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57-440: Drivetrains usually feature a gear known as the pinion, which may vary in different systems, including In rack and pinion systems, the pinion is the round gear that engages and moves along the linear rack. This engineering-related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Drivetrain A drivetrain (also frequently spelled as drive train or sometimes drive-train ) or transmission system ,

114-521: A flywheel ) or as electrical energy (as in a battery or supercapacitor ). Two minor incidents were reported during testing of KERS systems in 2008 . The first occurred when the Red Bull Racing team tested their KERS battery for the first time in July: it malfunctioned and caused a fire scare that led to the team's factory being evacuated. The second was less than a week later when a BMW Sauber mechanic

171-577: A charging socket (therefore relying on the engine or regenerative braking to charge the batteries) are considered to be mild hybrids . Regenerative braking Regenerative braking is an energy recovery mechanism that slows down a moving vehicle or object by converting its kinetic energy or potential energy into a form that can be either used immediately or stored until needed. Typically, regenerative brakes work by driving an electric motor in reverse to recapture energy that would otherwise be lost as heat during braking, effectively turning

228-427: A combination of the two. The most common types of internal combustion engines are: Most purely electric vehicles use batteries for energy storage and are referred to as battery electric vehicles . Vehicles with both internal combustion engines and electric motors are called hybrid vehicles . If a hybrid vehicle includes a charging socket, it is considered to be a plug-in hybrid , while vehicles that do not include

285-418: A contributing factor in the fatal crash of Jules Bianchi at the 2014 Japanese Grand Prix . Bosch Motorsport Service is developing a KERS for use in motor racing. These electricity storage systems for hybrid and engine functions include a lithium-ion battery with scalable capacity or a flywheel , a four to eight kilogram electric motor (with a maximum power level of 60 kW or 80 hp), as well as

342-689: A drive motor in each front wheel with a second set of parallel windings ( bifilar coil ) for regenerative braking. The Orwell Electric Truck introduced by Ransomes, Sims & Jefferies in England during WW1 used regenerative braking switched in by the driver. In England, "automatic regenerative control" was introduced to tramway operators by John S. Raworth's Traction Patents 1903–1908, offering them economic and operational benefits as explained in some detail by his son Alfred Raworth . These included tramway systems at Devonport (1903), Rawtenstall , Birmingham , Crystal Palace-Croydon (1906), and many others. Slowing

399-401: A kinetic energy recovery system" in 2007. Peugeot was the first manufacturer to unveil a fully functioning LMP1 car in the form of the 908 HY at the 2008 Autosport 1000 km race at Silverstone. On electric bicycles, regenerative braking can be used in principle. However, as of 2024 it is rarely used on bicycles, mainly because it requires a direct-drive hub motor (while many bicycles use

456-450: A maximum recuperative braking force of 750  kN . From Riksgränsen on the national border to the Port of Narvik, the trains use only a fifth of the power they regenerate. The regenerated energy is sufficient to power the empty trains back up to the national border. Any excess energy from the railway is pumped into the power grid to supply homes and businesses in the region, and the railway

513-833: A mid-drive motor which drives the chain), and because it cannot be combined with a freewheel mechanism. Also, the amount of energy regenerated is typically too low to be worthwhile. Regenerative braking is also possible on a non-electric bicycle. The United States Environmental Protection Agency , working with students from the University of Michigan , developed the hydraulic Regenerative Brake Launch Assist (RBLA). Many hybrid electric and fully electric vehicles employ regenerative braking in conjunction with friction braking, Regenerative braking systems are not able to fully emulate conventional brake function for drivers, but there are continuing advancements. The calibrations used to determine when energy will be regenerated and when friction braking

570-410: A serious accident at Rawtenstall, an embargo was placed on this form of traction in 1911; the regenerative braking system was reintroduced twenty years later. Regenerative braking has been in extensive use on railways for many decades. The Baku-Tbilisi-Batumi railway ( Transcaucasus Railway or Georgian railway) started utilizing regenerative braking in the early 1930s. This was especially effective on

627-504: A serious safety hazard: in many early electric vehicles with regenerative braking, the same controller positions were used to apply power and to apply the regenerative brake, with the functions being swapped by a separate manual switch. This led to a number of serious accidents when drivers accidentally accelerated when intending to brake, such as the runaway train accident in Wädenswil, Switzerland in 1948, which killed twenty-one people. In

