Although James was the heir presumptive , it seemed unlikely that he would inherit the Crown, as Charles was still a young man capable of fathering children. On 31 December 1660, following his brother's restoration, James was created Duke of Albany in Scotland, to go along with his English title, Duke of York. Upon his return to England, James prompted an immediate controversy by announcing his engagement to Anne Hyde ,

7616-462: The college and celebrated Mass in the chapel. Seminarians at the Pontifical Scots College in Rome spend their first two years studying Philosophy at the Angelicum . After completion of Philosophy, and depending on their fluency in Italian, they take up the study of theology either at the Pontifical Gregorian University or the Angelicum, where theology is also offered in English. Priests taking part in postgraduate theology courses continue to stay at

7735-420: The college came to an end soon afterward when the society was suppressed in 1773 by Clement XIV , by his brief Dominus ac Redemptor , and the administration was passed to the Italian secular clergy. During this time the college suffered, the maintenance of discipline failing with some administrators viewing it as a mere sinecure . Following visitation by Bishop Hay, John Thomson was sent as Scottish agent and

7854-414: The college without receiving ordination. Canon John Gray (1866–1934), English poet and founding parish priest of St Peter's Morningside Edinburgh , studied at the college from 1898 until 1901. Adrian Fortescue (1874–1923), priest and polymath, studied at the college from 1891 until 1894. George Thompson (1928–2016) entered the college in the 1950s and left without completing his studies. He later became

7973-461: The confidence of many of his Anglican supporters. Sunderland's purge of office-holders even extended to the King's brothers-in-law (the Hydes) and their supporters. Roman Catholics made up no more than one-fiftieth of the English population. In May 1686, James sought to obtain a ruling from the English common-law courts that showed he had the power to dispense with Acts of Parliament. He dismissed judges who disagreed with him on this matter, as well as

8092-402: The couple married secretly, then went through an official marriage ceremony on 3 September 1660 in London. The couple's first child, Charles , was born less than two months later, but died in infancy, as did five further children. Only two daughters survived: Mary (born 30 April 1662) and Anne (born 6 February 1665). Samuel Pepys wrote that James was fond of his children and his role as

8211-403: The crown to Charles's illegitimate son, James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth . In 1679, with the Exclusion Bill in danger of passing, Charles II dissolved Parliament. Two further Parliaments were elected in 1680 and 1681, but were dissolved for the same reason. The Exclusion Crisis contributed to the development of the English two-party system: the Whigs were those who supported the Bill, while

8330-413: The daughter of Charles's chief minister, Edward Hyde . In 1659, while trying to seduce her, James promised he would marry Anne. Anne became pregnant in 1660, but following the Restoration and James's return to power, no one at the royal court expected a prince to marry a commoner , no matter what he had pledged beforehand. Although nearly everyone, including Anne's father, urged the two not to marry,

8449-411: The defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo in 1815 relieved some pressure, and after much petitioning, students finally returned in 1820. MacPherson was eventually replaced as Rector in 1826 by Angus MacDonald, however the latter's death and subsequent crisis warranted his return in 1834. He died in 1846 and was succeeded by his Vice-Rector, Alexander Grant. Grant set about renovating the buildings, and began with

8568-533: The effect of laws punishing both Roman Catholics and Protestant Dissenters . In the summer of 1687 he attempted to increase support for his tolerationist policy by a speaking tour of the western counties of England. As part of this tour, he gave a speech at Chester in which he said, "suppose... there should be a law made that all black men should be imprisoned, it would be unreasonable and we had as little reason to quarrel with other men for being of different [religious] opinions as for being of different complexions." At

8687-565: The effect which you so much desire of bringing me over to your church." The Archbishop refused on the grounds of respect for the late king. James advocated repeal of the penal laws in all three of his kingdoms, but in the early years of his reign he refused to allow those dissenters who did not petition for relief to receive it. James sent a letter to the Scottish Parliament at its opening in 1685, declaring his wish for new penal laws against refractory Presbyterians and lamented that he

8806-407: The eighteenth century is essentially Jacobite poetry", and both Ó Buachalla and fellow-historian Éamonn Ó Ciardha argue that James and his successors played a central role as messianic figures throughout the 18th century for all classes in Ireland. In France, James was allowed to live in the royal château of Saint-Germain-en-Laye . James's wife and some of his supporters fled with him, including

