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86-423: Polyester fibers are sometimes spun together with natural fibers to produce a cloth with blended properties. Cotton -polyester blends can be strong, wrinkle- and tear-resistant, and reduce shrinking. Synthetic fibers using polyester have high water, wind, and environmental resistance compared to plant-derived fibers. They are less fire-resistant and can melt when ignited. Liquid crystalline polyesters are among

172-409: A values than phenols and therefore do not form alcoholate ions in aqueous solutions. The base catalysed reaction of an acyl chloride with an alcohol may also be carried out in one phase using tertiary amines (e. g. triethylamine , Et 3 N) or pyridine as acid acceptors: [REDACTED] While acyl chloride-based polyesterifications proceed only very slowly at room temperature without a catalyst,

258-680: A UL rating of VTM-0. Polyimide laminates have a flexural strength half life at 249 °C (480 °F) of 400 hours. Typical polyimide parts are not affected by commonly used solvents and oils – including hydrocarbons, esters, ethers, alcohols and freons . They also resist weak acids but are not recommended for use in environments that contain alkalis or inorganic acids. Some polyimides, such as CP1 and CORIN XLS, are solvent-soluble and exhibit high optical clarity. The solubility properties lend them towards spray and low temperature cure applications. Polyimide materials are lightweight, flexible, resistant to heat and chemicals. Therefore, they are used in

344-493: A blend of cotton and polyester can be more durable and easier to maintain than material woven solely from cotton. Other than sharing functional properties, blending makes the products more economical. Union or Union fabrics is the 19th century term for blended fabrics. While it is no longer in use. Mixture or mixed cloth is another term used for blended cloths when different types of yarns are used in warp and weft sides. Blended textiles are not new. Fiber composition

430-585: A broader application than cloth. Fabric is synonymous with cloth, material, goods, or piece goods . The word 'fabric' also derives from Latin, with roots in the Proto-Indo-European language . Stemming most recently from the Middle French fabrique , or "building," and earlier from the Latin fabrica ('workshop; an art, trade; a skillful production, structure, fabric'), the noun fabrica stems from

516-533: A cave in the Republic of Georgia dated to 34,000 BCE suggests that textile-like materials were made as early as the Paleolithic era. The speed and scale of textile production have been altered almost beyond recognition by industrialization and the introduction of modern manufacturing techniques. The textile industry grew out of art and craft and was kept going by guilds . In the 18th and 19th centuries, during

602-403: A diamine and a dianhydride can be carried out by a two-step method in which a poly(amidocarboxylic acid) is prepared first, or directly by a one-step method. The two-step method is the most widely used procedure for polyimide synthesis. First a soluble poly(amidocarboxylic acid) ( 2 ) is prepared which is cyclized after further processing in a second step to the polyimide ( 3 ). A two-step process

688-407: A finish on high-quality wood products such as guitars , pianos , and vehicle/yacht interiors. Thixotropic properties of spray-applicable polyesters make them ideal for use on open-grain timbers, as they can quickly fill wood grain, with a high-build film thickness per coat. It can be used for fashionable dresses, but it is most admired for its ability to resist wrinkling and shrinking while washing

774-485: A form of currency. Textiles were among the objects offered to the gods [votive offering] in ancient Greece for religious purposes. The smallest component of a fabric is fiber; fibers are typically spun into yarn, and yarns are used to make fabrics. Fibers are very thin and hair-like structures. The sources of fibers may be natural , synthetic , or both. Global fiber production per person has increased from 8.4 kilograms in 1975 to 14.3 kilograms in 2021. After

860-597: A further step of the production. Cloth may also be used synonymously with fabric , but often specifically refers to a piece of fabric that has been processed or cut. Textiles are various materials made from fibers and yarns. The term "textile" was originally only used to refer to woven fabrics, but today it covers a broad range of subjects. Textiles are classified at various levels, such as according to fiber origin (natural or synthetic), structure (woven, knitted, nonwoven), finish, etc. However, there are primarily two types of textiles: Textiles have an assortment of uses,

946-703: A high melting point and low solubility. The named properties are in particular based on a high percentage of aromatic carbons in the polymer backbone which produces a certain stiffness.⁠ Approaches for an improvement of processability include the incorporation of flexible spacers into the backbone, the attachment of stable pendent groups or the incorporation of non-symmetrical structures.⁠ Flexible spacers include, for example, ether or hexafluoroisopropylidene, carbonyl or aliphatic groups like isopropylidene; these groups allow bond rotation between aromatic rings. Less symmetrical structures, for example, based on meta - or ortho -linked monomers, introduce structural disorder, decreasing

