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57-513: The plaza became famous in the 1960s for its street fair. Over time, in addition to genuine artisans and craftspeople, the fair has attracted street vendors and merchants of a wide variety of merchandise. At present, the Government of the City of Buenos Aires has reorganized the fair, encouraging the participation of those artisans whose work is original and authentic and discouraging those whose merchandise

114-429: A broader range of colors and to render the dyes more stable for washing and general use. Different classes of dyes are used for different types of fiber and at different stages of the textile production process, from loose fibers through yarn and cloth to complete garments. Acrylic fibers are dyed with basic dyes, while nylon and protein fibers such as wool and silk are dyed with acid dyes , and polyester yarn

171-420: A drying and softening operation, and may include splitting, shaving, dyeing , whitening or other methods. For some leathers, tanners apply a surface coating, called "finishing". Finishing operations can include oiling, brushing, buffing, coating, polishing, embossing, glazing , or tumbling , among others. Leather can be oiled to improve its water resistance. This currying process after tanning supplements

228-432: A flexible form that does not become putrid when rewetted. Many tanning methods and materials exist. The typical process sees tanners load the hides into a drum and immerse them in a tank that contains the tanning "liquor". The hides soak while the drum slowly rotates about its axis, and the tanning liquor slowly penetrates through the full thickness of the hide. Once the process achieves even penetration, workers slowly raise

285-580: A location in the City of Buenos Aires , Argentina is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . 34°35′09″S 58°23′27″W  /  34.5858°S 58.3909°W  / -34.5858; -58.3909 Leather Leather is a strong, flexible and durable material obtained from the tanning , or chemical treatment, of animal skins and hides to prevent decay. The most common leathers come from cattle , sheep , goats, equine animals, buffalo, pigs and hogs, and aquatic animals such as seals and alligators. Leather can be used to make

342-436: A piece of cotton dyed with a vegetable dye was recovered from the archaeological site at Mohenjo-daro (3rd millennium BCE). The dye used in this case was madder , which, along with other dyes such as indigo , was introduced to other regions through trade. Natural insect dyes such as Cochineal and kermes and plant-based dyes such as woad , indigo and madder were important elements of the economies of Asia and Europe until

399-407: A practical and chemical understanding of how each fabric responded differently to the dye, how much it would shrink, how much color it would absorb, developing entirely new forms of quality control to verify possible defects in fabric before dyeing etc. Beyond the industrial advantages of the technique (purchasing fabric in one color, white or natural, you may produce as many colors as you wish etc.),

456-679: A prehistoric cave in the Georgia and dates back to 34,000 BC. More evidence of textile dyeing dates back to the Neolithic period at the large Neolithic settlement at Çatalhöyük in southern Anatolia , where traces of red dyes, possibly from ocher , an iron oxide pigment derived from clay , were found. In China , dyeing with plants, barks , and insects has been traced back more than 5,000 years. Early evidence of dyeing comes from Sindh province in Ancient India modern day Pakistan , where

513-404: A product is dyed varies depending on its intended end use, the cost to the manufacturer, its desired appearance, and the resources available, amongst other reasons. There are specific terms to describe these dyeing methods, such as: There are various terms used in the manufacturing and marketing industries depending on the method used to dye the substrate. For example, "stock dyed" refers to dyeing

570-623: A properly managed facility. A review of the total pollution load decrease achievable according to the United Nations Industrial Development Organization posts precise data on the abatement achievable through industrially proven low-waste advanced methods, while noting, "even though the chrome pollution load can be decreased by 94% on introducing advanced technologies, the minimum residual load 0.15 kg/t raw hide can still cause difficulties when using landfills and composting sludge from wastewater treatment on account of

627-430: A variety of items, including clothing, footwear, handbags, furniture, tools and sports equipment, and lasts for decades. Leather making has been practiced for more than 7,000 years and the leading producers of leather today are China and India. Critics of tanneries claim that they engage in unsustainable practices that pose health hazards to the people and the environment near them. The leather manufacturing process

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684-628: A wet cloth or soaking the leather in water. Various treatments are available such as conditioners . Saddle soap is used for cleaning, conditioning, and softening leather. Leather shoes are widely conditioned with shoe polish . Due to its high resistance to abrasion and wind, leather found a use in rugged occupations. The enduring image of a cowboy in leather chaps gave way to the leather-jacketed and leather-helmeted aviator . When motorcycles were invented, some riders took to wearing heavy leather jackets to protect from road rash and wind blast; some also wear chaps or full leather pants to protect