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684-510: Is rectified for DC motors). In areas where there is a constant need for power unrelated to moving the vehicle, such as electric train heat or air conditioning , this load requirement can be utilized as a sink for the recovered energy via modern AC traction systems . This method has become popular with North American passenger railroads where head end power loads are typically in the area of 500 kW year round. Using HEP loads in this way has prompted recent electric locomotive designs such as

741-490: Is a net generator of electricity. Electric cars used regenerative braking since the earliest experiments, but this initially required the driver to flip switches between various operational modes in order to use it. The Baker Electric Runabout and the Owen Magnetic were early examples, which used many switches and modes controlled by an expensive "black box" or "drum switch" as part of their electrical system. These, like

798-564: Is available. The 240 mm diameter flywheel weighs 5.0 kg and revolves at up to 64,500 rpm. Maximum torque is 18 Nm (13.3 ftlbs). The system occupies a volume of 13 litres. Formula One have stated that they support responsible solutions to the world's environmental challenges, and the FIA allowed the use of 60 kW (82 PS; 80 hp) KERS in the regulations for the 2009 Formula One season . Teams began testing systems in 2008: energy can either be stored as mechanical energy (as in

855-486: Is converted to unwanted and wasted heat due to friction in the brakes . Similarly, with rheostatic brakes , energy is recovered by using electric motors as generators but is immediately dissipated as heat in resistors . In addition to improving the overall efficiency of the vehicle, regeneration can significantly extend the life of the braking system. This is because the traditional mechanical parts like discs, calipers, and pads – included for when regenerative braking alone

912-400: Is insufficient to safely stop the vehicle – will not wear out as quickly as they would in a vehicle relying solely on traditional brakes. The most common form of regenerative brake involves an electric motor functioning as an electric generator. In electric railways , the electricity generated is fed back into the traction power supply . In battery electric and hybrid electric vehicles,

969-567: Is not by itself sufficient as the sole means of safely bringing a vehicle to a standstill, or slowing it as required, so it must be used in conjunction with another braking system such as friction -based braking. Regenerative and friction braking must both be used, creating the need to control them to produce the required total braking. The GM EV-1 was the first commercial car to do this. In 1997 and 1998, engineers Abraham Farag and Loren Majersik were issued two patents for this brake-by-wire technology. Early applications commonly suffered from

1026-510: Is reduced by regenerative braking on streetcars ( AE ) or trams ( CE ) in Oranjestad, Aruba . Designed and built by TIG/m Modern Street Railways in Chatsworth , USA, the vehicles use hybrid/electric technology: they do not take their power from external sources such as overhead wires when running but are self-powered by lithium batteries augmented by hydrogen fuel cells . The energy of

1083-686: Is similar as it also forms part of the driveline assembly. However, the whole mechanism including the flywheel sits entirely in the vehicle's hub (looking like a drum brake). In the CPC-KERS, a differential replaces the CVT and transfers torque between the flywheel , drive wheel and road wheel. The first of these systems to be revealed was the Flybrid. This system weighs 24 kg and has an energy capacity of 400 kJ after allowing for internal losses. A maximum power boost of 60 kW (82 PS; 80 hp) for 6.67 seconds

1140-414: Is the group of components that deliver mechanical power from the prime mover to the driven components. In automotive engineering , the drivetrain is the components of a motor vehicle that deliver power to the drive wheels . This excludes the engine or motor that generates the power. In marine applications, the drive shaft will drive a propeller , thruster, or waterjet rather than a drive axle , while

1197-451: Is the need to closely match the generated current with the supply characteristics and increased maintenance cost of the lines. With DC supplies, this requires that the voltage be closely controlled. The AC power supply and frequency converter pioneer Miro Zorič and his first AC power electronics have also enabled this to be possible with AC supplies. The supply frequency must also be matched (this mainly applies to locomotives where an AC supply

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1254-460: Is used on some parts of the London Underground , achieved by having small slopes leading up and down from stations. The train is slowed by the climb, and then leaves down a slope, so kinetic energy is converted to gravitational potential energy in the station. This is normally found on the deep tunnel sections of the network and not generally above ground or on the cut and cover sections of