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1032-518: A long, continuous strand of yarn. Yarns are then used to make different kinds of fabric by weaving, knitting, crocheting , knotting , tatting , or braiding . After manufacturing, textile materials are processed and finished to add value, such as aesthetics, physical characteristics, and increased usefulness. The manufacturing of textiles is the oldest industrial art . Dyeing , printing , and embroidery are all different decorative arts applied to textile materials. The word 'textile' comes from

1118-588: A low reactivity with carboxylic acids and cannot be polymerized via direct acid alcohol-based polyesterification.⁠ In the case of PET production, however, the direct process has several advantages, in particular a higher reaction rate, a higher attainable molecular weight, the release of water instead of methanol and lower storage costs of the acid when compared to the ester due to the lower weight. [REDACTED] Transesterification : An alcohol-terminated oligomer and an ester-terminated oligomer condense to form an ester linkage, with loss of an alcohol. R and R' are

1204-559: A modest drop due to COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, global fiber output rebounded to 113 million tons in 2021. Global fiber output roughly doubled from 58 million tons in 2000 to 113 million tons in 2021 and is anticipated to reach 149 million tons in 2030. The demand for synthetic fibers is increasing rapidly. This has numerous causes. Reasons include its low price, the demand-supply imbalance of cotton, and its [Synthetic fibers'] versatility in design and application. Synthetic fibers accounts for 70% of global fiber use, mainly polyester. By 2030,

1290-449: A polyimide needle felt separates dust and particulate matter from the exhaust gas . Polyimide is also the most common material used for the reverse osmotic film in purification of water, or the concentration of dilute materials from water, such as maple syrup production. Polyimide is used as the core of flexible circuit boards and flat-flex cables. Flexible circuit boards are thin and can be placed in odd-shaped electronics. Polyimide

1376-512: A soluble polymer precursor. Up to today this route continues being the primary route for the production of most polyimides. Polyimides have been in mass production since 1955. The field of polyimides is covered by various extensive books and review articles. According to the composition of their main chain, polyimides can be: According to the type of interactions between the main chains, polyimides can be: Several methods are possible to prepare polyimides, among them: The polymerization of

1462-725: A textile product, including fiber, yarn, fabric, processing, and finishing , affects the final product. Components may vary among various textile products as they are selected based on their fitness for purpose . Fiber is the smallest component of a fabric; fibers are typically spun into yarn, and yarns are used to manufacture fabrics. Fiber has a hair-like appearance and a higher length-to-width ratio. The sources of fibers may be natural , synthetic , or both. The techniques of felting and bonding directly transform fibers into fabric. In other cases, yarns are manipulated with different fabric manufacturing systems to produce various fabric constructions. The fibers are twisted or laid out to make

1548-516: Is >1000 tonnes/day and can easily reach 2500 tonnes/day. Besides the above-mentioned large processing units to produce staple fiber or yarns, there are ten thousands of small and very small processing plants, so that one can estimate that polyester is processed and recycled in more than 10 000 plants around the globe. This is without counting all the companies involved in the supply industry, beginning with engineering and processing machines and ending with special additives, stabilizers and colors. This

1634-439: Is a gigantic industry complex and it is still growing by 4–8% per year, depending on the world region. Synthesis of polyesters is generally achieved by a polycondensation reaction. The general equation for the reaction of a diol with a diacid is: Polyesters can be obtained by a wide range of reactions of which the most important are the reaction of acids and alcohols, alcoholysis and or acidolysis of low-molecular weight esters or

1720-409: Is any material made of interlacing fibers, including carpeting and geotextiles , which may not necessarily be used in the production of further goods, such as clothing and upholstery . A fabric is a material made through weaving , knitting , spreading, felting, stitching, crocheting or bonding that may be used in the production of further products, such as clothing and upholstery, thus requiring

1806-458: Is carried out at lower temperatures than the equilibrium methods; possible types are the high-temperature solution condensation, amine catalysed and interfacial reactions. In addition, the use of activating agents is counted as non-equilibrium method. The equilibrium constants for the acyl chloride-based condensation yielding yielding arylates and polyarylates are very high indeed and are reported to be 4.3 × 10 and 4.7 × 10, respectively. This reaction

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1892-430: Is circumvented by the mild temperatures of interfacial polycondensation. The procedure is applied to the commercial production of bisphenol-A-based polyarylates like Unitika's U-Polymer. Water could be in some cases replaced by an immiscible organic solvent (e. g. in the adiponitrile / carbon tetrachloride system). The procedure is of little use in the production of polyesters based on aliphatic diols which have higher p K

