108-536: Pierre Le Baud or Lebaud ( c. 1450 – 29 September 1505) was a French clergyman and historian known for his writings on the history of Brittany . Lebaud was born around 1450, probably in Saint-Ouën-des-Toits , Maine, on the borders of Brittany. His father, Jean le Baud, was a knight and lord of Saint-Ouen in Maine. His mother, Jeanne de Châteaugiron, was the bastard of Patry de Châteaugiron and Derval. She
216-726: A Celtic stone cult. This unproven connection between druids and megaliths has haunted the public imagination ever since. In Belgium, there are the Wéris megaliths at Wéris, a little town situated in the Ardennes . In the Netherlands, megalithic structures can be found in the northeast of the country, mostly in the province of Drenthe . Knowth is a passage grave of the Brú na Bóinne neolithic complex in Ireland, dating from c. 3500–3000 BC. It contains more than
324-468: A long nineteenth century marked by a modernization of agriculture and by huge increases in population, an emigration to the rest of France began. Although a traditionally conservative region, Brittany saw the rise of workers' movements in cities such as Brest , Lorient and Saint-Nazaire . The First World War was an important turning point for Bretons, who discovered new ways of life, which some would seek to integrate little by little. The question of
432-569: A Breton infant on a spit. A whole street in Rennes, suspected of seditiousness, was demolished leaving the inhabitants homeless. In the conspiracy of Pontcallec of 1720, members of the petty nobility in contact with Spain led a tax revolt against the Régence . The marquis de Pontcallec and three others were tried and executed in Nantes for the uprising. During the 18th century, Nantes rose to become one of
540-563: A certain renaissance. Numerous coins were minted. At the tractus Armoricanus , new forts were built, for example at Brest , Avranches and Le Yaudet . The Notitia Dignitatum (circa 400 AD) mentions a number of local units manning the Tractus armoricanus et nervicanus , for example Mauritanian troops in the territory of the Veneti and Osismii. Frankish laeti were present in Rennes . Christianisation
648-752: A circular mound of earth. Sometimes it is also surrounded by an external stone kerb. Prominent examples include the sites of Brú na Bóinne and Carrowmore in Ireland, Maes Howe in Orkney , and Gavrinis in France. The third tomb type is a diverse group known as gallery graves . These are axially arranged chambers placed under elongated mounds. The Irish court tombs , British long barrows , and German Steinkisten belong to this group. Standing stones, or menhirs as they are known in France, are very common throughout Europe, where some 50,000 examples have been noted. Some of these are thought to have an astronomical function as
756-491: A degree of specialization of activities in a given community (as indicated by studies of the Téviec burial site) and the beginning of an artistic expression. Traces of deaths caused by tools like arrows are also visible on some skeletons, attesting to sometimes violent conflicts between different communities. The Neolithic period (stretching from 5000 BC to 2000 BC.) saw the arrival of an agriculture based on slash-and-burn : land
864-620: A large flat stone supported by three, four, or more standing stones. They were covered by a stone cairn or earth barrow . In Italy, dolmens can be found especially in Sardinia . There are more than 100 dolmen dating to the Neolithic (3500–2700 BC) and the most famous is called Dolmen di Sa Coveccada (near Mores ). During the Bronze Age , the Nuragic civilization built c. 800 Giants' grave ,
972-513: A marker or foresight. In some areas, long and complex "alignments" of such stones exist, the largest known example being located at Carnac in Brittany , France. In parts of Britain and Ireland a relatively common type of megalithic construction is the stone circle , of which examples include Stonehenge , Avebury , Ring of Brodgar and Beltany . These, too, display evidence of astronomical alignments, both solar and lunar. Stonehenge, for example,
1080-624: A number of old megaliths. Some of these ancient structures feature engravings, and the area is a World Heritage Site. Megaliths are also found within the Valley of Marvels in the East Hararghe area. In the mid-2nd millennium CE, the megalithic funerary monuments of Madagascar were constructed amid the emergent period of the Merina Kingdom . Some of the megaliths remain utilized by Malagasy -speakers for funerary practices (e.g., ceremony of turning
1188-464: A period of strong economic and demographic growth in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, due to a period of newfound peace, Brittany experienced a troubled period from the end of the seventeenth century to the French Revolution of 1789. Brittany was dissolved in 1789 and divided among the departments of Côtes-du-Nord , Finistère , Ille-et-Vilaine , Loire-Inférieure and Morbihan . After
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#17328866887621296-601: A rectangular cist. An oversized capstone is placed over the stone slab burial chamber, giving the appearance of a table-top. These megalithic burials date to the early part of the Mumun pottery period (c. 1500–850 BC) and are distributed, with a few exceptions, north of the Han River . Few northern-style megaliths in North Korea and Manchuria contain grave goods such as Liaoning bronze daggers , prompting some archaeologists to interpret
1404-592: A roof. Many portal tombs have been found to contain human remains, but it is debated if their primary function was use as burial sites. The megalithic structures in the northwest of France are believed to be the oldest in Europe based on radiocarbon dating. Though generally known as "dolmens", the term most accepted by archaeologists is "portal tomb". Local names for portal tombs exist in multiple locations, such as anta in Galicia and Portugal, stazzone in Sardinia , hunebed in
1512-470: A single piece of stone, it also can be used to denote one or more rocks hewn in definite shapes for special purposes. It has been used to describe structures built by people from many parts of the world living in many different periods. The most widely known megaliths are not tombs . The most common type of megalithic construction in Europe is the portal tomb —a chamber consisting of upright stones ( orthostats ) with one or more large flat capstones forming