741-416: Is a process that stabilizes the proteins , particularly collagen , of the raw hide to increase the thermal, chemical and microbiological stability of the hides and skins, making it suitable for a wide variety of end applications. The principal difference between raw and tanned hides is that raw hides dry out to form a hard, inflexible material that, when rewetted, will putrefy , while tanned material dries to

798-681: Is a semi-continuous dyeing process. Waterless dyeing, also known as dry dyeing, is the newly developed and more sustainable dyeing method in which the dyes are applied to the substrate with the help of carbon dioxide or solutions that need less or no water compared to their counterparts. The selection of the appropriate dyes is most important because any given dye does not apply to every type of fiber . Dyes are classified according to many parameters, such as chemical structure, affinity, application method, desired colour fastness i.e. resistance to washing, rubbing, and light. The properties may vary with different dyes. The selection of dye depends on

855-534: Is also used for falconry jesses, soccer footwear, (e.g. Adidas Copa Mundial ) and boxing speed bags. Although originally raised for their feathers in the 19th century, ostriches are now more popular for both meat and leather. Ostrich leather has a characteristic "goose bump" look because of the large follicles where the feathers grew. Different processes produce different finishes for many applications, including upholstery, footwear, automotive products, accessories, and clothing. In Thailand , stingray leather

912-411: Is called bating. Lipases are used in the degreasing operation to hydrolyze fat particles embedded in the skin. Amylases are used to soften skin, to bring out the grain, and to impart strength and flexibility to the skin. These enzymes are rarely used. The natural fibers of leather break down with the passage of time. Acidic leathers are particularly vulnerable to red rot , which causes powdering of

969-405: Is divided into three fundamental subprocesses: preparatory stages, tanning, and crusting. A further subprocess, finishing, can be added into the leather process sequence, but not all leathers receive finishing. The preparatory stages are when the hide is prepared for tanning. Preparatory stages may include soaking, hair removal, liming , deliming , bating , bleaching , and pickling . Tanning

1026-523: Is dyed with dispersed dyes . Cotton is dyed with a range of dye types, including vat dyes , and modern synthetic reactive and direct dyes. The word 'dye' ( / ˈ d aɪ / , DIE ) comes from the Middle English 'deie' , and from the Old English 'dag' and 'dah' . The first known use of the word 'dye' was before the 12th century. The earliest dyed flax fibers have been found in

1083-467: Is higher than the continuous dyeing method. There are three corresponding ways of dyeing with the exhaust method. In continuous method dye is transported to the substrate by passing it through the different stages but continuously. The continuous method is an innovative method where many discrete dyeing stages are combined, such as applying color, fixation and, washing off of unfixed dyes. Types of continuous dyeing are as follows Cold pad batch method

1140-498: Is of low quality or those who simply sell mass-produced items. The artisans, led by the organization, Interferias, must pass an evaluation process and be registered. Visitors to the fair may find a variety of handicraft items, many of them of high quality: leather goods, book restoration, sandals and espadrilles , carved mates , ethnic jewelry , incense , essential oils, spices , satchels , candles , indigenous musical instruments , photography , etc. This article about

1197-452: Is one of the most exploited reptile species in the world in the leather trade. However, it is not endangered and while monitored, trade is legal in most South American countries. Kangaroo leather is used to make items that must be strong and flexible. It is the material most commonly used in bullwhips . Some motorcyclists favor kangaroo leather for motorcycle leathers because of its light weight and abrasion resistance. Kangaroo leather

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1254-469: Is still practiced almost exclusively in Italy, by a handful of premium brands and suppliers who remain committed to the art. There are several terms associated with the process of dyeing: Affinity refers to the chemical attraction between two elements or substances, leading to their inclination to unite or combine, as observed between fiber and dyestuff. Materials that exhibit bleeding tendencies may lead to

1311-420: Is the application of dyes or pigments on textile materials such as fibers , yarns , and fabrics with the goal of achieving color with desired color fastness . Dyeing is normally done in a special solution containing dyes and particular chemical material. Dye molecules are fixed to the fiber by absorption, diffusion, or bonding with temperature and time being key controlling factors. The bond between

1368-399: Is the assessment of hazards to human health and the environment . There are many dyes especially disperse dyes that may cause allergic reactions to some individuals, and the negative impact on the environment. There are national and international standards and regulations which need to comply. The term "direct dye application" stems from some dyestuff having to be either fermented as in

