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195-650: The Polska Roma remained semi-nomadic until the 20th century, traveling only seasonally. There were also settled Polska Roma. They did not assimilate into the broader Polish society or the non-Romani cultures of other countries where they live. In fact, they are one of the most traditional Romani groups. An exception to this is that the most common surnames among the Polska Roma are typically Polish (e.g., Kwiatkowski or Majewski), or occasionally Polonized German names (e.g., Wajs or Szwarc) and Polonized Lithuanian names (e.g., Markiewicz or Karolowicz). The Polska Roma have maintained

390-724: A "Byzantine-like presidency over a family of nations, centred on pope and emperor in Rome". This has proved a lasting achievement. Otto's early death though made his reign "the tale of largely unrealized potential". Henry II died in 1024 and Conrad II , first of the Salian dynasty , was elected king only after some debate among dukes and nobles. This group eventually developed into the college of electors . The Holy Roman Empire eventually came to be composed of four kingdoms: Kings often employed bishops in administrative affairs and often determined who would be appointed to ecclesiastical offices. In

585-517: A comma, and items are alphabetized by the last name. In France, Italy, Spain, Belgium and Latin America, administrative usage is to put the surname before the first on official documents. In most Balto-Slavic languages (such as Latvian, Lithuanian, Bulgarian, Macedonian, Russian, Polish, Slovak, Czech, etc.) as well as in Greek , Irish, Icelandic , and Azerbaijani , some surnames change form depending on

780-477: A compromise candidate. Henry VII was crowned king at Aachen on 6 January 1309, and emperor by Pope Clement V on 29 June 1312 in Rome, ending the interregnum. During the 13th century, a general structural change in how land was administered prepared the shift of political power toward the rising bourgeoisie at the expense of the aristocratic feudalism that would characterize the Late Middle Ages . The rise of

975-560: A famous ancestor, or the place of origin; but they were not universal. For example, Hunayn ibn Ishaq (fl. 850 AD) was known by the nisbah "al-'Ibadi", a federation of Arab Christian tribes that lived in Mesopotamia prior to the advent of Islam . In Ancient Greece, as far back as the Archaic Period clan names and patronymics ("son of") were also common, as in Aristides as Λῡσῐμᾰ́χου –

1170-577: A famous assessment of the name, the political philosopher Voltaire remarked sardonically: "This body which was called and which still calls itself the Holy Roman Empire was in no way holy, nor Roman, nor an empire." In the modern period, the Empire was often informally called the German Empire ( Deutsches Reich ) or Roman-German Empire ( Römisch-Deutsches Reich ). After its dissolution through

1365-544: A far-reaching constitutional act. Frederick's policies were primarily directed at Italy, where he clashed with the free-minded cities of the north, especially the Duchy of Milan . He also embroiled himself in another conflict with the Papacy by supporting a candidate elected by a minority against Pope Alexander III (1159–1181). Frederick supported a succession of antipopes before finally making peace with Alexander in 1177. In Germany,

1560-544: A general expulsion of the Gypsies from the country, which took place in 1577. The police reports on this matter disappeared, and silence ensued. A large number of Gypsies moved to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth , where the news of their persecution spread. In Germany, at that time characterized by fanatical opinions, order, and a spirit of strictness, the Gypsies quickly adapted to a free life and soon provoked

1755-460: A genitive singular form meaning son of Lysimachus. For example, Alexander the Great was known as Heracleides , as a supposed descendant of Heracles , and by the dynastic name Karanos / Caranus , which referred to the founder of the dynasty to which he belonged . These patronymics are already attested for many characters in the works of Homer . At other times formal identification commonly included

1950-415: A legal system of jurisdiction and public prosecution of criminal acts – a predecessor of the modern concept of rule of law . Another new concept of the time was the systematic founding of new cities by the emperor and by the local dukes. These were partly a result of the explosion in population; they also concentrated economic power at strategic locations. Before this, cities had only existed in

2145-529: A legal, decent job. Negative "meta-stereotypes" – or the Romas' own perceptions regarding the stereotypes that members of the dominant groups hold about their own group – were described by the Polish Roma Society in an attempt to intensify the dialogue about exclusionism. Cygański Las Due to the fact that in the past Bielsko always shared the fate of the Duchy of Cieszyn, it belonged to Poland, then to

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2340-497: A nobleman. The next ones were also of noble origin. The first Gypsy king by title, or more precisely the head of the " Gypsy kingdom ", was Łukasz Iwaszkiewicz in 1697, appointed by Augustus II the Strong. Not all royally appointed superiors ruled the entire community, as there were those who were granted only regional competences. The royal title was awarded until the third partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (the last one

2535-500: A nomadic population. Polish sources do not mention pilgrims from Egypt or newcomers in the 15th century whose appearance and customs would have caused general astonishment. However, it is reported that they leased land, suggesting that the first Roma in Poland might have been wealthy individuals. They called themselves Cygan , and this word was not derogatory or negative. They were ordinary citizens and used this word as their surname. For them,

2730-619: A number of sources, was an English nickname meaning "effeminate". A group of nicknames look like occupational ones: King , Bishop , Abbot , Sheriff , Knight , etc. but it is rather unlikely that a person with surname King was a king or descended from a king. Bernard Deacon suggests that the first nickname/surname bearer may have acted as a king or bishop, or was corpulent as bishop. etc. A considerable group of surname-producing nicknames may be found among ethnonymic surnames . Ornamental surnames are made up of names, not specific to any attribute (place, parentage, occupation, caste) of

2925-510: A particular country as the official head of the Roma community. The king was the official representative of the Gypsies to the authorities of a given country or territory. His role was to protect the interests of the Roma on one hand and to maintain order and collect taxes on the other. According to the second definition, the king is the leader of the Roma (not imposed from outside), the head of customs and traditions. This institution existed in Poland from

3120-522: A portion of the remainder went underground. Still, others emigrated abroad. The Polska Roma poet Papusza (Bronisława Wajs) became nationally renowned during this period, as did her nephew, Edward Dębicki . Today the Polska Roma live throughout Poland except southern Poland. In southern Poland, the Gorska Roma (also called Bergitka Roma) in the area around Nowy Sącz , in Podhale and Spisz . In June 1991

3315-579: A public ban and the confiscation of all Henry's territories. In 1190, Frederick participated in the Third Crusade , dying in the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia . During the Hohenstaufen period, German princes facilitated a successful, peaceful eastward settlement of lands that were uninhabited or inhabited sparsely by West Slavs . German-speaking farmers, traders, and craftsmen from the western part of

3510-568: A remarkable change in terminology as well. the Statutum affirmed a division of labor between the emperor and the princes and laid much groundwork for the development of particularism in Germany. Even so, from 1232 the vassals of the emperor had a veto over imperial legislative decisions and any new law established by the emperor had to be approved by the princes. These provisions not withstanding, royal power in Germany remained strong under Frederick and by

3705-521: A reward offered for their ears, while Roma women and children were disfigured, branded, and exiled). When Augustus took office, some of these laws were transferred to the Union. However, a distinction was made between the laws applicable in Augustus's home state of Saxony and those in the commonwealth itself, where the harshest measures were converted into fines or simply neglected by local authorities. Shortly before

3900-491: A sedentary lifestyle was nothing new, and they were so assimilated that their differences were not recorded. The Roma ("Sasytka'' later ''Polska") who came from Germany also reached Lithuania and, from there, Latvia , Belarus , and Russia . The historical source that serves as the basis for this assumption is the privilege of free movement granted by Alexander Jagiellon , King of Poland (1501-1506) and Grand Duke of Lithuania (1492-1506). Linguistic research has also shown that

4095-468: A series of decrees (e.g., in the years 1496, 1497, 1498, 1500, and others) that forced the Roma to leave the territory of what was then Germany. City and regional archives mention people referred to as " Cygan " (originally "Czigan"). They often held the highest positions in agricultural and household services in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania . As previously mentioned,

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4290-426: A series of revolts from a younger brother and from several dukes. After that, the king managed to control the appointment of dukes and often also employed bishops in administrative affairs. He replaced leaders of most of the major East Frankish duchies with his own relatives. At the same time, he was careful to prevent members of his own family from making infringements on his royal prerogatives. In 951, Otto came to

4485-668: A surname tradition. Ornamental surnames are more common in communities that adopted (or were forced to adopt) surnames in the 18th and 19th centuries. They occur commonly in Scandinavia, and among Sinti and Roma and Jews in Germany and Austria. During the era of the Trans-Atlantic slave trade many Africans were given new names by their masters. Many of the family names of many African-Americans have their origins in slavery ( i.e. slave name ). Some freed slaves later created family names themselves. Another category of acquired names

4680-704: A truce with the raiding Magyars , and in 933 he won a first victory against them in the Battle of Riade . Henry died in 936, but his descendants, the Liudolfing (or Ottonian) dynasty , would continue to rule the Eastern kingdom or the Kingdom of Germany for roughly a century. Upon Henry the Fowler's death, Otto , his son and designated successor, was elected king in Aachen in 936. He overcame

