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121-592: Philodendron is a large genus of flowering plants in the family Araceae . As of June 2013, the Plants of the World Online accepted 621 species; other sources accept different numbers. Regardless of number of species, the genus is the second-largest member of the family Araceae, after genus Anthurium . Taxonomically, the genus Philodendron is still poorly known, with many undescribed species . Many are grown as ornamental and indoor plants. The name derives from

242-557: A species : see Botanical name and Specific name (zoology) . The rules for the scientific names of organisms are laid down in the nomenclature codes , which allow each species a single unique name that, for animals (including protists ), plants (also including algae and fungi ) and prokaryotes ( bacteria and archaea ), is Latin and binomial in form; this contrasts with common or vernacular names , which are non-standardized, can be non-unique, and typically also vary by country and language of usage. Except for viruses ,

363-427: A bistable organelle at the apical end of each cell. The organelle consists of microtubules and microfilaments in mechanical opposition. It responds to local mechanical perturbations caused by morphogenetic movements. These then trigger traveling embryonic differentiation waves of contraction or expansion over presumptive tissues that determine cell type and is followed by cell differentiation. The cell state splitter

484-462: A consequence of changes in cell adhesive and contractile properties. Following epithelial-mesenchymal transition, cells can migrate away from an epithelium and then associate with other similar cells in a new location. In plants, cellular morphogenesis is tightly linked to the chemical composition and the mechanical properties of the cell wall. During embryonic development, cells are restricted to different layers due to differential affinities. One of

605-425: A few weeks to a year, although most philodendrons take a few months. The spathe will enlarge to hold the maturing berries. Once the fruit are mature, the spathe will begin to open again, but this time it will break off at the base and fall to the forest floor. Additionally, the berries are edible, although they contain calcium oxalate crystals, and have a taste akin to bananas. Many botanical sources will indicate that

726-643: A later homonym of a validly published name is a nomen illegitimum or nom. illeg. ; for a full list refer to the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants and the work cited above by Hawksworth, 2010. In place of the "valid taxon" in zoology, the nearest equivalent in botany is " correct name " or "current name" which can, again, differ or change with alternative taxonomic treatments or new information that results in previously accepted genera being combined or split. Prokaryote and virus codes of nomenclature also exist which serve as

847-408: A layer of root hairs attached; those used for collecting water and nutrients tend to be thicker and longer. These feeder roots tend to attach flush with the substrate to which the philodendron is attached, and make their way directly downwards in search of soil. In general, feeder roots tend to show both positive hydrotropic and negative heliotropic behaviors. Characteristic of roots in philodendrons

968-557: A like-to-like manner: E-cadherin (found on many epithelial cells) binds preferentially to other E-cadherin molecules. Mesenchymal cells usually express other cadherin types such as N-cadherin. The extracellular matrix (ECM) is involved in keeping tissues separated, providing structural support or providing a structure for cells to migrate on. Collagen , laminin , and fibronectin are major ECM molecules that are secreted and assembled into sheets, fibers, and gels. Multisubunit transmembrane receptors called integrins are used to bind to

1089-621: A long time and redescribed as new by a range of subsequent workers, or if a range of genera previously considered separate taxa have subsequently been consolidated into one. For example, the World Register of Marine Species presently lists 8 genus-level synonyms for the sperm whale genus Physeter Linnaeus, 1758, and 13 for the bivalve genus Pecten O.F. Müller, 1776. Within the same kingdom, one generic name can apply to one genus only. However, many names have been assigned (usually unintentionally) to two or more different genera. For example,

1210-437: A means of sexual reproduction. In addition to gaining a safe location to mate, the male beetles may benefit from having a central location, because it allows them to broadcast to females that they are willing and able to mate. Females which see a male beetle headed for a philodendron flower know he does so with intention of mating, and females which are sexually receptive and need to mate know that they can find males if they follow