1978-410: Is counted as commodity plastic . There are several reasons for the importance of polyethylene terephthalate: In the following table, the estimated world polyester production is shown. Main applications are textile polyester, bottle polyester resin, film polyester mainly for packaging and specialty polyesters for engineering plastics. After the first stage of polymer production in the melt phase,

2064-434: Is decorative art of Odisha , a state in eastern India , used for umbrellas , wall hangings, lamp shades, and bags. To make a range of decorative products, colored cloth in the shapes of animals, birds, flowers, are sewn onto a base cloth. Architextiles , a combination of the words architecture and textile, are textile-based assemblages. Awnings are a basic type of architectural textile. Mughal Shahi Lal Dera Tent , which

2150-424: Is generally stated as being higher than 150 °C, whereas engineering plastics (such as polyamide or polycarbonate) are often defined as thermoplastics that retain their properties above 100 °C.⁠ Commodity plastics (such as polyethylene or polypropylene) have in this respect even greater limitations, but they are manufactured in great amounts at low cost. Poly(ester imides ) contain an aromatic imide group in

2236-497: Is necessary because the final polyimides are in most cases infusible and insoluble due to their aromatic structure. Dianhydrides used as precursors to these materials include pyromellitic dianhydride, benzoquinonetetracarboxylic dianhydride and naphthalene tetracarboxylic dianhydride . Common diamine building blocks include 4,4'-diaminodiphenyl ether (DAPE), meta-phenylenediamine (MDA) and 3,3'-diaminodiphenylmethane. Hundreds of diamines and dianhydrides have been examined to tune

2322-459: Is one of the important characteristics of the fibers. They have a greater length-to-width ratio [100 times the diameter]. Fibers need to be strong, cohesive, and flexible. The usefulness of fibers are characterized on the basis of certain parameters such as strength, flexibility, and length to diameter ratio, and spinnability. Natural fibers are relatively short [ staple ] in length. Synthetic fibers are produced in longer lengths called filaments. Silk

2408-416: Is particularly useful for when high melting and poorly soluble dicarboxylic acids are used. In addition, alcohols as condensation product are more volatile and thereby easier to remove than water. The high-temperature melt synthesis between bisphenol diacetates and aromatic dicarboxylic acids or in reverse between bisphenols and aromatic dicarboxylic acid diphenyl esters (carried out at 220 to 320 °C upon

2494-473: Is produced at one site starting from crude oil or distillation products in the chain oil → benzene → PX → PTA → PET melt → fiber/filament or bottle-grade resin. Such integrated processes are meanwhile established in more or less interrupted processes at one production site. Eastman Chemicals were the first to introduce the idea of closing the chain from PX to PET resin with their so-called INTEGREX process. The capacity of such vertically integrated production sites

2580-491: Is reacted with an Isocyanate functional compound in a 2 component system producing coatings which may optionally be pigmented. Polyesters as thermoplastics may change shape after the application of heat. While combustible at high temperatures, polyesters tend to shrink away from flames and self-extinguish upon ignition. Polyester fibers have high tenacity and E-modulus as well as low water absorption and minimal shrinkage in comparison with other industrial fibers. Increasing

2666-569: Is renowned for its long durability. Fabric or yarn produced with a combination of two or more types of different fibers , or yarns to obtain desired traits. Blending is possible at various stages of textile manufacturing . Final composition is liable for the properties of the resultant product. Natural and synthetic fibers are blended to overcome disadvantage of single fiber properties and to achieve better performance characteristics and aesthetic effects such as devoré , heather effect, cross dyeing and stripes pattern etc. Clothing woven from

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2752-415: Is the ability of textile materials to withstand various conditions, environments, and hazards. Aesthetics, durability, comfort and safety, appearance retention, care, environmental impact, and cost are the serviceability concepts employed in structuring the material. Fibers, yarns, fabric construction, finishes and design are components of a textile product. The selection of specific components varies with

2838-412: Is the only natural fiber that is a filament. The classification of fibers is based on their origin, derivation, and generic types. Certain properties of synthetic fibers, such as their diameter, cross section , and color, can be altered during production. Cotton: Cotton has a long history of use in the clothing due to its favorable properties. This fiber is soft, moisture-absorbent, breathable, and

2924-468: Is thus often referred to as a 'non-equilibrium' polyesterification. Even though the acyl chloride based synthesis is also subject of reports in the patent literature, it is unlikely that the reaction is utilized on the production scale. The method is limited by the acid dichlorides' high cost, its sensitivity to hydrolysis and the occurrence of side reactions. The high temperature reaction (100 to > 300 °C) of an diacyl chloride with an dialcohol yields