1620-531: A site dated to 70,000 BC., as well as at Goaréva on the island of Bréhat . The Upper Paleolithic is characterized by refined tools like blades and lamellae found on the site of Beg-ar-C'Hastel in Kerlouan , or at Plasenn-al-Lomm on the island of Bréhat. No painted cave is identified in the area, probably because of rising sea levels during the next period. But the nearest cave of this type is known in Saulges . The end of
1728-529: A third of the total number of examples of megalithic art in all Europe, with over 200 decorated stones found during excavations. Nabta Playa at the southwest corner of the western Egyptian desert was once a large lake in the Nubian Desert, located 500 miles south of modern-day Cairo . By the 5th millennium BC, the peoples in Nabta Playa had fashioned an astronomical device that accurately marks
1836-631: A type of chamber tomb , and the term is used to describe the structures built across Atlantic Europe , the Mediterranean, and neighbouring regions, mostly during the Neolithic period, by Neolithic farming communities. They differ from the contemporary long barrows through their structural use of stone. There is a huge variety of megalithic tombs. The free-standing single chamber dolmens and portal dolmens found in Brittany , Denmark, Germany, Ireland, Netherlands, Sweden, Wales , and elsewhere consist of
1944-926: A type of megalithic gallery grave that can be found throughout Sardinia with different structures. The earliest megalithic tombs in Sardinia are the circular graves of the so-called Arzachena culture , also found in Corsica , southern France and eastern Spain. Dolmens are also in Apulia and in Sicily. In this latter region, they are small structures located in Mura Pregne ( Palermo ), Sciacca ( Agrigento ), Monte Bubbonia ( Caltanissetta ), Butera (Caltanissetta), Cava Lazzaro ( Siracusa ), Cava dei Servi ( Ragusa ), Avola (Siracusa), and Argimusco in Montalbano Elicona ( Messina ). Dating to
2052-401: A version of the story of King Lear . Le Baud's writings were first published in print in 1638 by Pierre d'Hozier , who complied several works under the title Histoire de Bretagne, avec les chroniques des maisons de Vitré et de Laval . Arthur de La Borderie observed that there were some significant differences between d'Hosier's edition and a surviving early manuscript of one of the works in
2160-631: Is also notable for the development of megalithic monuments, helped by a significant economic growth. Two of the most ancient sites, the mound of Barnenez and the Petit-Mont, whose buildings date back to 5000 BC., evidenced by their similarities to a unity of culture in the peninsula. This type of construction will eventually evolve and provide more regional variants. In these burial sites were found engravings similar to those observed in Irish sites like Newgrange . Besides these barrows are also present menhirs ,
2268-524: Is characterised in the region by the development of an important megalithic art found in sites such as the cairn of Barnenez, the cairn of Gavrinis, the table of the Merchants of Locmariaquer or the alignments of Carnac. In the course of its protohistory which began around the middle of the third century BCE, a subsoil rich in tin allowed the development of an industry in bronze objects, which led to commercial routes for export to other regions of Europe. It
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#17328866887622376-564: Is commonly dated to the late fourth century, but material evidence is rare. In the 380s, a large number of Britons in the Roman army may have been stationed in Armorica. The 9th century Historia Brittonum states that the emperor Magnus Maximus , who withdrew Roman forces from Britania, settled the troops there. Other British and Welsh authors ( Nennius and Gildas ) mention a second wave of South-Western Britons from Dumnonia , settling in Armorica in
2484-621: Is famous for its solstice alignment. Examples of stone circles are also found in the rest of Europe. The circle at Lough Gur , near Limerick in Ireland has been dated to the Beaker period, approximately contemporaneous with Stonehenge. The stone circles are assumed to be of later date than the tombs, straddling the Neolithic and the Bronze Ages . Megalithic tombs are aboveground burial chambers, built of large stone slabs (megaliths) laid on edge and covered with earth or other, smaller stones. They are
2592-522: Is in Korea. Archaeologists estimate that there are 15,000 to 100,000 southern megaliths in the Korean Peninsula. Typical estimates hover around the 30,000 mark for the entire peninsula, which in itself constitutes some 40% of all dolmens worldwide (see Dolmen ). Northeast Asian megalithic traditions originated from Gojoseon , which was in modern-day Manchuria and North Korea . This was prominent within
2700-551: Is placed over the interment area and is supported by smaller propping stones. Most of the megalithic burials on the Korean Peninsula are of the southern type. As with northern megaliths, southern examples contain few, if any, artifacts. However, a small number of megalithic burials contain fine red-burnished pottery, bronze daggers, polished groundstone daggers, and greenstone ornaments. Southern megalithic burials are often found in groups, spread out in lines that are parallel with
2808-654: Is reclaimed from the forest after having fired and is then used for breeding before sprinkling grass. This evolution was made possible by the development of methods of extracting stones and their shaping. In a quarry in Plussulien , about 5000 dolerite axes were extracted per year, representing 40% of the axes of the Breton peninsula. The dissemination of these tools stretched to Paris basin, and 10 copies of these axes were found to Belgium and southern England. The region also imported yellow blond flint blades from Touraine . This period
2916-557: Is that of Brahmagiri, which was excavated by Wheeler (1975) and helped establish the culture sequence in south Indian prehistory. However, there is another distinct class of megaliths that do not seem to be associated with burials. In South Asia, megaliths of all kinds are noted; these vary from menhirs , rock-cut burial, chamber tomb, dolmens , stone alignment, stone circles and anthropomorphic statue figures. These are broadly classified into two (potentially overlapping) classes (after Moorti, 1994, 2008): Sepulchral (containing remains of