1331-405: A new plant on the stem of an existing plant. Hybridizing philodendrons is quite easy if flowering plants are available, because they have very few barriers to prevent hybridization. However, some aspects of making crosses can make philodendron hybridization more difficult. Philodendrons often flower at different times and the time when the spathe opens up varies from plant to plant. The pollen and

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1452-526: A philodendron resulting in hospitalization and death has been reported. This one case study, however, was found to be inconsistent with the findings from a second study. In this study, 127 cases of children ingesting philodendrons were studied, and they found only one child showed symptoms; a 10-month-old had minor upper lip swelling when he chewed on a philodendron leaf. The study also found the symptoms could subside without treatment and that previously reported cases of severe complications were exaggerated. As to

1573-561: A puréed leaf and water mixture, observed afterward, then euthanized , and finally a necropsy was performed. Dosages of 2.8, 5.6, and 9.1 g/kg were used, with the highest dose administered being considerably more than any house cat could consume. The cats showed none of the symptoms found in past epidemiological studies and appeared normal. Necropsies showed nothing that would suggest toxicity. The past epidemiological studies have been suggested to be wrong, since sick cats may be inclined to eat plants to alleviate their illnesses. If this were

1694-409: A reference for designating currently accepted genus names as opposed to others which may be either reduced to synonymy, or, in the case of prokaryotes, relegated to a status of "names without standing in prokaryotic nomenclature". An available (zoological) or validly published (botanical) name that has been historically applied to a genus but is not regarded as the accepted (current/valid) name for

1815-570: A revision of his previous work titled Synopsis aroidearum , and then published his final work Prodromus Systematis Aroidearum in 1860, in which he provided even more details about the classification of Philodendron and described 135 species. Philodendron are usually extremely distinctive and not usually confused with other genera, although a few exceptions in the genera Anthurium and Homalomena resemble Philodendron . The genus Philodendron has been subdivided into three subgenera: Meconostigma , Pteromischum , and Philodendron . In 2018, it

1936-410: A single time on short peduncles . The spathe tends to be waxy and is usually bicolored. In some philodendrons, the color of the base of the spathe contrasts in color with the upper part, and in others, the inner and outer surfaces of the spathe differ in coloration. The paler color tends to be either white or green, and the darker usually red or crimson. Pelargonidin is the predominant pigment causing

2057-451: A sufficient height, they begin developing adult type leaves. The smaller juvenile leaves are used for the darker forest floor where light is in scarce supply, but once they reach a sufficient height in the canopy the light is bright enough that the bigger adult leaves can serve a useful purpose. Another possible trigger occurs in primary hemiepiphytes. These philodendrons typically send their aerial roots downward. Once their roots have reached

2178-427: A taxon; however, the names published in suppressed works are made unavailable via the relevant Opinion dealing with the work in question. In botany, similar concepts exist but with different labels. The botanical equivalent of zoology's "available name" is a validly published name . An invalidly published name is a nomen invalidum or nom. inval. ; a rejected name is a nomen rejiciendum or nom. rej. ;

2299-408: A technique which has been highly optimized in recent years due to its use in machine learning . This model was limited to the generation of pictures, and is thus bi-dimensional. A similar model to the one described above was subsequently extended to generate three-dimensional structures, and was demonstrated in the video game Minecraft , whose block-based nature made it particularly expedient for

2420-502: A tissue level, ignoring the means of control, morphogenesis arises because of cellular proliferation and motility. Morphogenesis also involves changes in the cellular structure or how cells interact in tissues. These changes can result in tissue elongation, thinning, folding, invasion or separation of one tissue into distinct layers. The latter case is often referred as cell sorting . Cell "sorting out" consists of cells moving so as to sort into clusters that maximize contact between cells of

2541-455: A total of c. 520,000 published names (including synonyms) as at end 2019, increasing at some 2,500 published generic names per year. "Official" registers of taxon names at all ranks, including genera, exist for a few groups only such as viruses and prokaryotes, while for others there are compendia with no "official" standing such as Index Fungorum for fungi, Index Nominum Algarum and AlgaeBase for algae, Index Nominum Genericorum and

