Pruning is a horticultural , arboricultural , and silvicultural practice involving the selective removal of certain parts of a plant, such as branches , buds , or roots .
47-481: Pollarding is a pruning system involving the removal of the upper branches of a tree, which promotes the growth of a dense head of foliage and branches. In ancient Rome , Propertius mentioned pollarding during the 1st century BCE. The practice has occurred commonly in Europe since medieval times, and takes place today in urban areas worldwide, primarily to maintain trees at a determined height or to place new shoots out of
94-467: A nut ) per capsule. Capsules containing more than one seed result in flatness on one side of the seeds. The point of attachment of the seed in the capsule (hilum) shows as a large, circular, whitish scar. The capsule epidermis has "spines" (botanically: prickles) in some species, while other capsules are warty or smooth. At maturity, the capsule splits into three sections to release the seeds. Aesculus seeds were traditionally eaten, after leaching , by
141-468: A branch back to the union where the branch connects which the main trunk, called removal cut . Reduction cuts is when you remove a portion of a growing stem down to a set of desirable buds or side-branching stems. This is commonly performed in well trained plants for a variety of reasons, for example to stimulate growth of flowers, fruit or branches, as a preventive measure to wind and snow damage on long stems and branches, and finally to encourage growth of
188-519: A few conifers, such as yews ( Taxus ). The technique is used in Africa for moringa trees to bring the nutritious leaves into easier reach for harvesting. Pollarding is also used in urban forestry in certain areas for reasons such as tree size management, safety, and health concerns. It removes rotting or diseased branches to support the overall health of the tree and removes living and dead branches that could harm property and people, as well as increasing
235-463: A hornless ox or polled livestock . Later, the noun "pollard" came to be used as a verb: "pollarding". Pollarding has now largely replaced polling as the verb in the forestry sense. Pollard can also be used as an adjective: "pollard tree". Pruning The practice entails the targeted removal of diseased , damaged, dead, non-productive, structurally unsound, or otherwise unwanted plant material from crop and landscape plants . In general,
282-572: A log cabin made of buckeye logs and drinking hard cider, causing Ohio to become known as "the Buckeye State". In Geneva , Switzerland , an official chestnut tree is used to indicate the beginning of the Spring ; every year since 1818, the tree is observed by the secretary of the Grand Council of Geneva (the local parliament), and the opening of the first leaf is recorded and announced publicly. Over
329-459: A single dominant leader, branch unions without included bark, and a balanced canopy. Structural pruning does this by developing or maintaining a dominant leader, identify the lowest branches in the canopy, prevent branches below the permanent canopy from growing too large, keeping all branches less than one half the trunk diameter, space main branches along one dominant trunk, and suppress growth on branches with included bark. Subordination pruning
376-417: Is a more efficient way of pruning than with ladders. These bush saws on polls have also been motorized as chainsaws which is even more efficient. Older technology used Billhooks , Kaiser blades and pruning knives. Although still used in some coppicing they are not used so much in commercial forestry due to the difficulty of cutting flush with the stem. Flush cuts happen when you cut into the cambium layer of
423-442: Is a non-invasive solution which in some situations may be more economical and environmentally friendly. Selectively pruning a window of view in a tree. Reducing the height and or spread of a tree by selectively cutting back to smaller branches and in fruit trees for increasing of light interception and enhancing fruit quality. A regular form of pruning where certain deciduous species are pruned back to pollard heads every year in
470-507: Is coming into leaf. The deadwooding process speeds up the tree's natural abscission process. It also reduces unwanted weight and wind resistance and can help overall balance. Preventative and structural pruning can be done to mitigate several issues young trees may have in the future. The structural pruning can reduce tree stress, increase the lifespan of trees, and promotes resistance to damage due to natural weather events. Attributes of trees with good structure include excurrent growth by having
517-423: Is crucial due to the tree being in drastically different conditions than where they naturally grow. Arborists , orchardists , and gardeners use various garden tools and tree cutting tools designed for the purpose, such as secateurs , loppers , handsaws , or chainsaws . Additionally in forestry, pole pruners and pole saws are commonly used and these are often attached to poles that reach up to 5-6 m, this
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#1732876592672564-404: Is done on limbs that will exceed 50% percent of the stem diameter. A reduction cut may be performed while still allowing about 50% of the branch. This is done to help maintain form and deter the formation of co-dominant leaders. Temporary branches may be too large for a removal cut so subordination pruning should be done to slowly reduce a limb by 50% each year to allow the tree to properly heal from