3010-629: Is used as cushioning and insulating material in pillows, comforters, stuffed animals and characters, and upholstery padding. Polyester fabrics are highly stain-resistant since polyester is a hydrophobic material, making it hard to absorb liquids. The only class of dyes which can be used to alter the color of polyester fabric are what are known as disperse dyes . Polyesters are also used to make bottles, films, tarpaulin , sails ( Dacron ), canoes, liquid crystal displays , holograms , filters , dielectric film for capacitors , film insulation for wire and insulating tapes . Polyesters are widely used as

3096-445: Is used to coat optical fibers for medical or high temperature applications. An additional use of polyimide resin is as an insulating and passivation layer in the manufacture of Integrated circuits and MEMS chips . The polyimide layers have good mechanical elongation and tensile strength, which also helps the adhesion between the polyimide layers or between polyimide layer and deposited metal layer. The minimum interaction between

3182-402: Is yellowish-brown fiber made from the hemp plant. The fiber characteristics are coarser, harsher, strong and lightweight. Hemp fiber is used primary to make twine, rope and cordage. Animal textiles are commonly made from hair , fur , skin or silk (in the case of silkworms). Polyimide Polyimide (sometimes abbreviated PI ) is a polymer containing imide groups belonging to

3268-552: The Latin adjective textilis , meaning 'woven', which itself stems from textus , the past participle of the verb texere , 'to weave'. Originally applied to woven fabrics , the term "textiles" is now used to encompass a diverse range of materials, including fibers, yarns , and fabrics , as well as other related items. A "fabric" is defined as any thin, flexible material made from yarn, directly from fibers, polymeric film, foam, or any combination of these techniques. Fabric has

3354-904: The Proto-Germanic klaithaz , similar to the Old Frisian klath , the Middle Dutch cleet , the Middle High German kleit and the German kleid , all meaning 'garment'. Although cloth is a type of fabric, not all fabrics can be classified as cloth due to differences in their manufacturing processes, physical properties, and intended uses. Materials that are woven, knitted, tufted, or knotted from yarns are referred to as cloth, while wallpaper, plastic upholstery products, carpets, and nonwoven materials are examples of fabrics. Textiles themselves are too fragile to survive across millennia;

3440-403: The electronics industry for flexible cables and as an insulating film on magnet wire . For example, in a laptop computer, the cable that connects the main logic board to the display (which must flex every time the laptop is opened or closed) is often a polyimide base with copper conductors. Examples of polyimide films include Apical, Kapton , UPILEX , VTEC PI, Norton TH and Kaptrex. Polyimide

3526-447: The in situ conversion of the carboxylic acid into a more reactive intermediate while the activating agents are consumed. The reaction proceeds, for example, via an intermediate N -acylimidazole which reacts with catalytically acting sodium alkoxide: Cloth Textile is an umbrella term that includes various fiber-based materials , including fibers, yarns , filaments , threads , different fabric types, etc. At first,

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3612-507: The industrial revolution , it became increasingly mechanized. In 1765, when a machine for spinning wool or cotton called the spinning jenny was invented in the United Kingdom, textile production became the first economic activity to be industrialised. In the 20th century, science and technology were driving forces. The textile industry exhibits inherent dynamism, influenced by a multitude of transformative changes and innovations within

3698-545: The Latin faber " artisan who works in hard materials', which itself is derived from the Proto-Indo-European dhabh- , meaning 'to fit together'. Cloth is a flexible substance typically created through the processes of weaving, felting, or knitting using natural or synthetic materials. The word 'cloth' derives from the Old English clað , meaning "a cloth, woven, or felted material to wrap around one's body', from

3784-705: The Stone Age and the Iron Age in Central Europe are used to examine prehistoric clothing and its role in forming individual and group identities. Artifacts unearthed in various archaeological excavations informs us about the remains of past human life and their activities. Dyed flax fibers discovered in the Republic of Georgia indicate that textile-like materials were developed during the Paleolithic period . Radiocarbon dates

3870-448: The alcoholysis of acyl chlorides. The following figure gives an overview over such typical polycondensation reactions for polyester production. Furthermore, polyesters are accessible via ring-opening polymerization. [REDACTED] Azeotrope esterification is a classical method for condensation. The water formed by the reaction of alcohol and a carboxylic acid is continually removed by azeotropic distillation . When melting points of