8925-651: The exiled court in Paris, the Royalist cause appeared hopeless. James, like his brother, sought refuge in France, serving in the French army under Turenne against the Fronde , and later against their Spanish allies. In the French army James had his first true experience of battle, in which, according to one observer, he "ventures himself and chargeth gallantly where anything is to be done". Turenne's favour led to James being given command of

9044-531: The façade of the building, including the last of the Stuarts, Henry Cardinal Duke of York . The building was solemnly inaugurated on Saint Andrew's Day 1869. The first half of the 20th century saw two Rectors appointed directly to the episcopate ; Robert Fraser , who had seen the institution through its tercentenary celebrations, and Donald Mackintosh who oversaw the years during the First World War . MacKintosh

9163-631: The first General Assembly of the Church of Scotland met in Edinburgh , and the First Book of Discipline (1560) was drawn up. The Second Book of Discipline (1581) was ratified much later by Parliament in 1592 (see General Assembly Act 1592 ). This definitely settled the Presbyterian form of polity and the Calvinistic doctrine as the recognised Protestant establishment in the country. The Confession of Faith

9282-604: The full parliament session. Then all the lords processed with the Duke to the Netherbow, and back to the Palace. The whole town wore armour, with trumpets sounding, and all other kinds of music. Randolph was confident the Lords of the Articles would commune on the "dysannullinge" of Papal authority. James II of England James II and VII (14 October 1633 O.S. – 16 September 1701)

9401-477: The grounds of his nationality and could not be said to have "acted as a priest in England" within the meaning of the Jesuits, etc. Act 1584 . John Paul Jameson ( c.  1659 –1700) was a priest and antiquarian who studied at the college in the latter half of the seventeenth century. Charles Erskine was educated at the college under the protection of Henry Benedict Stuart from 1748 until 1753. Erskine became

9520-600: The hearts of the people with his continual and indefatigable pains day and night in helping to quench the Fire", wrote a witness in a letter on 8 September. In 1672, the Royal African Company received a new charter from Charles II. It set up forts and factories, maintained troops, and exercised martial law in West Africa in pursuit of trade in gold, silver and African slaves. In the 1680s, the RAC transported about 5,000 slaves

9639-414: The highest offices of his kingdoms, and received at his court the papal nuncio , Ferdinando d'Adda , the first representative from Rome to London since the reign of Mary I . Edward Petre , James's Jesuit confessor, was a particular object of Anglican ire. When the King's Secretary of State , the Earl of Sunderland , began replacing office-holders at court with "Papist" favourites, James began to lose

9758-621: The invading army, despite his army's numerical superiority. On 11 December, James tried to flee to France, first throwing the Great Seal of the Realm into the River Thames . He was captured in Kent ; later, he was released and placed under Dutch protective guard. Having no desire to make James a martyr, William let him escape on 23 December. James was received by his cousin and ally, Louis XIV, who offered him

9877-574: The issue of writs for a general election . However, upon realising in September that William of Orange was going to land in England, James withdrew the writs and subsequently wrote to the lord-lieutenants to inquire over allegations of abuses committed during the regulations and election preparations, as part of the concessions he made to win support. In April 1688, James re-issued the Declaration of Indulgence, subsequently ordering Anglican clergy to read it in their churches. When seven bishops , including

9996-472: The line of succession established in the Bill of Rights were extinguished, the crown would go to a German cousin, Sophia, Electress of Hanover , and to her Protestant heirs. Sophia was a granddaughter of James VI and I through his eldest daughter, Elizabeth Stuart , the sister of Charles I . Thus, when Anne died in 1714 (less than two months after the death of Sophia), she was succeeded by George I , Sophia's son,

10115-416: The name of " Loyal Parliament ", was initially favourable to James, who had stated that most former exclusionists would be forgiven if they acquiesced to his rule. Most of Charles's officers continued in office, the exceptions being the promotion of James's brothers-in-law, the earls of Clarendon and Rochester , and the demotion of Halifax . Parliament granted James a generous life income, including all of