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2662-755: A tree. For these philodendrons, the plant will grow with long internodes along the ground until a tree is found. They find a suitable tree by growing towards darker areas, such as the dark shadow of a tree. This trait is called scototropism. After a tree has been found, the scototropic behavior stops and the philodendron switches to a phototropic growth habit and the internodes shorten and thicken. Usually, however, philodendrons germinate on trees. The leaves are usually large and imposing, often lobed or deeply cut, and may be more or less pinnate . They can also be oval ( Philodendron 'White Princess'), spear-shaped, divided ( Philodendron tripartitum ) or in many other possible shape variations. The leaves are borne alternately on

2783-423: Is also found on the stems, leaves, and roots of philodendrons. Its color can be red, orange, yellow, or colorless when it is first produced. Yet, over time, it will turn brown as it is exposed to air. Also, some evidence suggests the thermogenesis triggers the beetles to mate. It also appears to distribute the pheromones into the air. The reason for the spadix being held at 45° relative to the spathe may be to maximize

2904-437: Is an example of highly abnormal and pathological tissue morphogenesis. Morphogenesis also describes the development of unicellular life forms that do not have an embryonic stage in their life cycle. Morphogenesis is essential for the evolution of new forms. Morphogenesis is a mechanical process involving forces that generate mechanical stress, strain, and movement of cells, and can be induced by genetic programs according to

3025-596: Is discouraged by both the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature and the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants , there are some five thousand such names in use in more than one kingdom. For instance, A list of generic homonyms (with their authorities), including both available (validly published) and selected unavailable names, has been compiled by the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera (IRMNG). The type genus forms

3146-445: Is followed by male anthesis, in which the pollen is produced. Female anthesis typically lasts up to two days and includes the gradual opening of the spathe to allow the beetles to enter. Some evidence suggests the timing of opening of the spathe is dependent on light levels, where cloudy, darker days result in the spathe opening up earlier than on clear days. During female anthesis, the spadix will project forward at roughly 45° relative to

3267-415: Is found at the very top of the spadix. The fertile female flowers are often not receptive to fertilization when the fertile males are producing pollen , which again prevents self-pollination . The pollen itself is thread-like and appears to project out from the region where the fertile male flowers are located. Sexual reproduction is achieved by means of beetles , with many philodendron species requiring

3388-413: Is nearing its end and the female flowers have been pollinated, the spathe will be fully open and male anthesis begins. In the beginning of male anthesis, the fertile male flowers complete the process of producing the pollen and the female flowers become unreceptive to further pollination. Additionally, the spadix moves from its 45° position and presses up flush to the spathe. Towards the end of male anthesis,

3509-420: Is often difficult to differentiate natural variations from morphogenesis . Philodendrons also produce cataphylls , which are modified leaves that surround and protect the newly forming leaves. Cataphylls are usually green, leaf-like, and rigid while they are protecting the leaf. In some species, they can even be rather succulent . Once the leaf has been fully formed, the cataphyll usually remains attached where

3630-444: Is one of three fundamental aspects of developmental biology along with the control of tissue growth and patterning of cellular differentiation . The process controls the organized spatial distribution of cells during the embryonic development of an organism . Morphogenesis can take place also in a mature organism, such as in the normal maintenance of tissue by stem cells or in regeneration of tissues after damage. Cancer

3751-460: Is somewhat arbitrary. Although all species within a genus are supposed to be "similar", there are no objective criteria for grouping species into genera. There is much debate among zoologists about whether enormous, species-rich genera should be maintained, as it is extremely difficult to come up with identification keys or even character sets that distinguish all species. Hence, many taxonomists argue in favor of breaking down large genera. For instance,

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3872-474: Is the type species , and the generic name is permanently associated with the type specimen of its type species. Should the specimen turn out to be assignable to another genus, the generic name linked to it becomes a junior synonym and the remaining taxa in the former genus need to be reassessed. In zoological usage, taxonomic names, including those of genera, are classified as "available" or "unavailable". Available names are those published in accordance with