4875-664: A very strict interpretation of the Romanipen cultural laws and practices. They are, in fact, considered the “Orthodox Roma,” as they have numerous and diverse practices that they call the Romano Kodex. However, some cultural differences arose within the community during and after World War II . Those Polska Roma who spent the war in Soviet-controlled territories were able to maintain their orthodox practices, while those under German occupation, threatened by genocide , had to compromise

5070-602: Is Velbienė , and his unmarried daughter, Velbaitė . Many surnames include prefixes that may or may not be separated by a space or punctuation from the main part of the surname. These are usually not considered true compound names, rather single surnames are made up of more than one word. These prefixes often give hints about the type or origin of the surname (patronymic, toponymic, notable lineage) and include words that mean from [a place or lineage], and son of/daughter of/child of. The common Celtic prefixes "Ó" or "Ua" (descendant of) and "Mac" or "Mag" (son of) can be spelled with

5265-521: Is foundlings names. Historically, children born to unwed parents or extremely poor parents would be abandoned in a public place or anonymously placed in a foundling wheel . Such abandoned children might be claimed and named by religious figures, the community leaders, or adoptive parents. Some such children were given surnames that reflected their condition, like (Italian) Esposito , Innocenti , Della Casagrande , Trovato , Abbandonata, or (Dutch) Vondeling, Verlaeten, Bijstand. Other children were named for

5460-533: Is also customary for the Baltic Finnic peoples and the Hungarians , but other Uralic peoples traditionally did not have surnames, perhaps because of the clan structure of their societies. The Samis , depending on the circumstances of their names, either saw no change or did see a transformation of their name. For example: Sire in some cases became Siri, and Hætta Jáhkoš Ásslat became Aslak Jacobsen Hætta – as

5655-541: Is also the name of one of Japan's prefectures ), Yamamoto (山本) means "the base of the mountain", and Inoue (井上) means "above the well". Arabic names sometimes contain surnames that denote the city of origin. For example, in cases of Saddam Hussein al Tikriti, meaning Saddam Hussein originated from Tikrit , a city in Iraq . This component of the name is called a nisbah . The meanings of some names are unknown or unclear. The most common European name in this category may be

5850-641: Is also the case in Cambodia and among the Hmong of Laos and Thailand . The Telugu people of south India also place surname before personal name. There are some parts of Europe, in particular Hungary , where the surname is placed before the personal name. Since family names are normally written last in European societies, the terms last name or surname are commonly used for the family name, while in Japan (with vertical writing)

6045-523: Is called onomastics . While the use of given names to identify individuals is attested in the oldest historical records, the advent of surnames is relatively recent. Many cultures have used and continue to use additional descriptive terms in identifying individuals. These terms may indicate personal attributes, location of origin, occupation, parentage, patronage, adoption, or clan affiliation. In China, according to legend, family names started with Emperor Fu Xi in 2000 BC. His administration standardised

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6240-545: Is just one, but in Portuguese-speaking countries and many Spanish-speaking countries, two surnames (one inherited from the mother and another from the father) are used for legal purposes. Depending on culture, not all members of a family unit are required to have identical surnames. In some countries, surnames are modified depending on gender and family membership status of a person. Compound surnames can be composed of separate names. Using names has been documented in even

6435-413: Is placed before personal / first name and in most cases it is only shown as an initial (for example 'S.' for Suryapeth). In English and other languages like Spanish—although the usual order of names is "first middle last"—for the purpose of cataloging in libraries and in citing the names of authors in scholarly papers, the order is changed to "last, first middle," with the last and first names separated by

6630-459: Is the subject of debates: on one hand, it helped to restore peace in the lands of the Empire, that had been engulfed in civil conflicts after the end of the Hohenstaufen era; on the other hand, the "blow to central authority was unmistakable". Thomas Brady Jr. opines that Charles IV's intention was to end contested royal elections (from the Luxembourghs' perspective, they also had the advantage that

6825-510: Is unlikely that a particularly "strong ruler" such as Frederick II would have even pragmatically agreed to legislation that was truly concessionary rather than cooperative, neither would the princes have insisted on such. The Mainz Landfriede or Constitutio Pacis , decreed at the Imperial Diet of 1235, became one of the basic laws of the empire and provided that the princes should share the burden of local government in Germany. The authority of

7020-664: The Arab world , the use of patronymics is well attested. The famous scholar Rhazes ( c.  865–925 AD ) is referred to as "al-Razi" (lit. the one from Ray) due to his origins from the city of Ray , Iran. In the Levant , surnames were in use as early as the High Middle Ages and it was common for people to derive their surname from a distant ancestor, and historically the surname would be often preceded with 'ibn' or 'son of'. Arab family names often denote either one's tribe , profession ,

7215-655: The Baltic Sea , the North Sea and along the connected navigable rivers. Each of the affiliated cities retained the legal system of its sovereign and, with the exception of the Free imperial cities , had only a limited degree of political autonomy. By the late 14th century, the powerful league enforced its interests with military means, if necessary. This culminated in a war with the sovereign Kingdom of Denmark from 1361 to 1370. The league declined after 1450. The difficulties in electing

7410-450: The Baltic countries as well as Belarus and Russia and are also called Ruska Roma . - The western Sasytka Roma came from Pomerania and West Prussia . However, there are additional new subgroups that have emerged from intermarriages with other Roma tribes in the 20th and 21st centuries. Due to the displacement of the Polska Roma, new subgroups have formed that are now at the lower end of

7605-452: The Grand Duchy of Lithuania . The privileges granted by King Alexander confirm that they had long held leaders and kings, called Voivodes and Hetmans , who were elected by them and confirmed by the Lithuanian and Polish monarchs. They enjoyed freedom and government protection. Such privileges were regularly recorded in the documents of the counties where they primarily lived. Similarly, in

7800-651: The Holy Roman Emperor . It developed in the Early Middle Ages and lasted for almost a thousand years until its dissolution in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars . On 25 December 800, Pope Leo III crowned Frankish king Charlemagne as Roman emperor, reviving the title in Western Europe more than three centuries after the fall of the ancient Western Roman Empire in 476. The title lapsed in 924, but

7995-590: The Kingdom of Prussia . These laws and the brutal anti-Roma policies of Austria and Prussia were among the reasons for the Roma's flight to Poland, where they are now known as the Polska Roma. Additional anti-Roma laws were enacted in Poland and Lithuania when Augustus the Strong , Elector of Saxony , was elected King of Poland in 1697. Saxony , like most German states at that time, had very strict anti-Roma legislation (Roma men were to be killed on sight, often with

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8190-499: The Mława riot occurred, which was a series of violent incidents against Polska Roma that broke out after one Polish man was killed and another Polish man was permanently harmed when a Romani teenager drove into three ethnic Poles in a crosswalk, killing one, then fled the scene of the accident. After the accident a rioting mob attacked wealthy Romani settlements in the Polish town of Mława . Both

8385-510: The Papacy . The form "Holy Roman Empire" is attested from 1254 onward. The exact term "Holy Roman Empire" was not used until the 13th century, before which the empire was referred to variously as universum regnum ("the whole kingdom", as opposed to the regional kingdoms), imperium christianum ("Christian empire"), or Romanum imperium ("Roman empire"), but the Emperor's legitimacy always rested on

8580-569: The Partitions of Poland , Polska Roma, like other non- Szlachta classes, were granted full citizenship by the Constitution of 3rd May . However, these privileges were lost with the partitions and the Polska Roma were forced back into servile status by the foreign powers (Austria, Prussia, Russia). Nomination of Matias Karolowicz as the king of Gypsies in Poland The need to establish a superior of

8775-514: The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth as their homeland. Nevertheless, many still call themselves Sasytka Roma today. Another name for the Sasytka Roma is “Pluniaki,” as they still speak the old accent and loved the color red. They were mainly active throughout Prussia and the Baltic regions . Today, the Sasytka Roma are a subgroup of the Polska Roma and have remained the tribal leaders of the Polska Roma for generations. There are other subgroups of

8970-773: The Prussians in 1226. The monastic state of the Teutonic Order ( Deutschordensstaat ) and its later German successor state of the Duchy of Prussia was never part of the Holy Roman Empire. Under the son and successor of Frederick Barbarossa, Henry VI , the Hohenstaufen dynasty reached its apex, with the addition of the Norman kingdom of Sicily through the marriage of Henry VI and Constance of Sicily . Bohemia and Poland were under feudal dependence, while Cyprus and Lesser Armenia also paid homage. The Iberian-Moroccan caliph accepted his claims over

9165-569: The Sixth Crusade in 1228, which ended in negotiations and a temporary restoration of the Kingdom of Jerusalem . For his many-sided activities, prestige, and dynamic personality Frederick II has been called the greatest of all the medieval German emperors. In the Kingdom of Sicily and much of Italy, Frederick built upon the work of his Norman predecessors and forged an early absolutist state bound together by an efficient secular bureaucracy. Despite his imperial prestige and power, Frederick II's rule

9360-471: The cities and the emergence of the new burgher class eroded the societal, legal and economic order of feudalism. Peasants were increasingly required to pay tribute to their landlords. The concept of property began to replace more ancient forms of jurisdiction, although they were still very much tied together. In the territories (not at the level of the Empire), power became increasingly bundled: whoever owned