10234-701: The parish church of Saint-Germain-en-Laye and the English Jesuit college at Saint-Omer , while the flesh from his right arm was given to the English Augustinian nuns of Paris. The rest of James's body was laid to rest in a triple sarcophagus (consisting of two wooden coffins and one of lead) at the St Edmund's Chapel in the Church of the English Benedictines in the Rue Saint-Jacques, Paris , with

10353-529: The pilot about the navigation of the ship before it ran aground on a sandbank, and then delayed abandoning ship, which may have contributed to the death toll. In 1683, a plot was uncovered to assassinate Charles II and his brother and spark a republican revolution to re-establish a government of the Cromwellian style . The conspiracy, known as the Rye House Plot , backfired upon its conspirators and provoked

10472-514: The post of Lord High Admiral. His conversion to Roman Catholicism was thereby made public. King Charles II opposed James's conversion, ordering that James's daughters, Mary and Anne, be raised in the Church of England. Nevertheless, he allowed the widowed James to marry Mary of Modena , a fifteen-year-old Italian princess. James and Mary were married by proxy in a Roman Catholic ceremony on 20 September 1673. On 21 November, Mary arrived in England and Nathaniel Crew , Bishop of Oxford , performed

10591-499: The proceeds of tonnage and poundage and the customs duties. James worked harder as king than his brother had, but was less willing to compromise when his advisers disagreed with his policies. Soon after becoming king, James faced a rebellion in southern England led by his nephew, the Duke of Monmouth, and another rebellion in Scotland led by Archibald Campbell, 9th Earl of Argyll . Monmouth and Argyll both began their expeditions from Holland , where James's nephew and son-in-law,

10710-529: The prospect of a Catholic dynasty, excluding his Protestant daughter Mary and her husband William III, Prince of Orange , who was also his nephew. Secondly, the prosecution of the Seven Bishops was seen as an assault on the Church of England , and their acquittal on 30 June destroyed his political authority. Ensuing anti-Catholic riots in England and Scotland led to a general feeling that only James's removal could prevent another civil war. Leading members of

10829-583: The rebels to transportation and indentured servitude in the West Indies in a series of trials that came to be known as the Bloody Assizes . Around 250 of the rebels were executed. While both rebellions were defeated easily, they hardened James's resolve against his enemies and increased his suspicion of the Dutch. To protect himself from further rebellions, James sought safety by enlarging his standing army . This alarmed his subjects, not only because of

10948-635: The refurbishment of Sant'Andrea degli Scozzesi , reopened on Saint Andrew's Day 1847. John Henry Newman sang the High Mass of dedication. In 1861, funds given in compensation for the loss of the Scots Monastery in Ratisbon made possible an entire reconstruction of the College itself. Demolition of the buildings began in 1864, and the new building was completed in 1869 under the direction of Luigi Poletti . Busts of notable Scottish Catholics can still be seen on

11067-511: The repression of Whigs and dissenters . Taking advantage of James's rebounding popularity, Charles invited him back onto the Privy Council in 1684. While some in the English Parliament remained wary of the possibility of a Roman Catholic king, the threat of excluding James from the throne had passed. Charles II died on 6 February 1685 from apoplexy , after supposedly converting to Catholicism on his deathbed. Having no legitimate children, he

11186-502: The revenue of the old Scots' hospice. It was placed under the of a Cardinal protector , the first of whom was Camillo Borghese . At first the college was sited in a little house in what is known today as the Via del Tritone , opposite the church of Santa Maria di Costantinopoli . The college opened in 1602 with only eleven students, but was not at first constituted solely for the training of priests to return to Scotland as missionaries. In 1604 it

11305-479: The royal government. James returned to England for a time when Charles was stricken ill and appeared to be near death. The hysteria of the accusations eventually faded, but James's relations with many in the English Parliament, including the Earl of Danby , a former ally, were forever strained and a solid segment turned against him. On 6 May 1682, James narrowly escaped the sinking of HMS Gloucester , in which between 130 and 250 people perished. James argued with

11424-523: The same time, James provided partial toleration in Scotland, using his dispensing power to grant relief to Roman Catholics and partial relief to Presbyterians. In 1688, James ordered the Declaration read from the pulpits of every Anglican church, further alienating the Anglican bishops against the Supreme Governor of their church . While the Declaration elicited some thanks from its beneficiaries, it left