3024-568: Is thus assumed that these structures (which have been characterized as the first known ceremonial architecture) were erected by hunter-gatherers . Göbekli Tepe's oldest structures are about 7,000 years older than the Stonehenge megaliths, although it is doubtful that any of the European megalithic traditions ( see below ) are derived from them. Dolmens and standing stones have been found in large areas in other parts of West Asia starting at
3132-499: Is unclear what these giant anthropomorph statues symbolize. They usually occur in association with megalithic monuments and are located in megalithic burial grounds, and may have been connected with ancestor worship. At a number of sites in southeastern Turkey, ceremonial complexes with large T-shaped megalithic orthostats , dating from the Pre-Pottery Neolithic (PPN, c. 9600–7000 cal BC), have been discovered. At
3240-537: The Gallia Lugdunensis province. The modern département of Côtes-d'Armor has taken up the ancient name. After the reforms of Diocletian, it was part of the diocesis Galliarum . The uprising of the Bagaudae in the 3rd century led to unrest and depopulation, numerous villages were destroyed. Thick layers of black earth in the towns point to urban depopulation as well. The rule of Constantine (307–350) led to
3348-610: The Bibliothèque nationale de France . History of Brittany 48°00′N 3°00′W / 48.000°N 3.000°W / 48.000; -3.000 The history of Brittany may refer to the entire history of the Armorican peninsula or only to the creation and development of a specifically Brythonic culture and state in the Early Middle Ages and the subsequent history of that state. Pre-Brythonic Armorica includes
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3456-611: The Breton language , a botanical treatise, dates from 590 (for comparison, the earliest text in French dates from 843). Most of the early Breton language medieval manuscripts were lost during the Viking invasions. In the Early Middle Ages, Brittany was divided into three kingdoms – Domnonia (Devnent), Cornouaille (Kernev), and Bro Waroc'h (Broërec) – which eventually were incorporated into
3564-523: The Dorset Cursus ), broad terraces, circular enclosures known as henges , and frequently artificial mounds such as Silbury Hill in England and Monte d'Accoddi in Sardinia (the prehistoric step pyramid). In Europe megaliths are, in general, constructions erected during the Neolithic or late Stone Age and Chalcolithic or Copper Age (4500–1500 BC). The megalithic structures of Malta are believed to be
3672-555: The Gulf of Morbihan about 50 salterns have been found so far, mainly dating to the final La Téne period. In 56 BC the area was conquered by the Romans under Julius Caesar . The main resistance came from the Veneti . After their defeat their leaders were killed and the tribe sold as slaves. The Romans called the district Armorica (a Latinisation of a Celtic word meaning "coastal region"), part of
3780-528: The Liao River basin in particular in the early phases. The practice of erecting megalithic burials spread quickly from the Liao River Basin and into the Korean Peninsula, where the structure of megaliths is geographically and chronologically distinct. The earliest megalithic burials are called "northern" or "table-style" because they feature an above-ground burial chamber formed by heavy stone slabs that form
3888-600: The Revolt of 1173–1174 , siding with the rebels against Henry II of England . Henry's son Geoffroy II , then heir apparent to the Duchy of Brittany, resisted his father's attempts to annex Brittany to the possessions of the English Crown. Geoffroy's son Arthur did likewise during his reign (1186–1203) until his death, perhaps by assassination under King John 's orders. In 1185, Geoffroy II signed "Count Geoffrey's Assise" which forbade
3996-564: The Severn-Cotswold tombs of southwest England and the transepted gallery graves of the Loire region in France share many internal features, although the links between them are not yet fully understood. That they often have antechambers or forecourts is thought to imply a desire on the part of the builders to emphasize a special ritual or physical separation of the dead from the living. Megalithic tombs appear to have been used by communities for
4104-772: The Turkish border in the north of Syria close to Aleppo , southwards down to Yemen . They can be encountered in Lebanon , Syria, Iran , Israel , Jordan , and Saudi Arabia . The largest concentration can be found in southern Syria and along the Jordan Rift Valley ; these are threatened with destruction. They date from the late Chalcolithic or Early Bronze Age. Megaliths have also been found on Kharg Island and Pirazmian in Iran , at Barda Balka in Iraq . A semicircular arrangement of megaliths
4212-740: The Veneti , Armoricani , Osismii , Namnetes and Coriosolites . Strabo and Poseidonius describe the Armoricani as belonging to the Belgae . Armorican gold coins have been widely exported and are even found in the Rhineland . Salterns are widespread in Northern Armorica, for example at Trégor, Ebihens and Enez Vihan near Pleumeur-Bodou (Côtes-d'Armor) and the island of Yoc'h near Landuvez (Finistère) of late La Tène date. An estimated 40–55 kg of salt per oven were produced at Ebihens . Each oven
4320-523: The War of the Catholic League , Philippe Emmanuel, Duke of Mercœur ( governor of Brittany and husband of the countess of Penthièvre) sought to have himself proclaimed Duke of Brittany and allied with Philip II of Spain . The latter, on the other hand, considered establishing his daughter Isabella at the head of a reconstituted Brittany. Henry IV , however, brought Mercœur to an honourable surrender. During
4428-425: The house of Rohan , is mentioned by medieval Welsh sources as having led the settlement of Brittany by mercenaries serving Maximus. The Welsh text The Dream of Maxen , which contains semi-factual information about the usurpation of Maximus, states that they married native women after cutting out their tongues to preserve the purity of their language. This can be interpreted as a legend formulated in order to explain
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4536-575: The Anglo-French conflict, although John continued to swear homage to Charles VI . In 1420, duke John V was kidnapped by the count of Penthièvre, grandson of Joanna of Penthièvre. John's wife, duchess Joanna de France besieged the rebels and set free her husband, who confiscated the Penthièvre's goods. In 1464 the Catholicon , a Breton-Latin-French dictionary by Jehan Lagadeuc , was published. This book