3956-470: The amine accelerates the reaction in several possible ways, although the mechanism is not fully understood. However, it is known that tertiary amines can cause side-reactions such as the formation of ketenes and ketene dimers.⁠ [REDACTED] [REDACTED] Aliphatic polyesters can be assembled from lactones under very mild conditions, catalyzed anionically , cationically , metallorganically or enzyme-based. A number of catalytic methods for

4042-650: The aromatic parts of polyesters increases their glass transition temperature , melting temperature, thermostability , chemical stability, and solvent resistance. Polyesters can also be telechelic oligomers like the polycaprolactone diol (PCL) and the polyethylene adipate diol (PEA). They are then used as prepolymers . Thermally stable polymers, which generally have a high proportion of aromatic structures , are also called high-performance plastics . This application-oriented classification compares such polymers with engineering plastics and commodity plastics . The continuous service temperature of high-performance plastics

4128-544: The artistic merits and cultural significance of the world's textiles on a local, national, and international scale. The George Washington University Museum and Textile Museum in Washington, D.C. , was established in 1925. The Bayeux Tapestry is a rare example of secular Romanesque art . The art work depicts the Norman Conquest of England in 1066. Textiles are also used for decorative art . Appliqué work of pipili

4214-571: The chemical reaction between two primary raw materials: purified terephthalic acid (PTA) or dimethyl terephthalate (DMT) and monoethylene glycol (MEG). The production process includes the following steps: Polyethylene terephthalate , the polyester with the greatest market share, is a synthetic polymer made of purified terephthalic acid (PTA) or its dimethyl ester dimethyl terephthalate (DMT) and monoethylene glycol (MEG). With 18% market share of all plastic materials produced, it ranges third after polyethylene (33.5%) and polypropylene (19.5%) and

4300-526: The class of high-performance plastics . With their high heat-resistance, polyimides enjoy diverse applications in roles demanding rugged organic materials, such as high temperature fuel cells , displays, and various military roles. A classic polyimide is Kapton , which is produced by condensation of pyromellitic dianhydride and 4,4'-oxydianiline . The first polyimide was discovered in 1908 by Bogart and Renshaw. They found that 4-amino phthalic anhydride does not melt when heated but does release water upon

4386-731: The copolymerization of epoxides with cyclic anhydrides have also recently been shown to provide a wide array of functionalized polyesters, both saturated and unsaturated. Ring-opening polymerization of lactones and lactides is also applied on the industrial scale. Numerous other reactions have been reported for the synthesis of selected polyesters, but are limited to laboratory-scale syntheses using specific conditions, for example using dicarboxylic acid salts and dialkyl halides or reactions between bisketenes and diols. Instead of acyl chlorides, so-called activating agents can be used, such as 1,1'-carbonyldiimidazole , dicyclohexylcarbodiimide , or trifluoroacetic anhydride . The polycondensation proceeds via

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4472-794: The crystallinity. The generally poor processability of aromatic polymers (for example, a high melting point and a low solubility) also limits the available options for synthesis and may require strong electron-donating co-solvents like HFIP or TFA for analysis (e. g. H NMR spectroscopy ) which themselves can introduce further practical limitations. Fabrics woven or knitted from polyester thread or yarn are used extensively in apparel and home furnishings, from shirts and pants to jackets and hats, bed sheets, blankets, upholstered furniture and computer mouse mats. Industrial polyester fibers, yarns and ropes are used in car tire reinforcements, fabrics for conveyor belts, safety belts, coated fabrics and plastic reinforcements with high-energy absorption. Polyester fiber

4558-716: The domain. Textile operations can experience ramifications arising from shifts in international trade policies, evolving fashion trends, evolving customer preferences, variations in production costs and methodologies, adherence to safety and environmental regulations, as well as advancements in research and development. The textile and garment industries exert a significant impact on the economic systems of numerous countries engaged in textile production. Most textiles were called by their base fibre generic names, their place of origin, or were put into groups based loosely on manufacturing techniques, characteristics, and designs. Nylon , olefin , and acrylic are generic names for some of

4644-412: The fiber blend composition of mixtures of the fibers, is an important criterion to analyze the behavior, properties such as functional aspects, and commercial classification of the merchandise. The most common blend is cotton and polyester. Regular blended fabric is 65% polyester and 35% cotton. It is called a reverse blend if the ratio of cotton predominates—the percentage of the fibers changes with

4730-459: The first industrially used liquid crystal polymers . They are used for their mechanical properties and heat-resistance. These traits are also important in their application as an abradable seal in jet engines. Polyesters can contain one ester linkage per repeat unit of the polymer, as in polyhydroxyalkanoates like polylactic acid , or they may have two ester linkages per repeat unit, as in polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Polyesters are one of