1311-491: Is used to slow down the vehicle affects the way the driver feels the braking action. The regenerative braking system (RBS) of electric automobiles is the key mechanism for recovering braking energy. With the help of RBS, the efficiency has been significantly improved. RBS affects the fuel economy, emissions, safety, and other functions of electric vehicles. It significantly improves the vehicle's energy recovery rate and helps improve stability and reliability. Power consumption

1368-467: The 2009 Hungarian Grand Prix on 26 July 2009. Their second KERS equipped car finished fifth. At the following race, Lewis Hamilton became the first driver to take pole position with a KERS car, his teammate, Heikki Kovalainen qualifying second. This was also the first instance of an all KERS front row. On 30 August 2009, Kimi Räikkönen won the Belgian Grand Prix with his KERS equipped Ferrari. It

1425-531: The 2009 Le Mans Series season , although it was not capable of scoring championship points. Peugeot plans also a compressed air regenerative braking powertrain called Hybrid Air. McLaren began testing of their KERS in September 2008 at the Jerez test track in preparation for the 2009 F1 season, although at that time it was not yet known if they would be operating an electrical or mechanical system. In November 2008 it

1482-453: The ALP-46 and ACS-64 to eliminate the use of dynamic brake resistor grids and also eliminates any need for any external power infrastructure to accommodate power recovery allowing self-powered vehicles to employ regenerative braking as well. A small number of steep grade railways have used 3-phase power supplies and induction motors . This results in a near constant speed for all trains, as

1539-470: The British Rail Class 03 and British Rail Class 04 diesel shunting locomotives. In a motor vehicle , the powertrain consists of the source of propulsion (e.g. the engine or electric motor) and the drivetrain system which transfers this energy into forward movement of the vehicle. The powertrain consists of the prime mover (e.g. an internal combustion engine and/or one or more traction motors) and

1596-723: The Tokachi 24 Hours race in July 2007. BMW has used regenerative braking on their E90 3 Series as well as in current models like F25 5 Series under the EfficientDynamics moniker. Volkswagen have regenerative braking technologies under the BlueMotion brand in such models as the Volkswagen Golf Mk7 and Mk7 Golf Estate / Wagon models, other VW group brands like SEAT , Skoda and Audi . KTM racing boss Harald Bartol has revealed that

1653-451: The traction motor connections are altered to turn them into electrical generators. The motor fields are connected across the main traction generator (MG) and the motor armatures are connected across the load. The MG now excites the motor fields. The rolling locomotive or multiple unit wheels turn the motor armatures, and the motors act as generators, either sending the generated current through onboard resistors ( dynamic braking ) or back into

1710-557: The traction motor into a generator. Feeding power backwards through the system like this allows the energy harvested from deceleration to resupply an energy storage solution such as a battery or a capacitor . Once stored, this power can then be later used to aid forward propulsion . Because of the electrified vehicle architecture required for such a braking system, automotive regenerative brakes are most commonly found on hybrid and electric vehicles . This method contrasts with conventional braking systems, where excess kinetic energy

1767-640: The 1950s and is exemplified in such systems as the Zytek , Flybrid, Torotrak and Xtrac used in F1. Differential based systems also exist such as the Cambridge Passenger/Commercial Vehicle Kinetic Energy Recovery System (CPC-KERS). Xtrac and Flybrid are both licensees of Torotrak's technologies, which employ a small and sophisticated ancillary gearbox incorporating a continuously variable transmission (CVT). The CPC-KERS

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1824-535: The 2020s, most vehicles equipped with regenerative braking can completely halt reasonably quickly in One Pedal Driving mode. Some car models do not illuminate the braking light when engaging in regenerative braking, leading to safety concerns. Most regulations do not mandate the illumination of a braking light when the vehicle decelerates through regenerative braking. The One Pedal Driving (OPD) mode also lead to concerns over sudden unintended acceleration (SUA), as

1881-455: The FOTA teams agreeing to the use of KERS devices once more, meant that KERS returned for the 2011 season. This is still optional as it was in the 2009 season; in the 2011 season 3 teams elected not to use it. For the 2012 season , only Marussia and HRT raced without KERS, and by 2013, with the withdrawal of HRT, all 11 teams on the grid were running KERS. In the 2014 season , the power output of

1938-497: The KERS controller for power and battery management. Bosch also offers a range of electric hybrid systems for commercial and light-duty applications. Automakers including Honda have been testing KERS systems. At the 2008 1,000 km of Silverstone , Peugeot Sport unveiled the Peugeot 908 HY , a hybrid electric variant of the diesel 908, with KERS. Peugeot planned to campaign the car in