4644-744: The Bada, Besoa and Napu valleys. Megaliths in South Asia are dated before 3000 BC, with recent findings dated back to 5000 BC in southern India. Megaliths are found in almost all parts of South Asia. There is also a broad time evolution with the megaliths in central India and the upper Indus valley where the oldest megaliths are found, while those in the east also old shows evidence of continued traditions of living megalithic practices until recently. A large fraction of these are assumed to be associated with burial or post burial rituals, including memorials for those whose remains may or may not be available. The case-example
4752-657: The Bretons united as one in 866 to defeat a Frankish army at the Battle of Brissarthe , near modern-day Le Mans . Two Frankish leaders, Robert the Strong and Ranulf , were killed by the Vikings. The Franks were forced to confirm Brittany's independence from the Frankish kingdoms and expand Salomon's territory. The Vikings tactically helped their Breton allies by making devastating pillaging raids on
4860-532: The Conqueror . A modified form of Salic law was introduced in Brittany as a result. In the midst of the conflict, in 1352, the États de Bretagne or Estates of Brittany were established. They would develop into the Duchy's parlement . Deserted by his nobles, Duke John IV left for exile in England in 1373. The higher nobility of that time, like the house of Coetmen-Penthièvre, or the house of Rougé , descendants of
4968-411: The Duke's daughter, a 12-year-old girl, the heir to the Duchy. The Duchess Anne was the last independent ruler of the duchy as she was ultimately obliged to marry Louis XII of France . The duchy passed on her death to her daughter Claude , but Claude's husband Francis I of France incorporated the duchy into the Kingdom of France in 1532 through the Edict of Union between Brittany and France , which
5076-447: The Early Bronze Age (2200–1800 BC), the prehistoric Sicilian buildings were covered by a circular mound of earth. In the dolmen of Cava dei Servi, archaeologists found numerous human bone fragments and some splinters of Castelluccian ceramics (Early Bronze Age) which confirmed the burial purpose of the artefact. Examples with outer areas, not used for burial, are also known. The Court Cairns of southwest Scotland and northern Ireland,
5184-444: The Frankish border zone known as the " Breton March ". Control over Rennes, Nantes and the Pays de Retz was secured when the Frankish army was defeated once again in 851 at the Battle of Jengland by the Bretons under Erispoe ; consequently Charles the Bald recognised the independence of Brittany and determined the borders that defined the historic duchy and later province. Under Erispoe's successor Salomon , Hastein's Vikings and
5292-414: The Frankish kingdoms. This unfortunately became a double edged sword over the next few decades as the Vikings turned on the Bretons and pillaged Brittany, eventually occupying it. This situation was only overturned with the return of exiled Bretons and an alliance with the Franks. From this point Brittany became a duchy with various levels of fealty to West Francia and eventually France. Bretons took part in
5400-570: The Malian Lakes Region, there are megaliths of an anthropomorphic nature (e.g., face, navel, scarifications ) that date between 600 CE and 700 CE. Between 1350 BCE and 1500/1600 CE, Senegambian megaliths (e.g., tumuli ) were constructed for the purpose of ancestral reverence . In the northwestern region of the Central African Republic , there are megaliths that were created for various purposes (e.g., burial, ritual performances). Between late 3rd millennium BCE and mid-2nd millennium CE, megaliths (e.g., monuments, cairn burials) were constructed in
5508-404: The Netherlands, Hünengrab in Germany, dysse in Denmark, and cromlech in Wales . It is assumed that most portal tombs were originally covered by earthen mounds. The second-most-common tomb type is the passage grave . It normally consists of a square, circular, or cruciform chamber with a slabbed or corbelled roof, accessed by a long, straight passageway, with the whole structure covered by
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#17328866887625616-474: The Palaeolithic period in the region is around 10,000 BC. J.-C. The Mesolithic period covers in the region a period from 10,000 BC. to 5000 BC., corresponding to the end of the last Ice Age and the resulting rise in water level. Steppe vegetation is replaced by a vegetation of birch and pine, and hazel, oak and elms; large mammals give way to animals of smaller size as deer or wild boar. For a time, hunting and gathering continue, as well as fishing and foraging. By
5724-446: The Revolt of the Bonnets Rouges . The rebels, in contact with Holland, were expecting assistance that never came. Sébastian Ar Balp , the leader of the rebellion, was assassinated by the Marquis de Montgaillard whom Ar Balp was holding prisoner. The rebellion was repressed by the duc de Chaulnes , and hundreds of Bretons were hanged or broken on the wheel . Madame de Sévigné claimed that French soldiers garrisoned in Rennes had roasted
5832-414: The Viking warlord Hastein , Nominoe's son Erispoe defeated the Franks at the Battle of Messac . In 845 the Breton army under Nominoe defeated the forces of Charles the Bald , King of West Francia (France), at the Battle of Ballon , in the eastern part of Brittany near Redon and the Frankish border. Nominoe gained control over the major towns of Rennes and Nantes , which had previously formed part of
5940-550: The Welsh (Brythonic) name for Brittany, Llydaw , as originating from lled-taw or "half-silent". In fact, the term "Llydaw" or "Ledav" in early Breton probably derives from the Celtic name Litavis . There are numerous records of missionaries migrating from Britania during the second wave, especially the seven founder-saints of Brittany and Saint Gildas . Many Breton towns are named for these early saints . The Irish saint Colombanus also evangelised Brittany, commemorated at Saint-Columban in Carnac . The earliest text known in
6048-571: The aim of strengthening his power in Brittany, Philip August introduced Peter as administrator of the duchy and tutor of his son, duke Jehan of Brittany . It was Peter Mauclerc who introduced the use of ermines in the Breton coat of arms and came to espouse the cause of his fief's independence with respect to France. While John attempted to regain Brittany in the name of Eleanor, he was defeated in 1214 and finally recognized Alix and Peter. Eleanor ended up in English prison without issue, with her claim never raised ever since. The 14th and 15th centuries saw