1425-545: Is used in wallets and belts. Stingray leather is tough and durable. The leather is often dyed black and covered with tiny round bumps in the natural pattern of the back ridge of an animal. These bumps are then usually dyed white to highlight the decoration. Stingray rawhide is also used as grips on Chinese swords, Scottish basket hilted swords, and Japanese katanas . Stingray leather is also used for high abrasion areas in motorcycle racing leathers (especially in gloves, where its high abrasion resistance helps prevent wear through in

1482-427: The substrate , which may be a fiber, yarn, or fabric, while meeting specified colour fastness requirements. Tie-dye and printing are the methods where the color is applied in a localized manner. In the exhaust method, the dye is transported to the substrate by the dye liquor's motion. The dye is adsorbed onto the fibre surface and ideally diffuses into the whole of the fibre. Water consumption in exhaust application

1539-528: The 1870s commercial dyeing with natural dyestuffs was disappearing. An important characteristic was light-fastness - resistance to fading when exposed to sunlight using industrial techniques such as those developed by James Morton . Dyeing can be applied at various stages within the textile manufacturing process; for example, fibers may be dyed before being spun into yarns, and yarns may be dyed before being woven into fabrics. Fabrics and sometimes finished garments themselves may also be dyed. The stage at which

1596-589: The 1970s and 80s) are well known for wearing leather clothing. Extreme metal bands (especially black metal bands) and Goth rock groups have extensive black leather clothing. Leather has become less common in the punk community over the last three decades, as there is opposition to the use of leather from punks who support animal rights . Many cars and trucks come with optional or standard leather or "leather faced" seating. In countries with significant populations of individuals observing religions which place restrictions on material choices, vendors typically clarify

1653-441: The artistic advantages of the technique were considerable and in many ways paved the way for the creation of the clothing style today known as Italian Sportswear. These advantages included The disadvantages included: Today, whilst garment dyeing is a diffusely employed as an industrial technique around the globe, predominantly in the production of vintage style cotton garments and by fast fashion suppliers, complex garment dyeing

1710-549: The case of some natural dye or chemically reduced as in the case of synthetic vat and sulfur dyes before being applied. This renders the dye soluble so that it can be absorbed by the fiber since the insoluble dye has very little substantivity to the fiber. Direct dyes, a class of dyes largely for dyeing cotton, are water-soluble and can be applied directly to the fiber from an aqueous solution. Most other classes of synthetic dye, other than vat and surface dyes, are also applied in this way. The term may also be applied to dyeing without

1767-438: The discovery of man-made synthetic dyes in the mid-19th century. The first synthetic dye was William Perkin 's mauveine in 1856, derived from coal tar . Alizarin , the red dye present in madder, was the first natural pigment to be duplicated synthetically in 1869, a development which led to the collapse of the market for naturally grown madder. The development of new, strongly colored synthetic dyes followed quickly, and by

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1824-450: The dye molecule and fiber may be strong or weak, depending on the dye used. Dyeing and printing are different applications; in printing, color is applied to a localized area with desired patterns. In dyeing, it is applied to the entire textile. The primary source of dye, historically, has been nature , with the dyes being extracted from plants or animals . Since the mid-19th century, however, humans have produced artificial dyes to achieve

1881-430: The dyed yarn packages are packed and delivered. Space dyeing is a technique of localized color application that produces a unique multicolored effect. Garment dyeing is the process of dyeing fully fashioned garments subsequent to manufacturing, as opposed to the conventional method of manufacturing garments from pre-dyed fabrics. Up until the mid-1970s the method was rarely used for commercial clothing production. It

1938-679: The event of an accident). For a given thickness, fish leather is typically much stronger due to its criss-crossed fibers. Leather produces some environmental impact, most notably due to: Estimates of the carbon footprint of bovine leather range from 65 to 150 kg of CO 2 equivalent per square meter of production. One ton of hide or skin generally produces 20 to 80 m of waste water, including chromium levels of 100–400 mg/L, sulfide levels of 200–800 mg/L, high levels of fat and other solid wastes, and notable pathogen contamination. Producers often add pesticides to protect hides during transport. With solid wastes representing up to 70% of

1995-439: The fibers before making the yarn, "yarn dyed" refers to dyeing the yarns before producing fabrics, and "piece dyed" or "fabric dyed" refers to dyeing the yarns after they are converted into fabric. The fastness of fiber- and yarn-dyed materials is superior to that of fabrics. The primary objective of the dyeing process is to achieve uniform color application in accordance with a predetermined color matching standard or reference on