611-482: Is the bottlebrush buckeye, Aesculus parviflora , a flowering shrub. Several other members of the genus are used as ornamentals, and several horticultural hybrids have also been developed, most notably the red horse chestnut Aesculus × carnea , a hybrid between A. hippocastanum and A. pavia . Interpretations of the tree leaves can be seen in architectural details in the Reims Cathedral . The horse chestnut
658-674: Is theorized that this process can also occur in response to lack of water, in order to reduce the surface area where water can be lost. This natural shedding of branches is called cladoptosis . Specialized pruning practices may be applied to certain plants, such as roses , fruit trees , and grapevines . Different pruning techniques may be used on herbaceous plants than those used on perennial woody plants. Reasons to prune plants include deadwood removal, shaping (by controlling or redirecting growth), improving or sustaining health, reducing risk from falling branches, preparing nursery specimens for transplanting , and both harvesting and increasing
705-422: Is within both London and Essex , UK , the majority of which was pollarded until the late 19th century. Here, the light that reaches the woodland floor is limited owing to the thick growth of the pollarded trees. Pollards cut at about a metre above the ground are called stubs (or stubbs). These were often used as markers in coppice or other woodland. Stubs cannot be used where the trees are browsed by animals, as
752-467: The Aceraceae ( maples and Dipteronia ), to be included in the soapberry family (Sapindaceae). The species of Aesculus include: The most familiar member of the genus worldwide is the common horse chestnut, Aesculus hippocastanum . The yellow buckeye, Aesculus flava (syn. A. octandra ), is also a valuable ornamental tree with yellow flowers, but is less widely planted. Among the smaller species
799-472: The Jōmon people of Japan over about four millennia, until 300 AD. All parts of the buckeye or horse chestnut tree are moderately toxic, including the nut-like seeds. The toxin affects the gastrointestinal system, causing gastrointestinal disturbances. The USDA notes that the toxicity is due to saponin aescin and glucoside aesculin , with alkaloids possibly contributing. Native Americans used to crush
846-472: The Japanese horse chestnut, A. turbinata . Species are deciduous or evergreen. Flowers are showy, insect- or bird-pollinated, with four or five petals fused into a lobed corolla tube , arranged in a panicle inflorescence. Flowering starts after 80–110 growing degree days . The fruit matures to a capsule 2–5 cm (1–2 in) diameter, usually globose, containing one to three seeds (often erroneously called
893-660: The Roman name for an edible acorn. Common names for these trees include "buckeye" and "horse chestnut", though they are not in the same order as the true chestnuts, Castanea in the Fagales . Some are also called white chestnut or red chestnut. In Britain, they are sometimes called conker trees because of their link with the game of conkers , played with the seeds, also called conkers. Aesculus species have stout shoots with resinous, often sticky, buds, with opposite, palmately divided leaves, often very large—to 65 cm (26 in) across in
940-402: The amount of foliage in spring for aesthetic, shade and air quality reasons. Some trees may be rejuvenated by pollarding – for example, Bradford pear ( Pyrus calleryana 'Bradford'), a flowering species that becomes brittle and top-heavy when older. Oaks, when very old, can form new trunks from the growth of pollard branches; that is, surviving branches which have split away from
987-423: The crown is to be lifted to. This would be an inappropriate operation if the tree species’ form was of a shrubby nature. This would therefore remove most of the foliage and would also largely unbalance the tree. This procedure should not be carried out if the tree is in decline, poor health or dead, dying or dangerous (DDD) as the operation will remove some of the photosynthetic area the tree uses. This will increase
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#17328765926721034-410: The crown will allow traffic and pedestrians to pass underneath safely. This pruning technique is usually used in the urban environment as it is for public safety and aesthetics rather than tree form and timber value. Crown lifting introduces light to the lower part of the trunk; this, in some species can encourage epicormic growth from dormant buds. To reduce this sometimes smaller branches are left on
1081-534: The cut. As a tree becomes larger the slower it grows. Reducing the larger limbs for eventual removal will allow for the tree to promote new growth rather than using energy in encouraging unwanted limbs to continue to grow. Removing a large branch increases the likelihood of the cut to not heal properly which also may attract insects, diseases and fungus. Crown thinning is the removal of live healthy branches which increases light penetration, air circulation and reduces wind resistance which reduces risks from damage and
1128-417: The decline rate of the tree and could lead to death. If the tree is of great importance to an area or town, (i.e. veteran or ancient) then an alternative solution to crown lifting would be to move the target or object so it is not in range. For example, diverting a footpath around a tree's drip line so the crown lift is not needed. Another solution would be to prop up or cable-brace the low hanging branch. This