4816-417: The formation of a high molecular weight polyimide. The first semialiphatic polyimide was prepared by Edward and Robinson by melt fusion of diamines and tetra acids or diamines and diacids/diester. However, the first polyimide of significant commercial importance - Kapton - was pioneered in the 1950s by workers at DuPont who developed a successful route for synthesis of high molecular weight polyimide involving

4902-412: The genus Colletes , which secrete a cellophane -like polyester lining for their underground brood cells earning them the nickname "polyester bees". The family of synthetic polyesters comprises Depending on the chemical structure, polyester can be a thermoplastic or thermoset . There are also polyester resins cured by hardeners; however, the most common polyesters are thermoplastics. The OH group

4988-460: The gold film and the polyimide film, coupled with high temperature stability of the polyimide film, results in a system that provides reliable insulation when subjected to various types of environmental stresses. Polyimide is also used as a substrate for cellphone antennas. Multi-layer insulation used on spacecraft is usually made of polyimide coated with thin layers of aluminum , silver, gold, or germanium. The gold-colored material often seen on

5074-406: The intended use, therefore the fibers, yarns, and fabric manufacturing systems are selected with consideration of the required performance. Textiles, textile production, and clothing were necessities of life in prehistory, intertwined with the social, economic, and religious systems. Other than clothing, textile crafts produced utilitarian, symbolic, and opulent items. Archaeological artifacts from

5160-569: The microscopic fibers to 36,000 years ago, when modern humans migrated from Africa. Several textile remnants, such as the Inca Empire's textile arts remnants, which embody the Incas' aesthetics and social ideals, serve as a means for disseminating information about numerous civilizations, customs, and cultures. There are textile museums that display history related to many aspects of textiles. A textile museum raises public awareness and appreciation of

5246-423: The monomers are sufficiently low, a polyester can be formed via direct esterification while removing the reaction water via vacuum. [REDACTED] Direct bulk polyesterification at high temperatures (150 – 290 °C) is well-suited and used on the industrial scale for the production of aliphatic, unsaturated, and aromatic–aliphatic polyesters. Monomers containing phenolic or tertiary hydroxyl groups exhibit

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5332-422: The more commonly used synthetic fibres. The related words " fabric " and " cloth " and " material " are often used in textile assembly trades (such as tailoring and dressmaking ) as synonyms for textile . However, there are subtle differences in these terms in specialized usage. Material is an extremely broad term basically meaning consisting of matter , and requires context to be useful. A textile

5418-927: The most common of which are for clothing and for containers such as bags and baskets . In the household, textiles are used in carpeting , upholstered furnishings , window shades , towels , coverings for tables, beds, and other flat surfaces, and in art . Textiles are used in many traditional hand crafts such as sewing , quilting , and embroidery . Textiles produced for industrial purposes, and designed and chosen for technical characteristics beyond their appearance, are commonly referred to as technical textiles . Technical textiles include textile structures for automotive applications, medical textiles (such as implants), geotextile (reinforcement of embankments), agrotextiles (textiles for crop protection ), protective clothing (such as clothing resistant to heat and radiation for fire fighter clothing, against molten metals for welders, stab protection, and bullet proof vests). In

5504-624: The most economically important classes of polymers, driven especially by PET, which is counted among the commodity plastics; in 2019 around 30.5 million metric tons were produced worldwide. There is a great variety of structures and properties in the polyester family, based on the varying nature of the R group (see first figure with blue ester group). Polyesters occurring in nature include the cutin component of plant cuticles , which consists of omega hydroxy acids and their derivatives, interlinked via ester bonds, forming polyester polymers of indeterminate size. Polyesters are also produced by bees in

5590-471: The most important factors, while in technical textiles, functional properties are the priority. Durability of textiles is an important property, with common cotton or blend garments (such as t-shirts) able to last twenty years or more with regular use and care. Geotextiles , industrial textiles , medical textiles , and many other areas are examples of technical textiles, whereas clothing and furnishings are examples of consumer textiles. Each component of

5676-641: The oldest existing example of warp ikat in Southeast Asia , is displayed at the National Museum of the Philippines . The cloth was most likely made by the native Asian people of northwest Romblon . The first clothes, worn at least 70,000 years ago and perhaps much earlier, were probably made of animal skins and helped protect early humans from the elements. At some point, people learned to weave plant fibers into textiles. The discovery of dyed flax fibers in