6156-420: The ancient megalith cultures in the area and the Celtic tribal territories that existed before Roman rule. After the collapse of the Roman Empire , large scale migration from the British Isles led to the foundation of British colonies linked initially to homelands in Cornwall , Devon , and Wales. The various independent petty Breton states later developed into a Kingdom and then a Duchy of Brittany , before it
6264-608: The burials as the graves of chiefs or preeminent individuals. However, whether a result of grave-robbery or intentional mortuary behaviour, most northern megaliths contain no grave goods. Southern-style megalithic burials are distributed in the southern Korean Peninsula . It is thought that most of them date to the latter part of the Early Mumun or to the Middle Mumun Period. Southern-style megaliths are typically smaller in scale than northern megaliths. The interment area of southern megaliths has an underground burial chamber made of earth or lined with thin stone slabs. A massive capstone
6372-472: The dead) in present-day. Megalithic burials are found in Northeast and Southeast Asia. They are found mainly in the Korean Peninsula . They are also found in the Liaoning , Shandong , and Zhejiang in China, the East Coast of Taiwan , Kyūshū and Shikoku in Japan, Đồng Nai Province in Vietnam and South Asia . Some living megalithic traditions are found on the island of Sumba and Nias in Indonesia . The greatest concentration of megalithic burials
6480-431: The dead), or memorial stones where mortal remains along with funerary objects are placed; and Non-sepulchral including large patterned placement of stones over a wide area. The 'non-sepulchral' type is associated with astronomy and cosmology in South Asia and in other parts of the world (Menon and Vahia, 2010). In the context of prehistoric anthropomorphic figures in India, (Rao 1988/1999, Upinder Singh 2008) note that it
6588-415: The death of Arthur III, Duke of Brittany in 1458. It was later translated into Latin by Bertrand d'Argentré, who continued the narrative up to his own day, in the reign of king Francis I . This manuscript was commissioned by Jean Derval and dedicated to him. In addition to its own value, Le Baud's "Compilation" is important because it incorporates verbatim, and thus preserves, some very early literature of
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#17328866887626696-511: The direction of streams. Megalithic cemeteries contain burials that are linked together by low stone platforms made from large river cobbles. Broken red-burnished pottery and charred wood found on these platforms has led archaeologists to hypothesize that these platform were sometimes used for ceremonies and rituals. The capstones of many southern megaliths have 'cup-marks' carvings. A small number of capstones have human and dagger representations. These megaliths are distinguished from other types by
6804-499: The duke's death he became chaplain to the new duchess, his daughter Anne of Brittany . He served as chaplain to her. He was also Anne de Bretagne’s close adviser and confessor. He seems to have supported Anne's marriage to King Charles VIII of France . Lebaud died on 29 September 1505. The exact date is known because of a note written by his nephew, Bertrand d'Argentré , also a clergyman and historian, who continued Le Baud's work. Le Baud compiled two histories of Brittany. The first
6912-521: The early part of the Late Mumun. An example is found near modern Changwon at Deokcheon-ni, where a small cemetery contained a capstone burial (No. 1) with a massive, rectangularly shaped, stone and earthen platform. Archaeologists were not able to recover the entire feature, but the low platform was at least 56×18 m in size. The Indonesian archipelago is the host of Austronesian and Melanesians megalith cultures both past and present. Living megalith cultures can be found on Nias , an isolated island off
7020-436: The era of Colbert , Brittany benefited from France's naval expansion. Major ports were built or renovated at Saint-Malo , Brest , and Lorient , and Bretons came to constitute a leading component of the French navy. Bretons played an important role in the colonization of New France and the West Indies ( see French colonisation of the Americas ). In 1675, insurgents in the diocese of Cornouaille and elsewhere rose up in
7128-407: The following century to escape the invading Anglo-Saxons and Irish . Modern archaeology supports a two-wave migration. These Britons gave the region its current name and contributed the Breton language , Brezhoneg , a sister language to Welsh and Cornish . (Brittany used to be known in English as Little Britain to distinguish it from Great Britain.) Conan Meriadoc , the mythic founder of
7236-499: The former kings of Brittany, strongly supported the Penthièvre side and was nearly extinguished in the repeated fights between Montfort and Penthièvre's troops. The king of France, Charles V , named as lieutenant-general of Brittany his brother, the duke of Anjou (also a son-in-law of Joanna de Penthièvre). In 1378, the king of France sought to annex Brittany, which provoked the Bretons to recall John IV from exile. The second Treaty of Guérande (1381) established Brittany's neutrality in
7344-568: The highest known being in the Leon region where the largest, that of Kerloas, rises to 9.50 m. The largest ever erected is located in South Brittany in Locmariaquer : the Locmariaquer megaliths amounting to 18.5 m. Engravings can also be found there and their functions are multiple: Indicator of burials, astronomical and topographic features, or reflecting a water worship. The last menhirs were raised around 1800-1500 BC. They can be combined in single or multiple rows, or in semicircles or circles. A variety of tribes are mentioned in Roman sources, like
7452-535: The history of Brittany, such as the Life of Saint Goeznovius and the Chronicle of Nantes . His second chronicle, Cronique des roys et princes de Bretaigne armoricane (Chronicle of the Kings and Princes of Armorican Britain) was completed in 1505, having been written at the request of the Duchess Anne. Le Baud also wrote a number of other works, including Chronicles of Vitre ; Le Discours de l'Origine et Antiquité de Laval and Le Bréviaire des Bretons , an account in verse of British/Breton history which includes