9555-444: The full name of a person, although several given names and surnames are possible in the full name. In modern times the "hereditary" requirement is a traditional, although common, interpretation, since in most countries a person has a right for a name change . Depending on culture, the surname may be placed at either the start of a person's name, or at the end. The number of surnames given to an individual also varies: in most cases it

9750-491: The magnates latifundia the Polska Roma communities were also granted the right to have a "king," elected to represent them in disputes with outsiders. Even in the 18th century, Polish Roma repeatedly fled from German territories. The Exile Decree is an Austrian imperia l edict from the early 18th century that recalls earlier regulations against vagrants, including the Roma. The second is a similar edict issued in Berlin in 1721 for

9945-560: The patriarch of Constantinople . Charlemagne's good service to the Church in his defense of Papal possessions against the Lombards made him the ideal candidate. On Christmas Day of 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne emperor, restoring the title in the West for the first time in over three centuries. This can be seen as symbolic of the papacy turning away from the declining Byzantine Empire toward

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10140-595: The -is suffix will have the -i suffix. Latvian, like Lithuanian, uses strictly feminized surnames for women, even in the case of foreign names. The function of the suffix is purely grammatical. Male surnames ending -e or -a need not be modified for women. Exceptions are: In Iceland, surnames have a gender-specific suffix (-dóttir = daughter, -son = son). This was also the case in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, until they were abolished by law in 1856, 1923, and 1966 respectively. Finnish used gender-specific suffixes up to 1929 when

10335-464: The 1240s the crown was still rich in fiscal resources, land holdings, retinues, and all other rights, revenues, and jurisdictions. Frederick II used the political loyalty and practical jurisdictions granted to the higher German aristocracy to impose peace, order, and justice upon Germany. The jurisdictional autarky of the German princes was favoured by the crown itself in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries in

10530-517: The 14th century to the 21st century til today. There are various positions within this hierarchy. The highest position is the ''Sero Rom'', followed by the second position, the ''Jongkary'' (this position no longer exists todayas it is no longer necessary). Next is the elder of each subgroup, formerly called Vojwodo or subgroup leader . The head of the family is the ''Phuro'', ''Phury'' (an elder man or woman). There are some old writings that describe such ''kings'', ''Hetmans'', and family leaders throughout

10725-651: The Bald ) and then the eastern ( Charles the Fat ), who briefly reunited the Empire, attaining the prize. In the 9th century, Charlemagne and his successors promoted the intellectual revival, known as the Carolingian Renaissance . Some, like Mortimer Chambers, opine that the Carolingian Renaissance made possible the subsequent renaissances (even though by the early 10th century, the revival already diminished). After

10920-516: The Bergitka Roma (meaning "mountain gypsies"; this tribal designation was given to them by the Polska Roma in the 20th century, as they are still referred to as Labance today. They had no self-designation, but now call themselves Bergitka Roma or Galicjak i, and some simply Roma. They came from the Balkans to southern Poland and Ukraine , where their mobility was restricted). In many large estates of

11115-596: The Burgundian territories lost to France . Although the Italian territories were formally part of the empire, the territories were ignored in the Imperial Reform and splintered into numerous de facto independent territorial entities. The status of Italy in particular varied throughout the 16th to 18th centuries. Some territories like Piedmont-Savoy became increasingly independent, while others became more dependent due to

11310-585: The Carolingian king Louis the Child died without issue in 911, East Francia did not turn to the Carolingian ruler of West Francia to take over the realm but instead elected one of the dukes, Conrad of Franconia , as Rex Francorum Orientalium . On his deathbed, Conrad yielded the crown to his main rival, Henry the Fowler of Saxony ( r.  919–936 ), who was elected king at the Diet of Fritzlar in 919. Henry reached

11505-447: The Crown and its adjacent countries", issued by King John II Casimir himself, dates back to 1652. The nominee was Matias Karolowicz , but nothing is known about him, except that he was not the first to hold his position. The document stated that Karolowicz was the successor of the already deceased Janczy , the previous superior of the Gypsies. According to the royal act, Karolowicz

11700-429: The Crown, such leaders were elected, called tribal chiefs, who governed all the Roma of the entire Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and had other leaders under them who led individual groups or families. Each Tabor had its own Voivode ( Duke -Polish ''Hrabia''), but the Hetman ( King -proverb ''Syndlostro Dziacipen''goes back to King Syndlon), was the tribal chief over all the Tabors. These tribal chiefs were always from

11895-436: The Czech Republic, then to the Kingdom of Hungary and the Czech Republic, and in the years 1526-1918 to the Habsburg Austrian Monarchy. In 1644, when the city, and with it the urban forest, was under Austrian rule, the voivode of Masovia, the castellan of Krakow and the owner of Łodygowice - Stanisław Warszycki, forcibly occupied the forest and used it for many years, causing losses estimated at 55,000 thalers. From 1861 documents,

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12090-401: The Eastern Roman Empire, however it was not until the 11th century that surnames came to be used in West Europe. Medieval Spain used a patronymic system. For example, Álvaro, a son of Rodrigo, would be named Álvaro Rodríguez. His son, Juan, would not be named Juan Rodríguez, but Juan Álvarez. Over time, many of these patronymics became family names, and they are some of the most common names in

12285-426: The Empire were gradually reduced. Charles IV set Prague to be the seat of the Holy Roman emperor. After the death of Frederick II in 1250, Conrad IV , Frederick's son (died 1254), enjoyed a strong position having defeated his papal-backed rival anti-king , William of Holland (died 1256). However, Conrad's death was followed by the Interregnum , during which no king could achieve universal recognition, allowing

12480-491: The Empire, both Christians and Jews, moved into these areas. The gradual Germanization of these lands was a complex phenomenon that should not be interpreted in the biased terms of 19th-century nationalism . The eastward settlement expanded the influence of the empire to include Pomerania and Silesia , as did the intermarriage of the local, still mostly Slavic, rulers with German spouses. The Teutonic Knights were invited to Prussia by Duke Konrad of Masovia to Christianize

12675-422: The Franks and began an extensive expansion of the realm. He eventually incorporated the territories of present-day France, Germany, northern Italy, the Low Countries and beyond, linking the Frankish kingdom with Papal lands. Although antagonism about the expense of Byzantine domination had long persisted within Italy, a political rupture was set in motion in earnest in 726 by the iconoclasm of Emperor Leo III

12870-426: The German SS usually murdered Polska Roma (as well as the Bergitka Roma) in mass executions in forests and secluded places (for example in the Szczurowa massacre ). While prior to World War II a small portion of Polska Roma had become sedentary, most continued a traditional nomadic way of life. Unlike the Lovarii and Kalderash, who often engaged in cross-national Europe-wide travels, Polska Roma tended to stay within

13065-401: The German Nation" fell out of official use. Contradicting the traditional view concerning that designation, Hermann Weisert has argued in a study on imperial titulature that, despite the claims of many textbooks, the name "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation" never had an official status and points out that documents were thirty times as likely to omit the national suffix as include it. In

13260-464: The Gypsies - a nomadic people and therefore difficult to control - was one of the pressing problems faced by the modern rulers of Central Europe. Until the mid-17th century, in Poland there were only examples of confirmation of seniority among leaders selected by the Gypsies themselves, supported by local property owners or land officials. However, the oldest preserved document appointing a lifetime "office of seniority over all Gypsies who are and will be in

13455-444: The Holy Roman emperor seized the city. Otto died young in 1002, and was succeeded by his cousin Henry II , who focused on Germany. Otto III's (and his mentor Pope Sylvester's) diplomatic activities coincided with and facilitated the Christianization and the spread of Latin culture in different parts of Europe. They coopted a new group of nations (Slavic) into the framework of Europe, with their empire functioning, as some remark, as

13650-522: The Irish name Ryan , which means 'little king' in Irish. Also, Celtic origin of the name Arthur, meaning ' bear '. Other surnames may have arisen from more than one source: the name De Luca , for instance, likely arose either in or near Lucania or in the family of someone named Lucas or Lucius; in some instances, however, the name may have arisen from Lucca, with the spelling and pronunciation changing over time and with emigration. The same name may appear in different cultures by coincidence or romanization;

13845-403: The Isaurian , in what Pope Gregory II saw as the latest in a series of imperial heresies. In 797, the Eastern Roman Emperor Constantine VI was removed from the throne by his mother, Empress Irene , who declared herself sole ruler. As the Latin Church only regarded a male Roman emperor as the head of Christendom , Pope Leo III sought a new candidate for the dignity, excluding consultation with

14040-651: The King of Bohemia had a permanent and preeminent status as one of the Electors himself). At the same time, he built up Bohemia as the Luxembourghs' core land of the Empire and their dynastic base. His reign in Bohemia is often considered the land's Golden Age. According to Brady Jr. though, under all the glitter, one problem arose: the government showed an inability to deal with the German immigrant waves into Bohemia, thus leading to religious tensions and persecutions. The imperial project of

14235-509: The Marriage Act forced women to use the husband's form of the surname. In 1985, this clause was removed from the act. Until at least 1850, women's surnames were suffixed with an -in in Tyrol. Some Slavic cultures originally distinguished the surnames of married and unmarried women by different suffixes, but this distinction is no longer widely observed. Some Czech dialects (Southwest-Bohemian) use