3993-407: Is the presence of a sclerotic hypodermis, which are cylindrical tubes inside the epidermis that can be one to five cells long. The cells that line the sclerotic hypodermis are elongated and tend to be hardened. Underneath the epidermis is a unique layer of cells in a pattern of long cells followed by short cells. Some philodendrons have extrafloral nectaries (nectar-producing glands found outside of

4114-424: Is the so-called French flag model , developed in the sixties. Improvements in computer performance in the twenty-first century enabled the simulation of relatively complex morphogenesis models. In 2020, such a model was proposed where cell growth and differentiation is that of a cellular automaton with parametrized rules. As the rules' parameters are differentiable, they can be trained with gradient descent ,

4235-504: Is triggered when concentrations of acetosalicytic acid form in the sterile zone. The acid sets off the mitochondria in the cells that make up the sterile zone to switch to an electron transport chain called the cyanide-resistant pathway, which results in the production of heat. Philodendrons consume oxygen during thermogenesis. The rate at which oxygen is used is remarkably high, close to that of hummingbirds and sphinx moths . The spadix has been shown to generate infrared radiation . As

4356-498: The Greek words philo- 'love, affection' and dendron 'tree'. The generic name, Philodendron , is often used as the English name. Compared to other genera of the family Araceae , philodendrons have an extremely diverse array of growth methods. The habits of growth can be epiphytic , hemiepiphytic , or rarely terrestrial . Others can show a combination of these growth habits depending on

4477-621: The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature ; the earliest such name for any taxon (for example, a genus) should then be selected as the " valid " (i.e., current or accepted) name for the taxon in question. Consequently, there will be more available names than valid names at any point in time; which names are currently in use depending on the judgement of taxonomists in either combining taxa described under multiple names, or splitting taxa which may bring available names previously treated as synonyms back into use. "Unavailable" names in zoology comprise names that either were not published according to

4598-799: The International Plant Names Index for plants in general, and ferns through angiosperms, respectively, and Nomenclator Zoologicus and the Index to Organism Names for zoological names. Totals for both "all names" and estimates for "accepted names" as held in the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera (IRMNG) are broken down further in the publication by Rees et al., 2020 cited above. The accepted names estimates are as follows, broken down by kingdom: The cited ranges of uncertainty arise because IRMNG lists "uncertain" names (not researched therein) in addition to known "accepted" names;

4719-519: The West Indies , Colombia , and Venezuela . At this time in history, the names of the philodendrons they were discovering were being published with the genus name Arum , since most aroids were considered to belong to this same genus. The genus Philodendron had not yet been created. Throughout the late 17th, 18th century, and early 19th centuries, many plants were removed from the genus Arum and placed into newly created genera in an attempt to improve

4840-503: The bacteriophage (phage) T4 virion , the morphogenetic proteins encoded by the phage genes interact with each other in a characteristic sequence. Maintaining an appropriate balance in the amounts of each of these proteins produced during viral infection appears to be critical for normal phage T4 morphogenesis. Phage T4 encoded proteins that determine virion structure include major structural components, minor structural components and non-structural proteins that catalyze specific steps in

4961-404: The platypus belongs to the genus Ornithorhynchus although George Shaw named it Platypus in 1799 (these two names are thus synonyms ) . However, the name Platypus had already been given to a group of ambrosia beetles by Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Herbst in 1793. A name that means two different things is a homonym . Since beetles and platypuses are both members of the kingdom Animalia,

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5082-412: The spiral shell of a snail , Turing correctly predicted a mechanism of morphogenesis, the diffusion of two different chemical signals, one activating and one deactivating growth, to set up patterns of development, decades before the formation of such patterns was observed. The fuller understanding of the mechanisms involved in actual organisms required the discovery of the structure of DNA in 1953, and