5762-859: The outside of spacecraft is typically actually single aluminized polyimide, with the single layer of aluminum facing in. The yellowish-brown polyimide gives the surface its gold-like color. Polyimide powder can be used to produce parts and shapes by sintering technologies (hot compression molding, direct forming, and isostatic pressing). Because of their high mechanical stability even at elevated temperatures they are used as bushings, bearings, sockets or constructive parts in demanding applications. To improve tribological properties, compounds with solid lubricants like graphite , PTFE , or molybdenum sulfide are common. Polyimide parts and shapes include P84 NT, VTEC PI, Meldin, Vespel , and Plavis. In coal-fired power plants, waste incinerators, or cement plants, polyimide fibres are used to filter hot gases. In this application,

5848-507: The physical and especially the processing properties of these materials. These materials tend to be insoluble and have high softening temperatures, arising from charge-transfer interactions between the planar subunits. The imidization reaction can be followed via IR spectroscopy . The IR spectrum is characterized during the reaction by the disappearance of absorption bands of the poly(amic acid) at 3400 to 2700 cm (OH stretch), ~1720 and 1660 (amide C=O) and ~1535 cm (C-N stretch). At

5934-484: The polyester and hydrogen chloride. Under these relatively high temperatures the reaction proceeds rapidly without a catalyst: [REDACTED] The conversion of the reaction can be followed by titration of the evolved hydrogen chloride. A wide variety of solvents has been described including chlorinated benzenes (e.g. dichlorobenzene), chlorinated naphthalenes or diphenyls, as well as non-chlorinated aromatics like terphenyls, benzophenones or dibenzylbenzenes. The reaction

6020-461: The polyester melt with a high efficiency, high-output processing steps like staple fiber (50–300 tonnes/day per spinning line) or POY /FDY (up to 600 tonnes/day split into about 10 spinning machines) are meanwhile more and more vertically integrated direct processes. This means the polymer melt is directly converted into the textile fibers or filaments without the common step of pelletizing . We are talking about full vertical integration when polyester

6106-565: The possible benefits they may have in the future. Threads coated with zinc oxide nanowires , when woven into fabric, have been shown capable of "self-powering nanosystems", using vibrations created by everyday actions like wind or body movements to generate energy. Textiles are all around us. The textile is a component of basic needs like food and shelter. Textiles are everywhere in our lives, from bath towels to space suits. Textiles help humans by comforting, protecting, and extending their lives. Textiles meet our clothing needs, keeping us warm in

6192-426: The price and required properties. Blending adds value to the textiles; it helps in reducing the cost (artificial fibers are less expensive than natural fibers) and adding advantage in properties of the final product. For instance, a small amount of spandex adds stretch to the fabrics. Wool can add warmth. Fibers from the stalks of plants, such as hemp, flax, and nettles, are also known as 'bast' fibers. Hemp fiber

6278-413: The product stream divides into two different application areas which are mainly textile applications and packaging applications. In the following table, the main applications of textile and packaging of polyester are listed. Abbreviations: A comparable small market segment (much less than 1 million tonnes/year) of polyester is used to produce engineering plastics and masterbatch . In order to produce

6364-406: The product. Its toughness makes it a frequent choice for children's wear. Polyester is often blended with other fibres like cotton to get the desirable properties of both materials. Cured polyesters can be sanded and polished to a high-gloss, durable finish. Polyester is typically produced through a process known as polymerization. For polyethylene terephthalate (PET), the production process involves

6450-408: The reaction occurs at the interface under high-speed agitation near room temperature. [REDACTED] The procedure is used for the production of polyarylates (polyesters based on bisphenols), polyamides , polycarbonates , poly(thiocarbonate)s , and others. Since the molecular weight of the product obtained by a high-temperature synthesis can be seriously limited by side reactions, this problem

6536-478: The release of acetic acid) is, besides the acyl chloride based synthesis, the preferred route to wholly aromatic polyesters. In acylation , the acid begins as an acyl chloride , and thus the polycondensation proceeds with emission of hydrochloric acid (HCl) instead of water. The reaction between diacyl chlorides and alcohols or phenolic compounds has been widely applied to polyester synthesis and has been subject of numerous reviews and book chapters.⁠ The reaction

6622-592: The repeat unit, the imide-based polymers have a high proportion of aromatic structures in the main chain and belong to the class of thermally stable polymers. Such polymers contain structures that impart high melting temperatures, resistance to oxidative degradation and stability to radiation and chemical reagents. Among the thermally stable polymers with commercial relevance are polyimides , polysulfones , polyetherketones , and polybenzimidazoles . Of these, polyimides are most widely applied. The polymers' structures result also in poor processing characteristics, in particular