14430-510: The Mława police chief and University of Warsaw sociology researchers said that the pogrom was primarily due to class envy (some Romani have grown wealthy in the gold and automobile trades). At the time, the mayor of the town, as well as the Romani involved and other residents, said the incident was not racially motivated. During the coverage of the riot, a change in ethnic stereotypes about Roma in Poland

14625-714: The Netherlands (1795–1811), Japan (1870s), Thailand (1920), and Turkey (1934). The structure of the Japanese name was formalized by the government as family name + given name in 1868. In Breslau Prussia enacted the Hoym Ordinance in 1790, mandating the adoption of Jewish surnames. Napoleon also insisted on Jews adopting fixed names in a decree issued in 1808. Names can sometimes be changed to protect individual privacy (such as in witness protection ), or in cases where groups of people are escaping persecution. After arriving in

14820-479: The Old English element tūn may have originally meant "enclosure" in one name, but can have meant "farmstead", "village", "manor", or "estate" in other names. Location names, or habitation names, may be as generic as "Monte" (Portuguese for "mountain"), "Górski" (Polish for "hill"), or "Pitt" (variant of "pit"), but may also refer to specific locations. "Washington", for instance, is thought to mean "the homestead of

15015-585: The Ottonian kings actually built their empire on the back of military and bureaucratic apparatuses as well as the cultural legacy they inherited from the Carolingians, who ultimately inherited these from the Late Roman Empire. He argues that the Ottonian empire was hardly an archaic kingdom of primitive Germans, maintained by personal relationships only and driven by the desire of the magnates to plunder and divide

15210-713: The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth as far as Russia. They called themselves Egyptians from Egypt and Philistines from Minor Asia . Between the 16th and 18th centuries, the Polish-Lithuanian Union, like other European states, enacted anti-Roma laws. However, unlike most European countries, these laws were rarely enforced on a large scale, because the Roma found powerful protectors among the Szlachta (Polish nobility) and were subject to benevolent neglect. Polish nobles, magnates , and large landowners valued

15405-449: The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from Germany mostly continued to migrate to Russia, and those who remained eventually migrated to Russia as well. In the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth , the Roma primarily moved to the Duchy of Lithuania rather than under the Crown, as they were better received in the northeast and enjoyed more privileges there. Initially, small individual families from Germany (1501) and Bohemia (1357) had no issues in

15600-578: The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, but this changed when persecution in Germany began. In the 16th century, Roma mass-migrated from Germany. Today, the remaining Polska Roma in Poland are very few compared to the many Ruska Roma who have settled in Russia. Even fewer are those in the Baltic regions. The Polska Roma Kings (Siero Rom Formerly called ''Hetman''), belong to the subgroup Sasytka Roma (''Pluniaki''). Henryk Nudziu Kozłowski (died April 2, 2021)– activist of

15795-539: The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which can only be found in Poland today. Here are some of these individuals described. After Poland's partitions, the persecution of Polska Roma became more severe, particularly in the Russian partition . As a result, the group's population's size declined, at one point falling to as low as 1000 persons within Congress Poland . Finally, the 1880 century saw an influx of other Romani into

15990-641: The Polska Roma tribe. After these divisions, various tribes emerged, each with its own groups and subgroups: in Russia, the Ruska Roma; in the Baltic regions, the Litovska Roma, Lotvitka Roma, and Estonska Roma. In these areas, they were all influenced by Ruthenian culture. As the Heladytka settled in Western Russia in the 17th century, they were more influenced by Ruthenian culture than by Polish culture. However,

16185-471: The Polska Roma: - The Rapaci originate from the region of Bohemian Silesia , also called " Opole ," which is now part of Poland. The name Rapaci comes from “Ka-rpaci - Carpathians .” They were first mentioned in 1357 in southwestern Poland and again in 1401 and further mentions. In Bohemian Silesia , they were first mentioned in 1350. Their surnames were “ Cygan .” A mass migration from Bohemia began when

16380-569: The Reich", which tied the great imperial churches and their representatives to imperial service, thus providing "a stable and long-lasting framework for Germany". During the Ottonian era, imperial women played a prominent role in political and ecclesiastic affairs, often combining their functions as religious leader and advisor, regent or co-ruler, notably Matilda of Ringelheim , Eadgyth , Adelaide of Italy , Theophanu , and Matilda of Quedlinburg . In 963, Otto deposed John XII and chose Leo VIII as

16575-588: The Rhine , a confederation of German client states loyal not to the Holy Roman emperor but to France. Since Charlemagne , the realm was merely referred to as the Roman Empire . The term sacrum ("holy", in the sense of "consecrated") in connection with the medieval Roman Empire was used beginning in 1157 under Frederick I Barbarossa ("Holy Empire"): the term was added to reflect Frederick's ambition to dominate Italy and

16770-669: The Roma community in Poland. He served as Siero Roma of the Polish Lowland Gypsies. He was the founder of the Royal Roma Foundation - Successor son C. Kozlowski. The first appearance of the Roma (Gypsies) in the Holy Roman Empire was probably in 1407 or 1417. In 1407, it is not entirely clear as they were referred to as Tatars but did not introduce themselves. In 1417, a small group arrived as pilgrims to do penance for seven years; they called themselves Secanos. After

16965-422: The Roma from Lithuania , Latvia , and Russia use loanwords from Polish and German , which also supports the historical evidence of their migration route. Additionally, all these tribes speak the same identical dialect, the northeastern branch, which is also referred to as Baltic Romanes in linguistic research. The Roma use the word " tribes " and not "groups", as they refer to their subgroups as "groups", and

17160-512: The Roma were not considered vagabonds, but rather "as part of the national mosaic, not as foreign patterns." In medieval Europe , numerous laws and edicts were issued to expel the Roma or forcibly assimilate them in various countries. In 1471, the first anti-Gypsy law was introduced in Lucerne ( Switzerland ). Regulations appeared in Brandenburg (1482) and Spain (1492). Emperor Maximilian I . issued

17355-661: The Roma who remained in Poland were not strongly influenced, despite their contact to the countries countries. In Poland, under the partitions, the Roma in the Russian-occupied areas were treated relatively well, and the majority of the community emigrated there. By the mid-19th century, there was a significant decline in the Roma population in Poland: most gradually moved to Russia. Many Roma also left Lithuania; in 1840, only 70 Roma families were registered in Lithuania. The Roma who came to

17550-688: The Rosenkrantz ("rose wreath") family took their surname from a wreath of roses comprising the torse of their arms, and the Gyldenstierne ("golden star") family took theirs from a 7-pointed gold star on their shield. Subsequently, many middle-class Scandinavian families desired names similar to those of the nobles and adopted "ornamental" surnames as well. Most other naming traditions refer to them as "acquired". They might be given to people newly immigrated, conquered, or converted, as well as those with unknown parentage, formerly enslaved, or from parentage without

17745-596: The Ruska Roma living in Poland. The Polska Roma are closely related to the Heladytka Roma or "Ruska Roma ," as well as to the Baltic Roma , who all speak the Baltic Romani dialects. This is the northeastern branch; they are descendants of the Polska Roma who have split over time, forming new tribes and groups. All the living Ruska Roma, Lotvitka Roma, Estonska Roma, Litovska Roma, and Bjaleruska Roma in Poland belong to

17940-549: The Spanish-speaking world today. Other sources of surnames are personal appearance or habit, e.g. Delgado ("thin") and Moreno ("dark"); geographic location or ethnicity, e.g. Alemán ("German"); and occupations, e.g. Molinero ("miller"), Zapatero ("shoe-maker") and Guerrero ("warrior"), although occupational names are much more often found in a shortened form referring to the trade itself, e.g. Molina ("mill"), Guerra ("war"), or Zapata (archaic form of zapato , "shoe"). In England

18135-623: The United States, European Jews who fled Nazi persecution sometimes anglicized their surnames to avoid discrimination. Governments can also forcibly change people's names, as when the National Socialist government of Germany assigned German names to European people in the territories they conquered. In the 1980s, the People's Republic of Bulgaria forcibly changed the first and last names of its Turkish citizens to Bulgarian names. These are

18330-595: The Welfs from their possessions, but after his death in 1152, his nephew Frederick Barbarossa succeeded him and made peace with the Welfs, restoring his cousin Henry the Lion to his – albeit diminished – possessions. The Hohenstaufen rulers increasingly lent land to " ministeriales ", formerly non-free servicemen, who Frederick hoped would be more reliable than dukes. Initially used mainly for war services, this new class of people would form

18525-675: The Western Roman Empire in the 5th century, family names were uncommon in the Eastern Roman Empire . In Western Europe, where Germanic culture dominated the aristocracy, family names were almost non-existent. They would not significantly reappear again in Eastern Roman society until the 10th century, apparently influenced by the familial affiliations of the Armenian military aristocracy. The practice of using family names spread through

18720-452: The aid of Queen Adelaide of Italy , defeating her enemies, marrying her, and taking control over Italy. In 955, Otto won a decisive victory over the Magyars in the Battle of Lechfeld . In 962, Otto was crowned emperor by Pope John XII , thus intertwining the affairs of the German kingdom with those of Italy and the Papacy. Otto's coronation as emperor marked the German kings as successors to