7560-414: The king of France. This protracted conflict, a component of the Hundred Years' War , has passed into legend (see for example Combat of the Thirty and Bertrand de Guesclin ). Its outcome was decided at the Battle of Auray in 1364, where the House of Montfort was victorious over the French party. After the first Treaty of Guérande, Joanna of Penthièvre abdicated her claims to the dukedom in favour of John
7668-458: The larger Breton state. The first two kingdoms derive their names from the homelands of the migrating Britons ( Devon and Cornwall ). Bro Waroc'h ("land of Waroch ") derives from the name of one of the first known Breton rulers, who dominated the region of Vannes (Gwened). The rulers of Domnonia such as Conomor sought to expand their territory (including holdings in British Devon and Cornwall), claiming overlordship over all Bretons, though there
7776-570: The largest concentration of dolmen in West Asia. In Saudi Arabia, only very few dolmen have been identified so far in the Hejaz . They seem, however, to re-emerge in Yemen in small numbers, and thus could indicate a continuous tradition related to those of Somalia and Ethiopia . The standing stone has a very ancient tradition in West Asia, dating back from Mesopotamian times. Although not always 'megalithic' in
7884-625: The long-term deposition of the remains of their dead, and some seem to have undergone alteration and enlargement. The organization and effort required to erect these large stones suggest that the societies concerned placed great emphasis on the proper treatment of their dead. The ritual significance of the tombs is supported by the presence of pre-historic art carved into the stones at some sites. Hearths and deposits of pottery and animal bone found by archaeologists around some tombs also implies that some form of burial feast or sacrificial rites took place there. Further examples of megalithic tombs include
7992-652: The middle valley of the Vilaine river, identified as pebbles arranged in a quarry in Saint-Malo-de-Phily . The oldest traces of habitat are located in Saint-Colomban, in Carnac , and take the form of settlements built in natural shelters (cliffs created by the erosion along the coasts). In addition to pebbles, bifaces are found there, and the site dates to 300,000 BC. J.-C. Acheulian bifacials from this period are found along
8100-624: The most famous of these sites, Göbekli Tepe , parts of the oldest level (III) have been C14-dated as far back as to the mid-10th millennium BC (cal). On this level, 20 great stone circles (up to 20 meters in diameter) with standing stones up to 7 meters high have been identified. At least 5 of these circles have so far (as of 2019) been excavated. Many of the standing stones are richly ornamented with carved reliefs of "[b]ears, boars, snakes, foxes, wildcats, aurochs, gazelle, quadruped reptiles, birds, spiders, insects, quadrupeds, scorpions" and other animals; in addition, some of
8208-462: The most important commercial centres of France. The backbone of Nantes's prosperity was the Atlantic slave trade . Megalith A megalith is a large stone that has been used to construct a prehistoric structure or monument, either alone or together with other stones. There are over 35,000 structures or arrangements in Europe alone, located widely from Sweden to the Mediterranean sea. The word
8316-542: The most megaliths in Ethiopia. In 2nd millennium BCE, Namoratunga (Monolith Circles) megaliths were constructed as burials the eastern Turkana region of northwestern Kenya . Namoratunga , a group of megaliths dated 300 BC, was used by Cushitic -speaking people as an alignment with star systems tuned to a lunar calendar of 354 days. This site was excavated by B. N. Lynch and L. H. Robins of Michigan State University . Additionally, Tiya in central Ethiopia has
8424-435: The ocean, appear to have been abandoned early. Megalithic building then shifted to constructing networks of artificial islands on the coast that supported a multitude of common, royal and religious structures. Dating of the structures is difficult but the complex at Nan Madol on Pohnpei was probably inhabited as early as c. 800, probably as artificial islands, with the more elaborate buildings and religious structures added to
8532-456: The oldest in Europe. Perhaps the most famous megalithic structure is Stonehenge in England. In Sardinia, in addition to dolmens, menhirs and circular graves there are also more than 8000 megalithic structures made by a Nuragic civilisation, called Nuraghe : buildings similar to towers (sometimes with really complex structures) made using only rocks. They are often near giant's grave or the other megalithic monuments. The French Comte de Caylus
8640-510: The presence of a burial shaft, sometimes up to 4 m in depth, which is lined with large cobbles. A large capstone is placed over the burial shaft without propping stones. Capstone-style megaliths are the most monumental type in the Korean Peninsula , and they are primarily distributed near or on the south coast of Korea. It seems that most of these burials date to the latter part of the Middle Mumun (c. 700–550 BC), and they may have been built into
8748-409: The proper place for the Breton language and regional traditions became the central element of a political movement which began to emerge in the same era. A long process of modernization took place from the 1920s through the 1970s, in concert with a movement of cultural reaffirmation. The Paleolithic period of Brittany ranges from 700 000 to 10 000 years BC. Traces of the oldest industries were found in
8856-481: The recognition of the distinction between a Gallo -speaking Britannia gallicana (now called Upper Brittany ) and a Breton -speaking Britannia britonizans (now Lower Brittany ). The Breton War of Succession was fought in 1341–1364. The parties were the half-brother of the last duke, John of Montfort (supported by the English), and his niece, Joanna of Penthièvre , who was married to Charles of Blois , nephew of
8964-697: The regions (e.g., Eastern Adamawa , Oubanguian Ridge, Chad/Congo watershed ) in Central African Republic and Cameroon, throughout various periods (e.g., Balimbé: 2000 BCE – 1000 BCE; Early Gbabiri: 950 BCE – 200 BCE; Late Gbabiri: 200 BCE – 500 CE; Bouboun: 500 CE – 1600 CE), for various purposes (e.g., ritual practices, territorial marking). In the Ethiopian Highlands of Harar , the earliest construction of megaliths occurred. From this region and its megalith-building tradition (e.g., dolmens, tumuli with burial chambers organized in cemeteries),