11543-596: The students remained loyal supporters of the Catholic King James . This was controversial in Rome due to the decision of the latter to seek refuge with Louis XIV of France , an enemy of the Pope. William Leslie died in 1707, having seen in his lifetime the College become the focal point for the training of priests to return home to the Mission, and in the early eighteenth century the College enjoyed relative prosperity. In 1724,

11662-603: The suspension of the Test Acts, the prosecution of the Seven Bishops for merely petitioning the Crown, the establishment of a standing army, and the imposition of cruel punishments. The Declaration was the basis for the Bill of Rights enacted later in 1689. The Bill also declared that henceforth, no Roman Catholic was permitted to ascend the English throne, nor could any English monarch marry

11781-540: The trouble soldiers caused in the towns, but because it was against the English tradition to keep a professional army in peacetime. Even more alarming to Parliament was James's use of his dispensing power to allow Roman Catholics to command several regiments without having to take the oath mandated by the Test Act. When even the previously supportive Parliament objected to these measures, James ordered Parliament prorogued in November 1685, never to meet again in his reign. At

11900-681: The youthful Mary Queen of Scots, then resident in France , gave permission, through her husband, Francis II , for Parliament to meet in her absence, but religious questions were specifically to be submitted to the 'intention and pleasure' of the king and queen. Still, in August 1560 the 'Reformation Parliament' abolished the jurisdiction of the Roman Catholic Church in Scotland with the Papal Jurisdiction Act. A Reformed confession of faith

12019-478: Was King of England and Ireland as James II and King of Scotland as James VII from the death of his elder brother, Charles II , on 6 February 1685, until he was deposed in the 1688 Glorious Revolution . The last Catholic monarch of England , Scotland , and Ireland , his reign is now remembered primarily for conflicts over religion. However, it also involved struggles over the principles of absolutism and divine right of kings , with his deposition ending

12138-498: Was at times embroiled in conflict between the secular clergy and Jesuits , the latter being accused of recruiting students for their own number. In 1645 Pope Innocent X ruled that the mission oath was a commitment of life-long service to the Scottish mission, even if a student decided to enter a religious order. A meeting of Scots seculars in Paris during the winter of 1649–50 decided that

12257-407: Was declared Queen; she was to rule jointly with her husband William, who would be King. On 11 April 1689, the Parliament of Scotland declared James to have forfeited the throne of Scotland as well. The Convention Parliament issued a Declaration of Right on 12 February that denounced James for abusing his power, and proclaimed many limitations on royal authority. The abuses charged to James included

12376-569: Was drafted by six ministers : John Winram , John Spottiswood , John Willock , John Douglas , John Row and John Knox . On 17 August 1560, the document was read twice, article by article, before the Parliament, and the Protestant ministers stood ready to defend "the cause of truth" if any article of belief was assailed. When the vote was taken, the Confession was ratified and adopted. An assembly of several ministers and laymen, subsequently known as

12495-465: Was established by parliament on 17 August. The Parliament also agreed on 16 August to pursue the marriage of Elizabeth I of England to James Hamilton, 3rd Earl of Arran . Randolph "never saw so important matters sooner dispatched". When the first session of the Parliament was concluded, the Duke of Châtellherault gave the Clerk Register a silver coin to have the proceedings recorded. On 26 August

12614-649: Was eventually replaced by Paul MacPherson upon the latter's death in 1792. MacPherson worked towards the College being handed over to Scottish superiors, however these efforts were interrupted by the French invasion of Rome in February 1798 . The College was occupied by the French and MacPherson fled with the students, including those from the English and Irish Colleges who had been abandoned by their own superiors. The group of twenty-two arrived in London in June 1798 and were presented to

12733-404: Was imprisoned in London for two years by order of Oliver Cromwell . Ballantine was later succeeded by another former student of the college, Alexander Dunbar Winchester . During the fabricated Popish Plot , which gripped the kingdoms of England and Scotland , Alexander Lumsden, a former student of the college and Dominican Friar , was condemned to death in London . He was later acquitted on

12852-532: Was kept up to date with the College affairs which were managed by an administrator. Students and staff finally returned in 1946. In 1959, the Scottish Bishops decided to build a new college on the outskirts of the city and a location was chosen on the Via Cassia some 4 miles from the city centre. Clapperton wished not to oversee the move, given his age and long tenure, and was released from his office in 1960. He