18915-502: The anger of the Germans. Some private lords and certain princes strongly protected this people, following the example of Emperor Sigismund . However, after his death, some began to persecute them harshly, while others ceased to protect them. This led to an open project against the Gypsies, introduced at the Reichstag of the Holy Roman Empire in 1496 and 1497, which had serious consequences. It

19110-603: The backing of the French Pope, Clement V (established at Avignon in 1309), and that his prospects of bringing the empire into the orbit of the French royal house were good. He lavishly spread French money in the hope of bribing the German electors. Although Charles of Valois had the backing of pro-French Henry, Archbishop of Cologne , many were not keen to see an expansion of French power, least of all Clement V. The principal rival to Charles appeared to be Count Palatine Rudolf II . But

19305-468: The basis for the later knights , another basis of imperial power. A further important constitutional move at Roncaglia was the establishment of a new peace mechanism for the entire empire, the Landfrieden , with the first imperial one being issued in 1103 under Henry IV at Mainz . This was an attempt to abolish private feuds, between the many dukes and other people, and to tie the emperor's subordinates to

19500-472: The borders of interwar Poland or neighboring countries. After the war, however, the communist government of People's Poland instituted a policy aimed at the "settling" of the Roma population which had survived the Holocaust. Initially, this took the form of financial incentives - including free housing and "settlement funds" - but because the policy did not achieve the goals the communist authorities hoped for, by

19695-508: The cities and the need for new arrivals to choose a defining surname. In Portuguese-speaking countries , it is uncommon, but not unprecedented, to find surnames derived from names of countries, such as Portugal, França, Brasil, Holanda. Surnames derived from country names are also found in English, such as "England", "Wales", "Spain". Some Japanese surnames derive from geographical features; for example, Ishikawa (石川) means "stone river" (and

19890-543: The concept of translatio imperii , that he held supreme power inherited from the ancient emperors of Rome . In a decree following the Diet of Cologne in 1512, the name was changed to the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation ( German : Heiliges Römisches Reich Deutscher Nation , Latin : Sacrum Imperium Romanum Nationis Germanicae ), a form first used in a document in 1474. The adoption of this new name coincided with

20085-430: The country, posed a threat of unrest, and the established residents began to perceive their presence as a deception. For this reason, in 1678, a decree was issued that, following the final confirmation of the expulsion in Germany, effectively declared the Roma as outcasts. Furthermore, it was determined that anyone who supported them would be considered an accomplice to their crimes and would also be banished. At that time,

20280-526: The crown was not in question, rather its practical allocation in such a wide region which lacked a general administrative apparatus. Far from a broad diminution of royal power, the Mainz Landfriede was a constitutional recalibration based on the culmination of multi-decade political realities and a testament to Frederick II's considerable political strength, his increased prestige during the early 1230s, and sheer overpowering might that he succeeded in securing

20475-494: The death of Charles the Fat in 888, the Carolingian Empire broke apart, and was never restored. According to Regino of Prüm , the parts of the realm "spewed forth kinglets", and each part elected a kinglet "from its own bowels". The last such emperor was Berengar I of Italy , who died in 924. Around 900, East Francia's autonomous stem duchies ( Franconia , Bavaria , Swabia , Saxony , and Lotharingia ) reemerged. After

20670-727: The dissolution of the Empire. At the conclusion of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815, most of the Holy Roman Empire was included in the German Confederation , with the main exceptions being the Italian states. As Roman power in Gaul declined during the 5th century, local Germanic tribes assumed control. In the late 5th and early 6th centuries, the Merovingians , under Clovis I and his successors, consolidated Frankish tribes and extended hegemony over others to gain control of northern Gaul and

20865-503: The dual election of Frederick Barbarossa's youngest son Philip of Swabia and Henry the Lion's son Otto of Brunswick , who competed for the crown. After Philip was murdered in a private squabble in 1208, Otto prevailed for a while, until he began to also claim Sicily. Pope Innocent III , who feared the threat posed by a union of the empire and Sicily, was now supported by Frederick II, who marched to Germany and defeated Otto. After his victory, Frederick did not act upon his promise to keep

21060-402: The electors, the great territorial magnates who had lived without a crowned emperor for decades, were unhappy with both Charles and Rudolf. Instead Count Henry of Luxembourg , with the aid of his brother, Archbishop Baldwin of Trier , was elected as Henry VII with six votes at Frankfurt on 27 November 1308. Though a vassal of King Philip, Henry was bound by few national ties, and thus suitable as

21255-420: The emperor had repeatedly protected Henry the Lion against complaints by rival princes or cities (especially in the cases of Munich and Lübeck ). Henry gave only lackluster support to Frederick's policies, and, in a critical situation during the Italian wars, Henry refused the emperor's plea for military support. After returning to Germany, an embittered Frederick opened proceedings against the duke, resulting in

21450-507: The emperors were considered the first among equals of all Europe's Catholic monarchs. A process of Imperial Reform in the late 15th and early 16th centuries transformed the empire, creating a set of institutions which endured until its final demise in the 19th century. According to historian Thomas Brady Jr., the empire after the Imperial Reform was a political body of remarkable longevity and stability, and "resembled in some respects

21645-518: The empire of Charlemagne, which through the concept of translatio imperii , also made them consider themselves as successors to Ancient Rome. The flowering of arts beginning with Otto the Great's reign is known as the Ottonian Renaissance , centered in Germany but also happening in Northern Italy and France. Otto created the imperial church system, often called "Ottonian church system of

21840-432: The end of the German Empire , it was often called "the old Empire" ( das alte Reich ). Beginning in 1923, early twentieth-century German nationalists and Nazi Party propaganda would identify the Holy Roman Empire as the "First" Reich ( Erstes Reich , Reich meaning empire), with the German Empire as the "Second" Reich and what would eventually become Nazi Germany as the "Third" Reich. David S. Bachrach opines that

22035-434: The exact term for his realm as the "Holy Roman Empire" was not used until the 13th century, although the emperor's theoretical legitimacy from the beginning rested on the concept of translatio imperii , that he held supreme power inherited from the ancient emperors of Rome . Nevertheless, in the Holy Roman Empire, the imperial office was traditionally elective by the mostly German prince-electors . In theory and diplomacy,

22230-462: The expected invasion. Henry also had plans for turning the Empire into a hereditary monarchy, although this met with opposition from some of the princes and the pope. The emperor suddenly died in 1197, leading to the partial collapse of his empire. As his son, Frederick II , though already elected king, was still a small child and living in Sicily, German princes chose to elect an adult king, resulting in

22425-573: The extinction of their ruling noble houses causing these territories to often fall under the dominions of the Habsburgs and their cadet branches . Barring the loss of Franche-Comté in 1678 , the external borders of the Empire did not change noticeably from the Peace of Westphalia – which acknowledged the exclusion of Switzerland and the Northern Netherlands, and the French protectorate over Alsace – to

22620-457: The family name may be referred to as "upper name" ( ue-no-namae ( 上の名前 ) ). When people from areas using Eastern naming order write their personal name in the Latin alphabet , it is common to reverse the order of the given and family names for the convenience of Westerners, so that they know which name is the family name for official/formal purposes. Reversing the order of names for the same reason

22815-574: The family of Wassa", while "Lucci" means "resident of Lucca ". Although some surnames, such as "London", "Lisboa", or "Białystok" are derived from large cities, more people reflect the names of smaller communities, as in Ó Creachmhaoil , derived from a village in County Galway . This is thought to be due to the tendency in Europe during the Middle Ages for migration to chiefly be from smaller communities to

23010-626: The female form Nováková, the family name is Novákovi in Czech and Novákovci in Slovak. When the male form is Hrubý and the female form is Hrubá, the plural family name is Hrubí (or "rodina Hrubých"). In Greece, if a man called Papadopoulos has a daughter or wife, she will likely be named Papadopoulou, the genitive form, as if the daughter/wife is "of" a man named Papadopoulos. Likewise, the surnames of daughters and wives of males with surnames ending in -as will end in -a, and those of daughters and wives of males with

23205-561: The fields of Roncaglia in 1158 reclaimed imperial rights in reference to Justinian I 's Corpus Juris Civilis . Imperial rights had been referred to as regalia since the Investiture Controversy but were enumerated for the first time at Roncaglia. This comprehensive list included public roads, tariffs, coining , collecting punitive fees, and the seating and unseating of office-holders. These rights were now explicitly rooted in Roman law ,

23400-492: The first Roma to arrive in Poland via Bohemia were the Rapaci and Sasytka Roma from the Holy Roman Empire . These two Roma groups consisted of only two families from the years 1501(Wasyl Duke, Polgar Duke) and 1357 ( Mikolaj Cygan). This situation changed irrevocably in the next century, the 16th century, thanks to the Roma who came from the lands of the Holy Roman Empire , specifically from Germany, as refugees. This mass migration

23595-411: The first person to acquire the name, and stem from the middle class's desire for their own hereditary names like the nobles. They were generally acquired later in history and generally when those without surnames needed them. In 1526, King Frederik I of Denmark-Norway ordered that noble families must take up fixed surnames, and many of them took as their name some element of their coat of arms; for example,