9072-593: The sacred megalith sites. The fact that the beliefs are alive is a reason that most excavations have been stopped at the sites. Megalithic structures in Micronesia reach their most developed form on the islands of Pohnpei and Kosrae in the Eastern Caroline Islands. On these two islands there was extensive use of prismatic basalt columns to build upland building complexes such as those at Salapwuk on Pohnpei and Menka on Kosrae. These building sites, remote from
9180-524: The sea coast, as Treguennec , Hôpital-Camfrout or Pléneuf . The oldest traces of fire use (in the region but also of occidental Europe) are found on the site of Menez Dregan with a date making them up to 400 000 years BC. The few human groups are then made of hunter-gatherers . From the Middle- Mousterian period, remain two outstanding sites in the region, in Mont-Dol where scrapers were found in
9288-675: The sixth to ninth centuries however, the Merovingian dynasty and the Carolingian dynasty tried to integrate the region into the Frankish kingdom, with limited and ephemeral success. The union of the country as Brittany occurred in 851 under King Erispoë, son of Nominoë, but was disrupted by disputes over succession and Norsemen incursions. Since 939, Brittany was re-established as a Sovereign Duchy with somewhat definite borders, administered by Dukes of Breton houses from 939 to 1166, before falling into
9396-673: The sphere of influence of the Plantagenets and then the Capets . The War of the Breton Succession lasted from 1341 to 1364 against the backdrop of the Hundred Years' War . An autonomous power emerged in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, maintaining a policy of independence from France. The union of Brittany to France occurred in 1532. The Breton province then maintained relative autonomy and benefited from its own institutions. After
9504-656: The stalled cairn at Midhowe in Orkney and the passage grave at Bryn Celli Ddu on Anglesey . There are also extensive grave sites with up to 60 megaliths at Louisenlund and Gryet on the Danish island of Bornholm . Despite its name, the Stone Tomb in Ukraine was not a tomb but rather a sanctuary. In association with the megalithic constructions across Europe, there are often large earthworks of various designs—ditches and banks (like
9612-718: The stones are carved in low profile with stylized human features (arms, hands, loincloths, but no heads ). On the younger level (II) rectangular structures with smaller megaliths have been excavated. In the surrounding area, several village sites incorporating elements similar to those of Göbekli Tepe have been identified. Four of these have Göbekli Tepe's characteristic T-shaped standing stones, though only one of them, Nevalı Çori , has so far been excavated. At Göbekli Tepe itself, no traces of habitation have so far been found, nor any trace of agriculture or cultivated plants, though bones of wild animals and traces of wild edible plants, along with many grinding stones, have been unearthed. It
9720-455: The subdivision of fiefs, thereby reinforcing the Breton feudal system. After the presumed death of Duke Arthur I, with Arthur's full elder sister Eleanor captive under John of England, the Bretons supported Arthur's half younger sister Alix instead. King Philip August of France married Alix to the Capetian prince Peter Mauclerc of Dreux , establishing Peter as regent of Alix. In 1213, with
9828-735: The subsequent traditions in other areas of Ethiopia likely developed. In the late 1st millennium BCE, the urban civilization of Axum developed a megalithic stelae -building tradition, which commemorated Axumite royalty and elites, that persisted until the Christian period of Axum . In the Sidamo Province, the megalithic monoliths of the stelae-building cultural tradition were utilized as tombstones in cemeteries (e.g., Arussi, Konso, Sedene, Tiya, Tuto Felo), and have engraved anthropomorphic features (e.g., swords, masks), phallic form, and some of that served as markers of territory. Sidamo Province has
9936-926: The summer solstice . Findings indicate that the region was occupied only seasonally, likely only in the summer when the local lake filled with water for grazing cattle . There are other megalithic stone circles in the southwestern desert. At Nabta Playa , located in Egypt and broader region of the Eastern Sahara , there is a megalithic cultural complex (e.g., sacrificed cow burial site, solar calendar , altar ) that dates between 4000 BCE and 2000 BCE. Likely part of Copper Age and Bronze Age cultural traditions of megalith-building , megaliths (e.g., dolmens ) were constructed in Mediterranean North Africa. In Cross-River State , Nigeria, there are megalithic monoliths of an anthropomorphic nature. At Tondidarou , in
10044-427: The third and fifth centuries, the first wave of island Bretons were asked by the imperial power to help secure their territory, beginning with a migratory movement that was carried out until the sixth century, and saw the beginnings of many kingdoms in the peninsula. In order to prevent Breton incursion, the neighbouring Frankish kingdom created a Breton borderland incorporating the counties of Rennes and Nantes. From
10152-413: The time of the Neolithic, however, animal domestication and cereal production replace hunting. The population is mainly coastal and larger on the south coast. The skeletons found from this period attest to an average size of 1.59 meters for men and 1.52 m for women. Human technology continues to progress with a reduction in size of stone tools to form microliths. Human societies are more structured, with
10260-939: The tribes of Israel. The tradition of venerating standing stones continued in Nabatean times. Related phenomena, such as cupholes, rock-cut tombs and circles, also occur in West Asia. Megaliths occur in many parts of Melanesia , mainly in Milne Bay Province , Fiji and Vanuatu . Few excavations have been made and little is known about the structures. The megalith tomb Otuyam at Kiriwina has been dated to be approximately 2,000 years old which indicates that megaliths are an old custom in Melanesia. However very few megaliths have been dated. The constructions have been used for different rituals. For example, tombs, sacrifices and rituals of fecundity. Dance sites exist next to some megaliths. In some places in Melanesia rituals are continued to be held at