1175-529: The dormant period. This practice is usually commenced on juvenile trees so they can adapt to the harshness of the practice. This practice can be used for tree shaping but is also used in specific species which young branches can be sold for floral arrangements. Deadheading is the act of removing spent flowers or flowerheads for aesthetics, to prolong bloom for up to several weeks or promote rebloom, or to prevent seeding . In general, pruning deadwood and small branches can be done at any time of year. Depending on
1222-475: The family Sapindaceae . They are trees and shrubs native to the temperate Northern Hemisphere, with six species native to North America and seven to 13 species native to Eurasia. Several hybrids occur. Aesculus exhibits a classical Arcto-Tertiary distribution . Mexican buckeye seedpods resemble the Aesculus seedpods, but belong to a different genus. Carl Linnaeus named the genus Aesculus after
1269-408: The lower part of the trunk. Excessive removal of the lower branches can displace the canopy weight, this will make the tree top heavy, therefore adding stress to the tree. When a branch is removed from the trunk, it creates a large wound. This wound is susceptible to disease and decay, and could lead to reduced trunk stability. Therefore, much time and consideration must be taken when choosing the height
1316-426: The main branch naturally. In Japan, Daisugi is practiced on Cryptomeria . "Poll" was originally a name for the top of the head, and "to poll" was a verb meaning 'to crop the hair'. This use was extended to similar treatment of the branches of trees and the horns of animals. A pollard simply meant someone or something that had been polled (similar to the formation of "drunkard" and "sluggard"); for example,
1363-522: The main stem stimulates growth from the base, effectively forming a coppice stool instead. Examples of trees that do well as pollards include broadleaves such as beeches ( Fagus ), oaks ( Quercus ), maples ( Acer ), black locust or false acacia ( Robinia pseudoacacia ), hornbeams ( Carpinus ), lindens and limes ( Tilia ), planes ( Platanus ), horse chestnuts ( Aesculus ), mulberries ( Morus ), Eastern redbud ( Cercis canadensis ), tree of heaven ( Ailanthus altissima ), willows ( Salix ), and
1410-422: The main trunk which can happen when you are not precise with pruning cuts and remove a portion of the branch collar which can put the tree at risk of entry cords from forest pathogens . Although there are several different types of pruning they can be simplified into two categories. One of which is cutting the branch back to a specific and intermediate point, called reduction cut , and the other completely removes
1457-405: The number of visitors. Trees adjacent to footpaths and access roads are often considered for deadwood removal. Another reason for deadwooding is amenity value, i.e. a tree with a large amount of deadwood throughout the crown will look more aesthetically pleasing with the deadwood removed. The physical practice of deadwooding can be carried out most of the year though should be avoided when the tree
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1504-420: The parent stem and fall off. This is normally a slow process but can be hastened by high winds or extreme temperatures. The main reason deadwooding is performed is safety. Situations that usually demand removal of deadwood include trees that overhang public roads, houses, public areas, power lines, telephone cables and gardens. Trees located in wooded areas are usually assessed as lower risk but assessments consider
1551-454: The possibility of pest infestation. Crown raising involves the removal of the lower branches to a given height. The height is achieved by the removal of whole branches or removing the parts of branches which extend below the desired height. The branches are normally not lifted to more than one third of the tree's total height. Crown lifting is done for access; these being pedestrian, vehicle or space for buildings and street furniture. Lifting
1598-462: The practice is sometimes used for ornamental trees, such as crape myrtles in southern states of the US. Pollarding tends to make trees live longer by maintaining them in a partially juvenile state and by reducing the weight and windage of the top part of the tree. Older pollards often become hollow, so it can be difficult to determine age accurately. Pollards tend to grow slowly, with denser growth-rings in
1645-612: The reach of grazing animals. Traditionally, people pollarded trees for one of two reasons: for fodder to feed livestock or for wood . Fodder pollards produced "pollard hay" for livestock feed; they were pruned at intervals of two to six years so their leafy material would be most abundant. Wood pollards were pruned at longer intervals of eight to fifteen years, a pruning cycle tending to produce upright poles favored for fencing and boat construction. Supple young willow or hazel branches may be harvested as material for weaving baskets, fences, and garden constructions such as bowers . Nowadays,
1692-468: The regrowing shoots are below the browse line. As with coppicing, only species with vigorous epicormic growth may be pollarded. In these species (which include many broadleaved trees but few conifers), removal of the main apical stems releases the growth of many dormant buds under the bark on the lower part of the tree. Trees without this growth will die without their leaves and branches. Some smaller tree species do not readily form pollards, because cutting