23790-585: The form "Novákojc" as informal for both genders. In the culture of the Sorbs (a.k.a. Wends or Lusatians), Sorbian used different female forms for unmarried daughters (Jordanojc, Nowcyc, Kubašec, Markulic), and for wives (Nowakowa, Budarka, Nowcyna, Markulina). In Polish, typical surnames for unmarried women ended -ówna, -anka, or -ianka, while the surnames of married women used the possessive suffixes -ina or -owa. In Serbia, unmarried women's surnames ended in -eva, while married women's surnames ended in -ka. In Lithuania, if

23985-408: The form of old Roman foundations or older bishoprics . Cities that were founded in the 12th century include Freiburg , possibly the economic model for many later cities, and Munich . Frederick Barbarossa was crowned emperor in 1155. He emphasized the "Romanness" of the empire, partly in an attempt to justify the power of the emperor independent of the (now strengthened) pope. An imperial assembly at

24180-409: The gender of the bearer. In Slavic languages, substantivized adjective surnames have commonly symmetrical adjective variants for males and females (Podwiński/Podwińska in Polish, Nový/Nová in Czech or Slovak, etc.). In the case of nominative and quasi-nominative surnames, the female variant is derived from the male variant by a possessive suffix (Novák/Nováková, Hromada/Hromadová). In Czech and Slovak,

24375-403: The group. Female praenomina were less common, as women had reduced public influence, and were commonly known by the feminine form of the nomen alone. Later with the gradual influence of Greek and Christian culture throughout the Empire, Christian religious names were sometimes put in front of traditional cognomina , but eventually people reverted to single names. By the time of the fall of

24570-413: The hierarchy. They do not belong to the original Sasytka Roma who came from the Holy Roman Empire . Through intermarriages with Bergitka Roma , Lovara , Kalderash , and Sinti , the following new subgroups of the Polska Roma have emerged: Galicjaki, Siwaki, Pachowiaki, Puhary, Toniki, and Serwy. These subgroups hold a lower status within the Polska Roma society, but some groups tolerate them more, such as

24765-429: The husband is named Vilkas, his wife will be named Vilkienė and his unmarried daughter will be named Vilkaitė. Male surnames have suffixes -as, -is, -ius, or -us, unmarried girl surnames aitė, -ytė, -iūtė or -utė, wife surnames -ienė. These suffixes are also used for foreign names, exclusively for grammar; Welby, the surname of the present Archbishop of Canterbury for example, becomes Velbis in Lithuanian, while his wife

24960-542: The inhabited location associated with the person given that name. Such locations can be any type of settlement, such as homesteads, farms, enclosures, villages, hamlets, strongholds, or cottages. One element of a habitation name may describe the type of settlement. Examples of Old English elements are frequently found in the second element of habitational names. The habitative elements in such names can differ in meaning, according to different periods, different locations, or with being used with certain other elements. For example,

25155-457: The interests of order and local peace. The inevitable result was the territorial particularism of churchmen, lay princes, and interstitial cities. However, Frederick was a ruler of vast territories and "could not be everywhere at once". The transference of jurisdiction was a practical solution to secure the further support of the German princes and, moreover, was a process which had already been underway even under Henry VI and Frederick Barbarossa. It

25350-576: The introduction of family names is generally attributed to the preparation of the Domesday Book in 1086, following the Norman Conquest . Evidence indicates that surnames were first adopted among the feudal nobility and gentry, and slowly spread to other parts of society. Some of the early Norman nobility who arrived in England during the Norman conquest differentiated themselves by affixing 'de' (of) before

25545-569: The king eventually led to the emergence of a fixed college of prince-electors ( Kurfürsten ), whose composition and procedures were set forth in the Golden Bull of 1356 , issued by Charles IV (reigned 1355–1378, King of the Romans since 1346), which remained valid until 1806. This development probably best symbolizes the emerging duality between emperor and realm ( Kaiser und Reich ), which were no longer considered identical. The Golden Bull also set forth

25740-414: The king of the sacral status he had previously enjoyed. The pope and the German princes had surfaced as major players in the political system of the Holy Roman Empire. As the result of Ostsiedlung, less populated regions of Central Europe (i.e. sparsely populated border areas in present-day Poland and Czechia) received a significant number of German speakers. Silesia became part of the Holy Roman Empire as

25935-399: The king, declared him deposed, and dissolved the oaths of loyalty made to Henry. The king found himself with almost no political support and was forced to make the famous Walk to Canossa in 1077, by which he achieved a lifting of the excommunication at the price of humiliation. Meanwhile, the German princes had elected another king, Rudolf of Swabia . Henry managed to defeat Rudolf, but

26130-411: The land had jurisdiction, from which other powers derived. Jurisdiction at the time did not include legislation, which was virtually nonexistent until well into the 15th century. Court practice heavily relied on traditional customs or rules described as customary. During this time, territories began to transform into the predecessors of modern states. The process varied greatly among the various lands and

26325-459: The land. They enjoyed greater respect and privileges compared to other Roma groups, such as the Bergitka Roma , and the Polish peasants. They could continue their nomadic lifestyle for most of the year, as long as they arrived in their "hometown" on pre-determined market days. In this regard, the Polska Roma occupied a higher social status than the Polish peasants and other Roma populations, such as

26520-446: The late 1950s the policy evolved into one of forced settlement and outright prohibitions against the "nomadic" lifestyle. All Polska Roma had to register, "vagrancy" was outlawed, and Roma's parents were often jailed if their children failed to attend the same school throughout the year (which was impossible in the context of a nomadic lifestyle). This forced policy resulted in about 80% of the previously nomadic Roma becoming settled, while

26715-528: The loss of imperial territories in Italy and Burgundy to the south and west by the late 15th century, but also to emphasize the new importance of the German Imperial Estates in ruling the Empire due to the Imperial Reform . The Hungarian denomination "German Roman Empire" ( Hungarian : Német-római Birodalom ) is the shortening of this. By the end of the 18th century, the term "Holy Roman Empire of

26910-441: The mandate to have a surname. During the modern era many cultures around the world adopted family names, particularly for administrative reasons, especially during the age of European expansion and particularly since 1600. The Napoleonic Code, adopted in various parts of Europe, stipulated that people should be known by both their given name(s) and a family name that would not change across generations. Other notable examples include

27105-623: The middle Rhine river valley region. By the middle of the 8th century, the Merovingians were reduced to figureheads, and the Carolingians , led by Charles Martel , became the de facto rulers. In 751, Martel's son Pepin became King of the Franks, and later gained the sanction of the Pope. The Carolingians would maintain a close alliance with the Papacy. In 768, Pepin's son Charlemagne became King of

27300-569: The moderately powerful but already old duke of Saxony. When he died in 1137, the princes again aimed to check royal power; accordingly they did not elect Lothair's favoured heir, his son-in-law, Henry the Proud of the Welf family, but Conrad III of the Hohenstaufen family, the grandson of Emperor Henry IV and nephew of Emperor Henry V. This led to over a century of strife between the two houses. Conrad ousted

27495-410: The monarchical polities of Europe's western tier, and in others the loosely integrated, elective polities of East Central Europe." The new corporate German Nation, instead of simply obeying the emperor, negotiated with him. On 6 August 1806, Emperor Francis II abdicated and formally dissolved the empire following the creation – the month before, by French emperor Napoleon – of the Confederation of

27690-424: The name of their village in France. This is what is known as a territorial surname, a consequence of feudal landownership. By the 14th century, most English and most Scottish people used surnames and in Wales following unification under Henry VIII in 1536. A four-year study led by the University of the West of England , which concluded in 2016, analysed sources dating from the 11th to the 19th century to explain

27885-414: The naming system to facilitate census-taking, and the use of census information. Originally, Chinese surnames were derived matrilineally, although by the time of the Shang dynasty (1600 to 1046 BC) they had become patrilineal. Chinese women do not change their names upon marriage. In China, surnames have been the norm since at least the 2nd century BC. In the early Islamic period (640–900 AD) and

28080-401: The new pope (although John XII and Leo VIII both claimed the papacy until 964, when John XII died). This also renewed the conflict with the Byzantine emperor, especially after Otto's son Otto II ( r.  967–983 ) adopted the designation imperator Romanorum . Still, Otto II formed marital ties with the east when he married the Byzantine princess Theophanu . Their son, Otto III , came to

28275-431: The new power of Carolingian Francia . Charlemagne adopted the formula Renovatio imperii Romanorum ("renewal of the Roman Empire"). In 802, Irene was overthrown and exiled by Nikephoros I and henceforth there were two Roman emperors. After Charlemagne died in 814, the imperial crown passed to his son, Louis the Pious . Upon Louis' death in 840, it passed to his son Lothair , who had been his co-ruler. By this point

28470-412: The occupation of smith . There are also more complicated names based on occupational titles. In England it was common for servants to take a modified version of their employer's occupation or first name as their last name, adding the letter s to the word, although this formation could also be a patronymic . For instance, the surname Vickers is thought to have arisen as an occupational name adopted by