6708-1252: The same time, the appearance of the characteristic imide bands can be observed, at ~1780 (C=O asymm), ~1720 (C=O symm), ~1360 (C-N stretch) and ~1160 and 745 cm (imide ring deformation). ⁠　Detailed analyses of polyimide and carbonized polyimide and graphitized polyimide have been reported. Thermosetting polyimides are known for thermal stability, good chemical resistance, excellent mechanical properties, and characteristic orange/yellow color. Polyimides compounded with graphite or glass fiber reinforcements have flexural strengths of up to 340 MPa (49,000 psi) and flexural moduli of 21,000 MPa (3,000,000 psi). Thermoset polymer matrix polyimides exhibit very low creep and high tensile strength . These properties are maintained during continuous use to temperatures of up to 232 °C (450 °F) and for short excursions, as high as 704 °C (1,299 °F). Molded polyimide parts and laminates have very good heat resistance. Normal operating temperatures for such parts and laminates range from cryogenic to those exceeding 260 °C (500 °F). Polyimides are also inherently resistant to flame combustion and do not usually need to be mixed with flame retardants . Most carry

6794-654: The synthetic fiber market will reach 98.21 billion US dollars. From 2022 to 2030, the market is anticipated to increase by 5.1% per year. Monomers are the building blocks of polymers. Polymers in fibers are of two types: additive or condensation. Natural fibers, such as cotton and wool, have a condensation polymer type, whereas synthetic fibers can have either an additive or a condensation polymer type. For example, acrylic fiber and olefin fibers have additive polymers, and nylon and polyester are condensation polymers. Fiber properties influence textile characteristics such as aesthetics, durability, comfort, and cost. Fineness

6880-490: The tools used for spinning and weaving make up most of the prehistoric evidence for textile work. The earliest tool for spinning was the spindle , to which a whorl was eventually added. The weight of the whorl improved the thickness and twist of the spun thread. Later, the spinning wheel was invented. Historians are unsure where; some say China, others India. The precursors of today's textiles include leaves, barks, fur pelts, and felted cloths. The Banton Burial Cloth,

6966-477: The two oligomer chains, R'' is a sacrificial unit such as a methyl group ( methanol is the byproduct of the esterification reaction). The term " transesterification " is typically used to describe hydroxy–ester, carboxy–ester, and ester–ester exchange reactions. The hydroxy–ester exchange reaction possesses the highest rate of reaction and is used for the production of numerous aromatic–aliphatic and wholly aromatic polyesters. The transesterification based synthesis

7052-467: The winter and cool in the summer. There are several applications for textiles, such as medical textiles, intelligent textiles, and automotive textiles. All of them contribute to the well-being of humans. The term "serviceability" refers to a textile product's ability to meet the needs of consumers. The emphasis is on knowing the target market and matching the needs of the target market to the product's serviceability. Serviceability or performance in textiles

7138-638: The word "textiles" only referred to woven fabrics . However, weaving is not the only manufacturing method, and many other methods were later developed to form textile structures based on their intended use. Knitting and non-woven are other popular types of fabric manufacturing. In the contemporary world, textiles satisfy the material needs for versatile applications, from simple daily clothing to bulletproof jackets , spacesuits , and doctor's gowns . Textiles are divided into two groups: consumer textiles for domestic purposes and technical textiles . In consumer textiles, aesthetics and comfort are

7224-673: The workplace, textiles can be used in industrial and scientific processes such as filtering. Miscellaneous uses include flags , backpacks , tents , nets , cleaning rags , transportation devices such as balloons , kites , sails , and parachutes ; textiles are also used to provide strengthening in composite materials such as fibreglass and industrial geotextiles . Due to the often highly technical and legal requirements of these products, these textiles are typically tested in order to ensure they meet stringent performance requirements. Other forms of technical textiles may be produced to experiment with their scientific qualities and to explore

7310-455: Was a movable palace, is an example of the architextiles of the Mughal period . Textiles had been used as currency as well. In Africa, textiles were used as currency in addition to being used for clothing, headwear, swaddling, tents, sails, bags, sacks, carpets, rugs, curtains, etc. Along the east–west axis in sub-Saharan Africa, cloth strip, which was typically produced in the savannah, was used as

7396-513: Was also applied successfully to the preparation of highly crystalline and poorly soluble polymers which require high temperatures to be kept in solution (at least until a sufficiently high molecular weight was achieved). In an interfacial acyl chloride-based reaction, the alcohol (generally in fact a phenol) is dissolved in the form of an alkoxide in an aqueous sodium hydroxide solution , the acyl chloride in an organic solvent immiscible with water such as dichloromethane , chlorobenzene or hexane ,

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