12971-548: Was named a Canon of St John Lateran and remained in Rome until his death in 1969. In 1962, the old college was vacated and the seminarians spent the interim years at the college villa in Marino . The new college was designed by Renato Costa and was officially opened by Pope Paul VI on 16 November 1964. The chapel of the new college was designed an in the shape of an irregular heptagon complete with high altar , an altar to Saint Andrew, Lady altar, choir stalls and pipe organ. Beneath

13090-630: Was not there in person to promote such a law. In response, the Parliament passed an Act that stated, "whoever should preach in a conventicle under a roof, or should attend, either as preacher or as a hearer, a conventicle in the open air, should be punished with death and confiscation of property". In March 1686, James sent a letter to the Scottish Privy Council advocating toleration for Roman Catholics but not for rebellious Presbyterian Covenanters. Presbyterians would later call this period " The Killing Time ". James allowed Roman Catholics to occupy

13209-509: Was often maligned, with Gilbert Burnet famously remarking that James's mistresses must have been "given [to] him by his priests as a penance". Anne Hyde died in 1671. After the Restoration, James was confirmed as Lord High Admiral, an office that carried with it the subsidiary appointments of Governor of Portsmouth and Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports . Charles II also made his brother

13328-467: Was succeeded as Rector by his Vice-rector, Father William Clapperton, who was to become another long term Rector and significant figure in the College's history. In the early years of his rector-ship he saw to the reconstruction of the College villa at Marino as well as seeking the addition of a spiritual director to the staff, and saw the rise of Benito Mussolini in Italy - under whom the College building on

13447-481: Was succeeded by his brother James, who reigned in England and Ireland as James II and in Scotland as James VII. There was little initial opposition to James's accession, and there were widespread reports of public rejoicing at the orderly succession. He wished to proceed quickly to the coronation, and he and Mary were crowned at Westminster Abbey on 23 April 1685. The new Parliament that assembled in May 1685, which gained

13566-450: Was taken as a prisoner to Edinburgh. A new trial was not commenced because Argyll had previously been tried and sentenced to death. The King confirmed the earlier death sentence and ordered that it be carried out within three days of receiving the confirmation. Monmouth's rebellion was coordinated with Argyll's, but was more dangerous to James. Monmouth had proclaimed himself King at Lyme Regis on 11 June. He attempted to raise recruits but

13685-467: Was taken to London and held with his younger siblings Henry , Elizabeth and Henrietta in St James's Palace . Frustrated by their inability to agree terms with Charles I, and with his brother Charles out of reach in France , Parliament considered making James king. James was ordered by his father to escape, and, with the help of Joseph Bampfield , in April 1648 successfully evaded his guards and crossed

13804-486: Was the assembly elected in 1560 that passed legislation leading to the establishment of the Church of Scotland . These included the Confession of Faith Ratification Act 1560 ; and Papal Jurisdiction Act 1560 . The legislation was not formally approved until 1567, when it was ratified by James VI . In 1559, John Knox returned to Scotland, marking a new effort in his battle to reform the nation. Scottish Protestants in

13923-479: Was transferred to Via Felice, now called Via delle Quattro Fontane . The first Rector was a papal official, Monsignor Paolini, who died in 1612. After petition by the students themselves, administration was handed over to the Jesuits in 1615. The martyrdom of Saint John Ogilvie in Glasgow compelled the students to take a mission oath whence the sole purpose of the College became the training of priests. The foundation of

14042-511: Was ultimately defeated at the Battle of the Boyne on 1 July 1690 O.S. when William arrived, personally leading an army to defeat James and reassert English control. James fled to France once more, departing from Kinsale , never to return to any of his former kingdoms. Because he deserted his Irish supporters, James became known in Ireland as Séamus an Chaca or "James the shit". Despite this popular perception, later historian Breandán Ó Buachalla argues that "Irish political poetry for most of

14161-499: Was unable to gather enough rebels to defeat even James's small standing army. Monmouth's soldiers attacked the King's army at night, in an attempt at surprise, but were defeated at the Battle of Sedgemoor . The King's forces, led by Feversham and Churchill, quickly dispersed the ill-prepared rebels. Monmouth was captured and later executed at the Tower of London on 15 July. The King's judges—most notably, George Jeffreys —condemned many of

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