28665-658: The oldest and most common type of surname. They may be a first name such as "Wilhelm", a patronymic such as " Andersen ", a matronymic such as " Beaton ", or a clan name such as " O'Brien ". Multiple surnames may be derived from a single given name: e.g. there are thought to be over 90 Italian surnames based on the given name " Giovanni ". This is the broadest class of surnames, originating from nicknames, encompassing many types of origin. These include names based on appearance such as "Schwartzkopf", "Short", and possibly "Caesar", and names based on temperament and personality such as "Daft", "Gutman", and "Maiden", which, according to

28860-490: The oldest historical records. Examples of surnames are documented in the 11th century by the barons in England. English surnames began as a way of identifying a certain aspect of that individual, such as by trade, father's name, location of birth, or physical features, and were not necessarily inherited. By 1400 most English families, and those from Lowland Scotland, had adopted the use of hereditary surnames. The study of proper names (in family names, personal names, or places)

29055-412: The origin describes the original bearer such as Brown, Short , or Thin – though Short may in fact be an ironic 'nickname' surname for a tall person." In the modern era, governments have enacted laws to require people to adopt surnames. This served the purpose of uniquely identifying subjects for taxation purposes or for inheritance. In the late Middle Ages in Europe, there were several revolts against

29250-420: The origins of the surnames in the British Isles . The study found that over 90% of the 45,602 surnames in the dictionary are native to Britain and Ireland, with the most common in the UK being Smith , Jones , Williams , Brown , Taylor , Davies , and Wilson . The findings have been published in the Oxford English Dictionary of Family Names in Britain and Ireland , with project leader Richard Coates calling

29445-403: The persecution in the Holy Roman Empire and in Bohemia spread in the 16th century, leading them to emigrate to Poland. Some remained in Bohemia and built a synagogue in 1611 under Salomon Salkid-Cygan . This is the only Roma synagogue that is still documented, although it was repeatedly destroyed and rebuilt. In 1906, the synagogue was closed, and a new one, the Jerusalem Synagogue in Prague,

29640-433: The place of origin. Over the course of the Roman Republic and the later Empire, naming conventions went through multiple changes. ( See Roman naming conventions . ) The nomen , the name of the gens (tribe) inherited patrilineally, is thought to have already been in use by 650 BC. The nomen was to identify group kinship, while the praenomen (forename; plural praenomina ) was used to distinguish individuals within

29835-428: The prefix as a separate word, yielding "Ó Briain" or "Mac Millan" as well as the anglicized "O'Brien" and "MacMillan" or "Macmillan". Other Irish prefixes include Ní, Nic (daughter of the son of), Mhic, and Uí (wife of the son of). Holy Roman Empire The Holy Roman Empire , also known as the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation after 1512, was a polity in Central and Western Europe , usually headed by

30030-403: The princes to consolidate their holdings and become even more independent as rulers. After 1257, the crown was contested between Richard of Cornwall , who was supported by the Guelph party , and Alfonso X of Castile , who was recognized by the Hohenstaufen party but never set foot on German soil. After Richard's death in 1273, Rudolf I of Germany , a minor pro-Hohenstaufen count, was elected. He

30225-451: The princes' support and rebound them to Hohenstaufen power. The Kingdom of Bohemia was a significant regional power during the Middle Ages . In 1212, King Ottokar I (bearing the title "king" since 1198) extracted a Golden Bull of Sicily (a formal edict) from Emperor Frederick II, confirming the royal title for Ottokar and his descendants, and the Duchy of Bohemia was raised to a kingdom. Bohemia's political and financial obligations to

30420-563: The pure possessive would be Novákova, Hromadova, but the surname evolved to a more adjectivized form Nováková, Hromadová, to suppress the historical possessivity. Some rare types of surnames are universal and gender-neutral: examples in Czech are Janů, Martinů, Fojtů, Kovářů. These are the archaic form of the possessive, related to the plural name of the family. Such rare surnames are also often used for transgender persons during transition because most common surnames are gender-specific. The informal dialectal female form in Polish and Czech dialects

30615-399: The result of the local Piast dukes' push for autonomy from the Polish Crown. From the late 12th century, the Duchy of Pomerania was under the suzerainty of the Holy Roman Empire and the conquests of the Teutonic Order made that region German-speaking. When the Salian dynasty ended with Henry V's death in 1125, the princes chose not to elect the next of kin, but rather Lothair III ,

30810-411: The rewards among themselves but instead, notable for their abilities to amass sophisticated economic, administrative, educational and cultural resources that they used to serve their enormous war machine. Until the end of the 15th century, the empire was in theory composed of three major blocs – Italy , Germany and Burgundy . Later territorially only the Kingdom of Germany and Bohemia remained, with

31005-465: The right to build fortification. The 1232 Statutum in favorem principum mostly extended these privileges to secular territories. Although many of these privileges had existed earlier, they were now granted globally, and once and for all, to allow the German princes to maintain order north of the Alps while Frederick concentrated on Italy. The 1232 document marked the first time that the German dukes were called domini terrae , owners of their lands,

31200-402: The same family, inheriting their position from father to son or from father to nephew. However, a grandson could also take the position if neither a son nor a nephew met the requirements to assume the role. Throughout the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, such Voivodes of the Tabors lived, including in villages, where they did not travel with the Tabors but led a settled life. Likewise, the family of

31395-699: The servant of a vicar, while Roberts could have been adopted by either the son or the servant of a man named Robert. A subset of occupational names in English are names thought to be derived from the medieval mystery plays . The participants would often play the same roles for life, passing the part down to their oldest sons. Names derived from this may include King , Lord and Virgin . A Dictionary of English Surnames says that "surnames of office, such as Abbot , Bishop , Cardinal and King, are often nicknames". The original meaning of names based on medieval occupations may no longer be obvious in modern English. Location (toponymic, habitation) names derive from

31590-423: The seven years, they disappeared again, presumably heading northeast, likely towards Pomerania . In 1426, a large group appeared, comprising thousands of people. They carried letters of protection and were led by a king, three dukes, a count, as well as slaves and knights. They all came from Hungary . Later, the group led by Duke Panuel and Count Jon reached the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth via Bohemia and what

31785-547: The street/place they were found (Union, Liquorpond (street), di Palermo, Baan, Bijdam, van den Eyngel (shop name), van der Stoep , von Trapp), the date they were found ( Monday , Septembre, Spring, di Gennaio), or festival/feast day they found or christened (Easter, SanJosé). Some foundlings were given the name of whoever found them. Occupational names include Smith , Miller , Farmer , Thatcher , Shepherd , Potter , and so on, and analogous names in many other languages, see, e.g., various surnames associated with

31980-421: The strictness of their traditions to survive. In the 16th century, when the mass migration of the Roma fled persecution in the Holy Roman Empire, they called themselves Sasytka Roma (which means "Old German Gypsies"; the name Sasytka itself is derived from Saxony , Saso, Secanos). In western Poland, around the 17th century, they adopted the name Polska Roma, as they no longer identified as German Roma but accepted

32175-432: The study "more detailed and accurate" than those before. He elaborated on the origins: "Some surnames have origins that are occupational – obvious examples are Smith and Baker. Other names can be linked to a place , for example, Hill or Green, which relates to a village green . Surnames that are 'patronymic' are those which originally enshrined the father's name – such as Jackson , or Jenkinson . There are also names where

32370-447: The surname Lee is used in English culture, but is also a romanization of the Chinese surname Li . In the Russian Empire , illegitimate children were sometimes given artificial surnames rather than the surnames of their adoptive parents. In many cultures (particularly in European and European-influenced cultures in the Americas, Oceania, etc., as well as West Asia/North Africa, South Asia, and most Sub-Saharan African cultures),

32565-446: The surname or family name ("last name") is placed after the personal, forename (in Europe) or given name ("first name"). In other cultures the surname is placed first, followed by the given name or names. The latter is often called the Eastern naming order because Europeans are most familiar with the examples from the East Asian cultural sphere , specifically, Greater China , Korea (both North and South) , Japan , and Vietnam . This

32760-419: The suzerainty over Tunis and Tripolitania and paid tribute. Fearing the power of Henry, the most powerful monarch in Europe since Charlemagne, the other European kings formed an alliance. But Henry broke this coalition by blackmailing English king Richard the Lionheart . The Byzantine emperor worried that Henry would turn his Crusade plan against his empire, and began to collect the alamanikon to prepare against

32955-403: The system for election of the Holy Roman Emperor. The emperor now was to be elected by a majority rather than by consent of all seven electors. For electors the title became hereditary, and they were given the right to mint coins and to exercise jurisdiction. Also it was recommended that their sons learn the imperial languages – German , Latin , Italian , and Czech . The decision by Charles IV

33150-411: The term "Hetmano" was used, which means the same as ''Sero Rom''). Gypsy kings (the correct term for the leader of a family, group, or national community) survived only in Poland. They mediate internal disputes and represent the community in dealings with local authorities. There are two different definitions of the institution of the Gypsy king. The first refers to a person recognized by the authorities of

33345-571: The territories of the former Poland, particularly the Kalderash and Lovari . They adopted many customs of the Polska Roma, the Polska Roma do not recognize them and do not see them as real Roma, they are called Ostriaki or Rumuny. After the German invasion and occupation of Poland the Nazis carried out a planned genocide of the Roma population as part of the final solution . Polska Roma, along with other Romani groups in Poland were very much affected. Generally, while other Roma were usually placed in ghettos and then sent to Nazi concentration camps ,