2052-452: The following grades: The term "genuine leather" does not describe a specific grade. The term often indicates split leather that has been extensively processed, and some sources describe it as synonymous with bicast leather, or made from multiple splits glued together and coated. In some countries, when it is the description on a product label the term means nothing more than "contains leather"; depending on jurisdiction, regulations limit

2109-440: The leather. Chemical damage can also occur from exposure to environmental factors, including ultraviolet light, ozone, acid from sulfurous and nitrous pollutants in the air, or through a chemical action following any treatment with tallow or oil compounds. Both oxidation and chemical damage occur faster at higher temperatures. There are few methods to maintain and clean leather goods properly such as using damp cloth and avoid using

2166-399: The liquor's pH in a process called basification, which fixes the tanning material to the leather. The more tanning material fixed, the higher the leather's hydrothermal stability and shrinkage temperature resistance. Crusting is a process that thins and lubricates leather. It often includes a coloring operation. Chemicals added during crusting must be fixed in place. Crusting culminates with

2223-480: The lower body. Leather's flexibility allows it to be formed and shaped into balls and protective gear. Subsequently, many sports use equipment made with leather, such as baseball gloves and the ball used in cricket and gridiron football . Leather fetishism is the name popularly used to describe a fetishistic attraction to people wearing leather, or in certain cases, to the garments themselves. Many rock groups (particularly heavy metal and punk groups in

2280-400: The natural oils remaining in the leather itself, which can be washed out through repeated exposure to water. Frequent oiling of leather, with mink oil , neatsfoot oil , or a similar material keeps it supple and improves its lifespan dramatically. Tanning processes largely differ in which chemicals are used in the tanning liquor. Some common types include: In general, leather is produced in

2337-508: The objective in dyeing and affinity (to which material is to be dyed). Fastness of color largely depends upon the molecular size of the dyes and the solubility. Larger molecular size serves better washing fastness results. Indigo dyes have a poor wash and rubbing fastness on denim (cotton), so they are used to produce washed-down effects on fabrics. In contrast, vat or reactive dyes are applied to cotton to achieve excellent washing fastness. The next important criterion for selecting dyes

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2394-424: The package form and the hanks form. Cotton yarns are mostly dyed at package form, and acrylic or wool yarn are dyed at hank form. In the continuous filament industry, polyester or polyamide yarns are always dyed at package form, while viscose rayon yarns are partly dyed at hank form because of technology. The common dyeing process of cotton yarn with reactive dyes at package form is as follows: After this process,

2451-598: The pioneering of not just the industrial use of traditional garment dyeing (dyeing simple cotton or wool garments) but, more importantly, the technique of “complex garment dyeing” which involved dyeing fully fashioned garments which had been constructed from multiple fabric or fiber types (e.g. a jacket made from both nylon and cotton, or linen, nylon and polyurethane coated cotton) in the same bath. Up until its development by Osti (for his clothing brand C.P. Company ), this technique had never been successfully industrially applied in any context. The complexity lay in developing both

2508-530: The regulations currently in force in some countries." In Kanpur , the self-proclaimed "Leather City of World"—with 10,000 tanneries as of 2011 and a city of three million on the banks of the Ganges —pollution levels were so high, that despite an industry crisis, the pollution control board decided to shut down 49 high-polluting tanneries out of 404 in July 2009. In 2003 for instance, the main tanneries' effluent disposal unit

2565-468: The shell. It is prized for its mirror-like finish and anti-creasing properties. Lamb and deerskin are used for soft leather in more expensive apparel. Deerskin is widely used in work gloves and indoor shoes. Reptilian skins, such as alligator , crocodile, and snake , are noted for their distinct patterns that reflect the scales of their species. This has led to hunting and farming of these species in part for their skins. The Argentine black and white tegu

2622-537: The source of leather in their products. Such labeling helps facilitate religious observance, so, for example, a Muslim will not accidentally purchase pigskin or a Hindu can avoid cattleskin. Such taboos increase the demand for religiously neutral leathers such as ostrich and deer . Judaism forbids the comfort of wearing leather shoes on Yom Kippur , Tisha B'Av , and during mourning. Also, see Leather in Judaism , Teffilin and Torah Scroll . Jainism prohibits