10368-607: The true sense, they occur throughout the area and can reach 5 metres or more in some cases (such as at Ader in Jordan). This phenomenon can also be traced through many passages from the Old Testament , such as those related to Jacob , the grandson of Abraham , who poured oil over a stone that he erected after his famous dream in which angels climbed to heaven (Genesis 28:10–22). Jacob is also described as putting up stones at other occasions, whereas Moses erected twelve pillars symbolizing
10476-1052: The western coast of North Sumatra , the Batak people in the interior of North Sumatra, on Flores and Sumba island in East Nusa Tenggara and also Toraja people from the interior of South Sulawesi . These megalith cultures remained preserved, isolated and undisturbed well into the late 19th century. Several megalith sites and structures are also found across Indonesia. Menhirs, dolmens, stone tables, and ancestral stone statues were discovered in various sites in Java , Sumatra , Sulawesi , Lesser Sunda Islands , and New Guinea . The Cipari megalith site also in West Java displays monoliths, stone terraces, and sarcophagi. Lore Lindu National Park in Central Sulawesi houses ancient megalith relics such as ancestral stone statues, mostly located in
10584-488: Was about 2 m long. The site dates to the end of the early La Tène or the middle La Tène period. Numerous briquetage remains have been found. At Tregor, boudins de Calage (hand-bricks) were the typical form of briquetage, between 2.5 and 15 cm long and with a diameter of 4–7 cm. At the salterns at Landrellec and Enez Vihan at Pleumeur-Bodou the remains of rectangular ovens have been excavated that are 2.5–3 m long and about 1 m wide, constructed of stones and clay. On
10692-657: Was constant tension between local lords. During the 9th century the Bretons resisted incorporation into the Frankish Carolingian Empire . The first unified Duchy of Brittany was founded by Nominoe . The Bretons made friendly overtures to the Danish Vikings to help contain Frankish expansionist ideas. When the Carolingian empire was divided in 843, Nominoe took advantage of the confusion to consolidate his territory. In alliance with Lambert II of Nantes and
10800-633: Was created during Duke Francis' reign, and involves complex genealogical arguments designed to establish the legitimacy and antiquity of the Montfort dynasty . Known as Compillation des cronicques et ystoires des Bretons (Compilation of the Chronicles and Histories of the Bretons), it tells the stories of the ancient Britons from the mythical Trojan Brut ; the migration of the Britons to Brittany; and Breton history up to
10908-570: Was first used in 1849 by the British antiquarian Algernon Herbert in reference to Stonehenge and derives from the Ancient Greek words " mega " for great and " lithos " for stone. Most extant megaliths were erected between the Neolithic period (although earlier Mesolithic examples are known) through the Chalcolithic period and into the Bronze Age . While "megalith" is often used to describe
11016-607: Was found in Israel at Atlit Yam , a site that is now under the sea. It is a very early example, dating from the 7th millennium BC . The most concentrated occurrence of dolmens in particular is in a large area on both sides of the Jordan Rift Valley , with greater predominance on the eastern side. They occur first and foremost on the Golan Heights , the Hauran , and in Jordan, which probably has
11124-543: Was inhabited by Gallic peoples including the Veneti and the Namnetes in the first centuries BCE before these territories were conquered by Julius Caesar in 57 BCE, and progressively Romanized. As part of Armorica since the Gallo-Roman period, Brittany developed an important maritime trade network near the ports of Nantes , Vannes , and Alet , as well as salting factories along its coasts. When Rome encountered crises in
11232-621: Was registered with the Estates of Brittany. After 1532, Brittany retained a certain fiscal and regulatory autonomy, which was defended by the Estates of Brittany despite the rising tide of royal absolutism. Brittany remained on the whole strongly Catholic during the period of the Huguenots and the Wars of Religion , although Protestantism made some headway in Nantes and a few other areas. From 1590 to 1598, during
11340-674: Was related to the Laval family. His sister, Perrine le Baud, was the wife of Jean d'Argentré and was the grandmother of the Breton historiograph of the Renaissance Bertrand d'Argentré , seneschal of Rennes. Pierre le Baud held several ecclesiastical and aulic offices at the court of Brittany. On entering the church he became attached to the diocese of Nantes. He became cantor and chaplain of Laval Cathedral and went on to serve as chaplain to local dignitary, Guy de Laval, and then to Margaret of Foix , wife of Francis II, Duke of Brittany . After
11448-575: Was the first to describe the Carnac stones . Pierre Jean-Baptiste Legrand d'Aussy introduced the terms menhir and dolmen , both taken from the Breton language , into antiquarian terminology. He mistakenly interpreted megaliths as Gallic tombs. In Britain, the antiquarians Aubrey and Stukeley conducted early research into megaliths. In 1805, Jacques Cambry published a book called Monuments celtiques, ou recherches sur le culte des Pierres, précédées d'une notice sur les Celtes et sur les Druides, et suivies d'Etymologie celtiques , where he proposed
11556-502: Was the world's first trilingual dictionary, the first Breton dictionary and also the first French dictionary. The army of the Kingdom of France, with the help of 5,000 mercenaries from Switzerland and Italy, defeated the Breton army in 1488, and the last Duke of independent Brittany , Francis II , was forced to submit to a treaty giving the King of France the right to determine the marriage of
11664-553: Was unified with France to become a province . After the French Revolution Brittany was abolished as an administrative unit, but continued to retain its distinctive cultural identity. Its administrative existence was reconstituted, in reduced size, as the Region of Brittany in the mid-20th century. The history of Brittany begins with settlement beginning in prehistoric times. The neolithic era , which began around 5000 BCE,
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