33540-403: The territory of Charlemagne was divided into several territories ( cf . Treaty of Verdun , Treaty of Prüm , Treaty of Meerssen and Treaty of Ribemont ), and over the course of the later 9th century the title of emperor was disputed by the Carolingian rulers of the Western Frankish Kingdom or West Francia and the Eastern Frankish Kingdom or East Francia , with first the western king ( Charles

33735-542: The throne only three years old, and was subjected to a power struggle and series of regencies until his age of majority in 994. Up to that time, he remained in Germany, while a deposed duke, Crescentius II , ruled over Rome and part of Italy, ostensibly in his stead. In 996 Otto III appointed his cousin Gregory V the first German pope. A foreign pope and foreign papal officers were seen with suspicion by Roman nobles, who were led by Crescentius II to revolt. Otto III's former mentor Antipope John XVI briefly held Rome, until

33930-409: The traditional Romanipen culture. Their Romani dialect has also absorbed many German words and expressions that entered Poland through Germany. Regarding migration patterns, it is worth noting that reports of Roma in southern Poland, where their presence was already noticeable in the 14th century, have emerged. This contrasts with what could be observed in Western Europe, as it was a sedentary rather than

34125-404: The traditional crafts of the Roma, such as metallurgy , farming , and wheelwrighting , as well as their musical skills , which became an integral part of important events. Their primary occupation, horse trading, was also highly popular among the nobility, as they specialized in horses . The Polska Roma were generally exempt from feudal restrictions, unlike the Polish peasants who were tied to

34320-457: The tribal chief was not limited to the Crown alone but was active across the entire Commonwealth, both as travelers and as settlers. The Polish nobility had no interest in tormenting the weak, defenseless, and humble people. Wealthy landowners, who possessed vast tracts of land, were wary of reducing the population and even supported the settlement of the destitute. However, Romani settlements did not exist in Poland. German bands, scattered throughout

34515-437: The two realms separate. Though he had made his son Henry king of Sicily before marching on Germany, he still reserved real political power for himself. This continued after Frederick was crowned emperor in 1220. Fearing Frederick's concentration of power, the pope finally excommunicated him. Another point of contention was the Crusade, which Frederick had promised but repeatedly postponed. Now, although excommunicated, Frederick led

34710-407: The urban forest began to be referred to as the Cygański Las (Gypsy Forest). The name most likely comes from the fact that wandering Roma camps have been camping in the forest since the 15th century. Surname A surname , family name , or last name is the mostly hereditary portion of one's personal name that indicates one's family. It is typically combined with a given name to form

34905-530: The wake of the Cluniac Reforms , this involvement was increasingly seen as inappropriate by the Papacy. The reform-minded Pope Gregory VII was determined to oppose such practices, which led to the Investiture Controversy with King Henry IV ( r.  1056–1106 , crowned emperor in 1084). Henry IV repudiated the pope's interference and persuaded his bishops to excommunicate the pope, whom he famously addressed by his birth name "Hildebrand" rather than his papal name "Gregory". The pope, in turn, excommunicated

35100-455: The word "subgroup" is used for the specific subunit within a group. It went to Polish lands via Germany. It is a fact that large groups of Roma fled to Poland from Germany due to repression, but this happened only at the turn of the 15th and 16th centuries, during the time of Emperor Maximilian I , Emperor Wladislaus II Jagiellon (1496), Emperor Alexander I . Finally, in 1577, a large horde managed to reach Polish territory, scattered throughout

35295-402: Was Jakub Znamierowski, a landowner from Lida ) - from then on, the king was chosen independently by individual Families ( clans ) of Polish Gypsies. The chosen ones The institution of Gypsy kings existed in Poland from the 16th to the 18th century and was reestablished in a different form after World War I. In the Polska Roma group, the king holds the title of Sero Rom (in the past,

35490-441: Was a major turning point toward the partitioning of central rule in the Empire. Since his political focus was south of the Alps, he was mostly absent from Germany and issued far-reaching privileges to Germany's secular and ecclesiastical princes to ensure their cooperation. In the 1220 Confoederatio cum principibus ecclesiasticis , Frederick gave up a number of regalia in favour of the bishops, among them tariffs, coining , and

35685-404: Was also -ka (Pawlaczka, Kubeška). With the exception of the -ski/-ska suffix, most feminine forms of surnames are seldom observed in Polish. Generally, inflected languages use names and surnames as living words, not as static identifiers. Thus, the pair or the family can be named by a plural form which can differ from the singular male and female form. For instance, when the male form is Novák and

35880-705: Was built. - The Leśaki loved living in forests and traveled only in forests. - The Berniki, also called Bare Forytka, were later partly referred to as Śleciaki, as they are Warsaw Roma. - The Omśniaki come from Łomża , near Warsaw . - The Marcinki came from all over Prussia . - The Bosaki were known for always going barefoot. - The Ćejaki were a priestly caste and harp makers from Lithuania and East Prussia but became extinct during World War II . - The Kaliszaki come from Kalisz . - The Jaglany were so named because they always ate millet porridge . - The Wengerki came from Austria . - The Warmiaki came from Kaliningrad and Warmia . - The Heladytka originate from

36075-429: Was disturbed during the Salian period. The empire reached the apex of territorial expansion and power under the House of Hohenstaufen in the mid-13th century, but overextension of its power led to a partial collapse. Scholars generally describe an evolution of the institutions and principles constituting the empire, and a gradual development of the imperial role. While the office of emperor had been reestablished,

36270-515: Was endowed "according to custom (...) with all prerogatives, income and benefits", including judicial powers. As Janczy is currently the earliest known "royal" superior of the Gypsies , it is assumed that this institution must have been established during the reign of Władysław IV . There are circumstantial evidence that Janczy was the court bagpiper of this king. Ten years after Karolowicz's elevation, King John Casimir appointed another superior - Sebastian Gałęzowski , this time probably

36465-406: Was mentioned: A Roma is no longer poor, dirty, or cheerful. They also do not beg or pretend to be lowly. Nowadays a Roma drives a high-status car, lives in a fancy mansion, flaunts his wealth, brags that the local authorities and the police are on his pay and thus he is not afraid of anybody. At the same time he is, as before, a swindler, a thief, a hustler, a dodger of military service and a holder of

36660-448: Was most advanced in those territories that were almost identical to the lands of the old Germanic tribes, e.g. , Bavaria. It was slower in those scattered territories that were founded through imperial privileges. In the 12th century the Hanseatic League established itself as a commercial and defensive alliance of the merchant guilds of towns and cities in the empire and all over northern and central Europe. It dominated marine trade in

36855-457: Was not a random journey; it was already known that the Commonwealth offered very favorable privileges and freedom of movement, as the first groups had already established themselves in the Commonwealth and thoroughly scouted the land. The mass migration was therefore very well targeted at the intended destination. The Polish Roma communities are more closed-off and mistrustful of outsiders (Gadje), less "assimilated," and more closely connected to

37050-407: Was only under the rule of Emperor Maximilian I . that harsh laws were renewed and implemented, starting in the year 1500. The injustice of these measures lay in the fact that the government empowered any citizen (German) to arbitrarily harm, punish, and torture the Gypsies if they were captured in the country. However, there are no historical records indicating that the Gypsies were ever oppressed in

37245-444: Was revived in 962 when Otto I was crowned emperor by Pope John XII , fashioning himself as Charlemagne's and the Carolingian Empire 's successor, and beginning a continuous existence of the empire for over eight centuries. From 962 until the 12th century, the empire was one of the most powerful monarchies in Europe. The functioning of government depended on the harmonious cooperation between emperor and vassals; this harmony

37440-406: Was subsequently confronted with more uprisings, renewed excommunication, and even the rebellion of his sons. After his death, his second son, Henry V , reached an agreement with the Pope and the bishops in the 1122 Concordat of Worms . The political power of the Empire was maintained, but the conflict had demonstrated the limits of the ruler's power, especially in regard to the Church, and it robbed

37635-499: Was the norm . Recently, integration into the EU and increased communications with foreigners prompted many Samis to reverse the order of their full name to given name followed by surname, to avoid their given name being mistaken for and used as a surname. Indian surnames may often denote village, profession, and/or caste and are invariably mentioned along with the personal/first names. However, hereditary last names are not universal. In Telugu -speaking families in south India, surname

37830-420: Was the first of the Habsburgs to hold a royal title, but he was never crowned emperor. After Rudolf's death in 1291, Adolf and Albert were two further weak kings who were never crowned emperor. Albert was assassinated in 1308. Almost immediately, King Philip IV of France began aggressively seeking support for his brother, Charles of Valois , to be elected the next king of the Romans. Philip thought he had

38025-403: Was then Germany . King Zyndlon traveled to Austria , then to Bohemia, and finally to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Dukes Andrash and Mihali traveled to Zurich in Switzerland . Duke Andrash continued the journey towards Italy . Public loyalty is neither granted to nor maintained for the Gypsies in the struggle against the unarmed poor, the German Reichstag had no choice but to order

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