5203-615: The ECM. Integrins bind extracellularly to fibronectin, laminin, or other ECM components, and intracellularly to microfilament -binding proteins α-actinin and talin to link the cytoskeleton with the outside. Integrins also serve as receptors to trigger signal transduction cascades when binding to the ECM. A well-studied example of morphogenesis that involves ECM is mammary gland ductal branching. Tissues can change their shape and separate into distinct layers via cell contractility. Just as in muscle cells, myosin can contract different parts of

5324-469: The French botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (1656–1708) is considered "the founder of the modern concept of genera". The scientific name (or the scientific epithet) of a genus is also called the generic name ; in modern style guides and science, it is always capitalised. It plays a fundamental role in binomial nomenclature , the system of naming organisms , where it is combined with the scientific name of

5445-486: The New World. Philodendron species can be found in many diverse habitats in the tropical Americas and the West Indies . Most occur in humid tropical forests, but can also be found in swamps and on river banks, roadsides and rock outcrops. They are also found throughout the diverse range of elevations from sea level to over 2000 m above sea level. Species of this genus are often found clambering over other plants, or climbing

5566-567: The alveoli. Branching morphogenesis is also evident in the ductal formation of the mammary gland . Primitive duct formation begins in development , but the branching formation of the duct system begins later in response to estrogen during puberty and is further refined in line with mammary gland development. Cancer can result from disruption of normal morphogenesis, including both tumor formation and tumor metastasis . Mitochondrial dysfunction can result in increased cancer risk due to disturbed morphogen signaling. During assembly of

5687-442: The amount of nectar produced can be quite extensive, resulting in the surface becoming entirely covered with it. When philodendrons are ready to reproduce, they will produce an inflorescence which consists of a leaf-like hood called a spathe within which is enclosed a tube-like structure called a spadix . Depending on the species, a single inflorescence can be produced or a cluster of up to 11 inflorescences can be produced at

5808-442: The base for higher taxonomic ranks, such as the family name Canidae ("Canids") based on Canis . However, this does not typically ascend more than one or two levels: the order to which dogs and wolves belong is Carnivora ("Carnivores"). The numbers of either accepted, or all published genus names is not known precisely; Rees et al., 2020 estimate that approximately 310,000 accepted names (valid taxa) may exist, out of

5929-437: The beetles have arrived, the spadix is usually quite hot; up to around 46 °C in some species, but usually around 35 °C. The thermogenesis coincides with the arrival of the beetles and appears to increase their presence. The maximum temperature reached by the spadix remains about 20 °C higher than the outside ambient temperature. The time dependence of the temperature can vary from species to species. In some species,

6050-406: The beetles home in on the inflorescence, they first move in a zig-zag pattern until they get reasonably close, when they switch to a straight-line path. The beetles may be using scent to find the inflorescence when they are far away, but once within range, they find it by means of the infrared radiation. This would account for the two different types of paths the beetles follow. Once female anthesis

6171-465: The beetles to stay indefinitely if they could due to the very favorable conditions the inflorescence provides. After male anthesis, the males will go off and find another philodendron undergoing female anthesis, so will pollinate the female flowers with the pollen it had collected from its previous night of mating. Botanically, the fruit produced is a berry . The berries develop later in the season; berry development time varies from species to species from

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6292-447: The berries are poisonous, probably due to the oxalate crystals. Many tropical plants contain oxalates in varying amounts. Sometimes proper preparation can render these harmless, and in many cases eating minor amounts causes most people no distress or minor gastric irritation. However, care should be taken to verify the toxicity of any particular species before ingesting these berries, particularly regularly or in large amounts. The color of

6413-456: The berries can vary depending on the species, but most produce a white berry with slight tones of green. Some produce orange berries and others yellow berries, though. Still others will produce berries that start off white, but then change to another color with time. Philodendrons that produce orange berries tend to be members of the section Calostigma . Contained within the berries are the seeds which are extremely small compared to other members of