1995-494: The Krieger design, could only practically be used on downhill portions of a trip, and had to be manually engaged. Improvements in electronics allowed this process to be fully automated, starting with 1967's AMC Amitron experimental electric car. Designed by Gulton Industries the motor controller automatically began battery charging when the brake pedal was applied. Many modern hybrid and electric vehicles use this technique to extend

2052-522: The MGU-K (The replacement of the KERS and part of the ERS system that also includes a turbocharger waste heat recovery system) was increased from 60 kW to 120 kW and it was allowed to recover 2 mega- joules per lap. This was to balance the sport's move from 2.4-litre V8 engines to 1.6-litre V6 engines. The fail-safe settings of the brake-by-wire system that now supplements KERS came under examination as

2109-540: The Metropolitan and District Lines. What are described as dynamic brakes (" rheostatic brakes " in British English) on electric traction systems, unlike regenerative brakes, dissipate electric energy as heat rather than using it, by passing the current through large banks of resistors . Vehicles that use dynamic brakes include forklift trucks , diesel-electric locomotives , and trams . This heat can be used to warm

2166-450: The actual engine might be similar to an automotive engine. Other machinery, equipment and vehicles may also use a drivetrain to deliver power from the engine(s) to the driven components. In contrast, the powertrain is considered to include both the engine and/or motor(s) as well as the drivetrain. The function of the drivetrain is to couple the engine that produces the power to the driving wheels that use this mechanical power to rotate

2223-553: The axle. This connection involves physically linking the two components, which may be at opposite ends of the vehicle and so requiring a long propeller shaft or drive shaft . The operating speed of the engine and wheels are also different and must be matched by the correct gear ratio . As the vehicle speed changes, the ideal engine speed must remain approximately constant for efficient operation and so this gearbox ratio must also be changed, either manually, automatically or by an automatic continuous variation . The precise components of

2280-404: The driver could confuse the accelerator as the brake in stressful situations when the latter is seldomly used during OPD driving. Electric motors , when used in reverse, function as generators and will then convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. Vehicles propelled by electric motors use them as generators when using regenerative braking, braking by transferring mechanical energy from

2337-430: The drivetrain - all of the components that convert the prime mover's power into movement of the vehicle (e.g. the transmission , driveshafts , differential and axles ); whereas the drivetrain does not include the power source and consists of the transmission, driveshafts, differential and axles. Most passenger cars and commercial vehicles are powered by either an internal combustion engine , electric motor (s) or

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2394-512: The drivetrain vary, according to the type of vehicle. Some typical examples: The final drive is the last in the set of components which delivers torque to the drive wheels . In a road vehicle, it incorporates the differential . In a railway vehicle, it sometimes incorporates the reversing gear. Examples include the Self-Changing Gears RF 28 (used in many first-generation diesel multiple units of British Railways ) and RF 11 used in

2451-423: The energy is stored chemically in a battery , electrically in a bank of capacitors , or mechanically in a rotating flywheel . Hydraulic hybrid vehicles use hydraulic motors to store energy in the form of compressed air . In a hydrogen fuel cell powered vehicle, the electrical energy generated by the motor is stored chemically in a battery, similar to battery and hybrid electric vehicles. Regenerative braking

2508-483: The factory raced with a secret kinetic energy recovery system (KERS) fitted to Tommy Koyama 's motorcycle during the 2008 season-ending 125cc Valencian Grand Prix . This was against the rules, so they were banned from doing it afterwards. Automobile Club de l'Ouest , the organizer behind the annual 24 Hours of Le Mans event and the Le Mans Series , was "studying specific rules for LMP1 that will be equipped with

2565-416: The main reasons that not all cars used KERS immediately is because it raises the car's center of gravity, and reduces the amount of ballast that is available to balance the car so that it is more predictable when turning. FIA rules also limit the exploitation of the system. The concept of transferring the vehicle's kinetic energy using flywheel energy storage was postulated by physicist Richard Feynman in

2622-414: The motors rotate with the supply frequency both when driving and braking. Kinetic energy recovery systems (KERS) were used for the motor sport Formula One 's 2009 season , and are under development for road vehicles. KERS was abandoned for the 2010 Formula One season , but re-introduced for the 2011 season . By 2013 , all teams were using KERS with Marussia F1 starting use for the 2013 season. One of