1739-496: The regrown stems may be cut in a season – this is thought to reduce the chances of death of the tree when recutting long-neglected pollards. Pollarding was preferred over coppicing in wood-pastures and other grazed areas, because animals would browse the regrowth from coppice stools. Historically in England , the right to pollard or "lop" was often granted to local people for fuel on common land or in royal forests ; this
1786-483: The season, on spurs that form on wood that has matured the year before, such as apples, should be pruned right after flowering as later pruning will sacrifice flowers the following season. Forsythia , azaleas and lilacs all fall into this category. Aesculus The genus Aesculus ( / ˈ ɛ s k j ʊ l ə s / or / ˈ aɪ s k j ʊ l ə s / ), with species called buckeye and horse chestnut , comprises 13–19 species of flowering plants in
1833-487: The seeds and the resulting mash was thrown into still or sluggish waterbodies to stun or kill fish. They then boiled and drained (leached) the fish at least three times to dilute the toxin's effects. New shoots from the seeds also have been known to kill grazing cattle. The genus was considered to be in the ditypic family Hippocastanaceae along with Billia , but phylogenetic analyses of morphological and molecular data have more recently caused this family, along with
1880-513: The smaller the branch that is cut, the easier it is for a woody plant to compartmentalize the wound and thus limit the potential for pathogen intrusion and decay . It is therefore preferable to make any necessary formative structural pruning cuts to young plants, rather than removing large, poorly placed branches from mature plants. Woody plants may undergo a process referred to as "self-pruning", where they will drop twigs or branches which are no longer producing more energy than they require. It
1927-604: The species, many temperate plants can be pruned either during dormancy in winter, or, for species where winter frost can harm a recently pruned plant, after flowering is completed. In the temperate areas of the northern hemisphere autumn pruning should be avoided, as the spores of disease and decay fungi are abundant at this time of year. Some woody plants tend to bleed profusely from cuts, such as mesquite and maple . Some callus over slowly, such as magnolia . In this case, they are better pruned during active growth when they can more readily heal. Woody plants that flower early in
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1974-438: The stems in a desirable direction. In orchards, fruit trees are often lopped to encourage regrowth and to maintain a smaller tree for ease of picking fruit. The pruning regime in orchards is more planned and the productivity of each tree is an important factor. Branches die off for a number of reasons including sunlight deficiency, pest and disease damage, and root structure damage. A dead branch will at some point decay back to
2021-482: The years immediately after cutting. As in coppicing , pollarding is to encourage the tree to produce new growth on a regular basis to maintain a supply of new wood for various purposes, particularly for fuel . In some areas, dried leafy branches are stored as winter fodder for stock. Depending on the use of the cut material, the length of time between cutting will vary from one year for tree hay or withies , to five years or more for larger timber. Sometimes, only some of
2068-489: The years, four different horse chestnut trees have been used for these recordings. In North America, several native American tribes, particularly in the western and central United States, such as Miwok , Pomo, Yokut, Maidu, historically used Buckeye trees ( Aesculus spp. ) like California Buckeye to harvest fish by utilizing the saponins , which had been extracted by the plant's seeds. These tribes used crushed Buckeye nuts to release saponins into streams or shallow water, where
2115-444: The yield or quality of flowers and fruits. Branch wood is an individual stem that grows off of another stem. Trunk wood is the main stem of a tree which individual stems grow out of. This refers to the area below the union of where branch wood attaches with the trunk/stem wood. This can often appear raised. This refers to the junction between branch wood and trunk/stem wood. It usually looks raised. Pruning in an urban setting
2162-452: Was not native to Britain and was only introduced from Europe in 1650 (on the estates of both Dawyck House and Stobo Castle ). The leaf of Aesculus was the official symbol of Kyiv on its coat of arms used from 1969 to 1995. It remains an official symbol of Kyiv to this day. In the 1840 U.S. presidential campaign , candidate William Henry Harrison called himself the "log cabin and hard cider candidate", portraying himself sitting in
2209-491: Was part of the right of estover . An incidental effect of pollarding in woodland is the encouragement of underbrush growth due to increased light reaching the woodland floor. This can increase species diversity. However, in woodland where pollarding was once common but has now ceased, the opposite effect occurs, as the side and top shoots develop into trunk-sized branches. An example of this can be seen in Epping Forest , which
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