2679-610: The staining of white or light-colored fabrics in contact with them while in a wet state. The phenomenon of color fading from a fabric or yarn upon immersion in water, solvent, or a comparable liquid medium, arises due to inadequate dyeing or the utilization of inferior quality dyes. Fabric can experience undesired color absorption, resulting in staining, when exposed to water, dry-cleaning solvent, or similar liquids containing unintended dyestuffs or coloring materials. Additionally, direct contact with other dyed materials may cause color transfer through bleeding or sublimation. Stripping

2736-400: The surface and a change in consistency. Damage from red rot is aggravated by high temperatures and relative humidities. Although it is chemically irreversible, treatments can add handling strength and prevent disintegration of red rotted leather. Exposure to long periods of low relative humidities (below 40%) can cause leather to become desiccated, irreversibly changing the fibrous structure of

2793-440: The term's use in product labelling. Today, most leather is made of cattle (cow) hides, which constitute about 65% of all leather produced. Other animals that are used include sheep (about 13%), goats (about 11%), and pigs (about 10%). Obtaining accurate figures from around the world is difficult, especially for areas where the skin may be eaten. There are significant regional differences in leather production: i.e. goat leather

2850-557: The use of mordants to fix the dye once it is applied. Mordants were often required to alter the hue and intensity of natural dyes and improve color fastness . Chromium salts were until recently extensively used in dyeing wool with synthetic mordant dyes. These were used for economical high color fastness dark shades such as black and navy . Environmental concerns have now restricted their use, and they have been replaced with reactive and metal complex dyes that do not require mordant. There are many forms of yarn dyeing. Common forms are

2907-647: The use of leather, since it is obtained by killing animals. Many forms of artificial leather have been developed, usually involving polyurethane or vinyl coatings applied to a cloth backing. Many names and brands for such artificial leathers exist, including "pleather", a portmanteau of "plastic leather", and the brand name Naugahyde . Another alternative is cultured leather which is lab-grown using cell-culture methods, mushroom-based materials and gelatin-based textile made by upcycling meat industry waste. Leather made of fungi or mushroom-based materials are completely biodegradable. Dyeing Dyeing

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2964-457: The weekend of 8 April 2017 in the neighborhood. The higher cost associated with the treatment of effluents than to untreated effluent discharging leads to illegal dumping to save on costs. For instance, in Croatia in 2001, proper pollution abatement cost US$ 70–100 per ton of raw hides processed against $ 43/t for irresponsible behavior. In November 2009, one of Uganda's main leather making companies

3021-724: The wet weight of the original hides, the tanning process represents a considerable strain on water treatment installations. Leather biodegrades slowly—taking 25 to 40 years to decompose . However, vinyl and petrochemical-derived materials take 500 or more years to decompose. Tanning is especially polluting in countries where environmental regulations are lax, such as in India, the world's third-largest producer and exporter of leather. To give an example of an efficient pollution prevention system, chromium loads per produced tonne are generally abated from 8 kg to 1.5 kg. VOC emissions are typically reduced from 30 kg/t to 2 kg/t in

3078-544: Was caught directly dumping waste water into a wetland adjacent to Lake Victoria . Enzymes like proteases , lipases , and amylases have an important role in the soaking, dehairing, degreasing, and bating operations of leather manufacturing. Proteases are the most commonly used enzymes in leather production. The enzyme must not damage or dissolve collagen or keratin , but should hydrolyze casein , elastin , albumin , globulin -like proteins, and nonstructural proteins that are not essential for leather making. This process

3135-576: Was dumping 22 tonnes of chromium-laden solid waste per day in the open. In the Hazaribagh neighborhood of Dhaka in Bangladesh , chemicals from tanneries end up in Dhaka's main river. Besides the environmental damage, the health of both local factory workers and the end consumer is also negatively affected. After approximately 15 years of ignoring high court rulings, the government shut down more than 100 tanneries

3192-546: Was historically called "Turkey" or "Morocco" due to its association with the Middle East, while pig skin had historically been used the most in Germany. Other animals mentioned below only constitute a fraction of a percent of total leather production. Horse hides are used to make particularly durable leathers. Shell cordovan is a horse leather made not from the outer skin but from an under layer, found only in equine species, called

3249-462: Was used domestically, to overdye old, worn and faded clothes, and also by resellers of used or surplus military clothing. The first notable industrial use of the technique was made by Benetton , which garment dyed its Shetland wool knitwear. In the mid-1970s the Bologna clothing designer Massimo Osti began experimenting with the garment dyeing technique. His experimentation over the next decade, led to

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