2679-410: The range of the battery pack, especially those using an AC drive train (most earlier designs used DC power). An AC/DC rectifier and a very large capacitor may be used to store the regenerated energy, rather than a battery. The use of a capacitor allows much more rapid peak storage of energy, and at higher voltages. Mazda used this system in some 2018 cars, where it is branded i-ELOOP. During braking,

2736-457: The rolling direction. Braking effort is proportional to the product of the magnetic strength of the field windings, multiplied by that of the armature windings. Savings of 17%, and less wear on friction braking components, are claimed for British Rail Class 390s . The Delhi Metro reduced the amount of carbon dioxide ( CO 2 ) released into the atmosphere by around 90,000 tons by regenerating 112,500 megawatt hours of electricity through

2793-486: The speed of the cars or keeping it in control on descending gradients, the motors worked as generators and braked the vehicles. The tram cars also had wheel brakes and track slipper brakes which could stop the tram should the electric braking systems fail. In several cases the tram car motors were shunt wound instead of series wound, and the systems on the Crystal Palace line utilized series-parallel controllers. Following

2850-740: The steep and dangerous Surami Pass . In Scandinavia the Kiruna to Narvik electrified railway, known as Malmbanan on the Swedish side and Ofoten Line on the Norwegian, carries iron ore on the steeply-graded route from the mines in Kiruna , in the north of Sweden, down to the port of Narvik in Norway to this day. The rail cars are full of thousands of tons of iron ore on the way down to Narvik, and these trains generate large amounts of electricity by regenerative braking, with

2907-400: The supply (regenerative braking). Compared to electro-pneumatic friction brakes, braking with the traction motors can be regulated faster improving the performance of wheel slide protection . For a given direction of travel, current flow through the motor armatures during braking will be opposite to that during motoring. Therefore, the motor exerts torque in a direction that is opposite from

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2964-622: The use of regenerative braking systems between 2004 and 2007. It was expected that the Delhi Metro would reduce its emissions by over 100,000 tons of CO 2 per year once its phase II was complete, through the use of regenerative braking. Electricity generated by regenerative braking may be fed back into the traction power supply; either offset against other electrical demand on the network at that instant, used for head end power loads, or stored in lineside storage systems for later use. A form of what can be described as regenerative braking

3021-543: The vehicle interior, or dissipated externally by large radiator -like cowls to house the resistor banks. General Electric's experimental 1936 steam turbine locomotives featured true regeneration. These two locomotives ran the steam water over the resistor packs, as opposed to air cooling used in most dynamic brakes. This energy displaced the oil normally burned to keep the water hot, and thereby recovered energy that could be used to accelerate again. The main disadvantage of regenerative brakes when compared with dynamic brakes

3078-558: The wheels to an electrical load. In 1886 the Sprague Electric Railway & Motor Company, founded by Frank J. Sprague , introduced two important inventions: a constant-speed, non-sparking motor with fixed brushes, and regenerative braking. Early examples of this system in road vehicles were the front-wheel drive conversions of horse-drawn cabs by Louis Antoine Krieger in Paris in the 1890s. The Krieger electric landaulet had

3135-406: Was announced that Freescale Semiconductor would collaborate with McLaren Electronic Systems to further develop its KERS for McLaren's Formula One car from 2010 onwards. Both parties believed this collaboration would improve McLaren's KERS system and help the system filter down to road car technology. Toyota has used a supercapacitor for regeneration on a Supra HV-R hybrid race car that won

3192-480: Was given an electric shock when he touched Christian Klien 's KERS-equipped car during a test at the Jerez circuit . With the introduction of KERS in the 2009 season, four teams used it at some point in the season: Ferrari , Renault , BMW , and McLaren . During the season, Renault and BMW stopped using the system. McLaren Mercedes became the first team to win a F1 GP using a KERS equipped car when Lewis Hamilton won

3249-498: Was the first time that KERS contributed directly to a race victory, with second placed Giancarlo Fisichella claiming "Actually, I was quicker than Kimi. He only took me because of KERS at the beginning". Although KERS was still legal in Formula 1 in the 2010 season, all the teams had agreed not to use it. New rules for the 2011 F1 season which raised the minimum weight limit of the car and driver by 20 kg to 640 kg, along with

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