6534-667: The case of Philodendron oxycardium in containers of water. Indoor plants thrive at temperatures between 15 and 18 °C and can survive at lower light levels than other house plants. Although philodendrons can survive in dark places, they much prefer bright lights. Wiping the leaves off with water will remove any dust and insects. Plants in pots with good root systems will benefit from a weak fertilizer solution every other week. New plants can be grown by taking stem cuttings with at least two joints. Cuttings then can be rooted in pots of sand and peat moss mixtures. These pots are placed in greenhouses with bottom heat of 21–24 °C. During

6655-479: The case, then such studies would be incorrectly attributing the sickness of the cats to the philodendrons. The forced feeding study may have failed to show signs of philodendron toxicity because the tube feeding bypassed the mouth and hence minimized the typical signs of irritation. Some philodendrons are, however, known to be toxic to mice and rats . In one study, 100 mg of Philodendron cordatum leaves suspended in distilled water were fed to six mice. Three of

6776-444: The classification. Heinrich Wilhelm Schott addressed the problem of providing improved taxonomy and created the genus Philodendron and described it in 1829. The genus was first spelled as 'Philodendrum', but in 1832, Schott published a system for classifying plants in the family Araceae titled Meletemata Botanica in which he provided a method of classifying philodendrons based on flowering characteristics. In 1856, Schott published

6897-421: The cytoplasm to change its shape or structure. Myosin-driven contractility in embryonic tissue morphogenesis is seen during the separation of germ layers in the model organisms Caenorhabditis elegans , Drosophila and zebrafish . There are often periodic pulses of contraction in embryonic morphogenesis. A model called the cell state splitter involves alternating cell contraction and expansion, initiated by

7018-436: The development of molecular biology and biochemistry . Several types of molecules are important in morphogenesis. Morphogens are soluble molecules that can diffuse and carry signals that control cell differentiation via concentration gradients. Morphogens typically act through binding to specific protein receptors . An important class of molecules involved in morphogenesis are transcription factor proteins that determine

7139-529: The dose, it was injected intraperitoneally using 3 g of plant extract from either the leaves or stems. Six rats were injected with the leaf extract and five of them died. Eight rats were injected with the stem extract and two of them died. Genus The composition of a genus is determined by taxonomists . The standards for genus classification are not strictly codified, so different authorities often produce different classifications for genera. There are some general practices used, however, including

7260-450: The environment. Hemiepiphytic philodendrons can be classified into two types: primary and secondary hemiepiphytes. A primary hemiepiphytic philodendron starts life high up in the canopy where the seed initially sprouts. The plant then grows as an epiphyte. Once it has reached a sufficient size and age, it will begin producing aerial roots that grow toward the forest floor. Once they reach the forest floor, nutrients can be obtained directly from

7381-528: The family Araceae. The berries often give off odors to attract animals to eat and disperse them. For example, Philodendron alliodorum berries are known to emit an odor similar to that of garlic . The animals that distribute the seeds depends on the species, but some possible dispersers include bats and monkeys . Insects also may be responsible for dispersing seeds, as beetles and wasps have been seen feeding on philodendron berries. Eurytomid wasps also seek out philodendrons and are known to lay their eggs in

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7502-865: The fate of cells by interacting with DNA . These can be coded for by master regulatory genes , and either activate or deactivate the transcription of other genes; in turn, these secondary gene products can regulate the expression of still other genes in a regulatory cascade of gene regulatory networks . At the end of this cascade are classes of molecules that control cellular behaviors such as cell migration , or, more generally, their properties, such as cell adhesion or cell contractility. For example, during gastrulation , clumps of stem cells switch off their cell-to-cell adhesion, become migratory, and take up new positions within an embryo where they again activate specific cell adhesion proteins and form new tissues and organs. Developmental signaling pathways implicated in morphogenesis include Wnt , Hedgehog , and ephrins . At

7623-451: The fertile female flowers. The entire spathe is then covered in a plastic bag so the water–pollen mixture does not dry out; the bag is removed a few days later. If the inflorescence has not been fertilized, it will fall off, usually within a few weeks. The resins produced during the flowering of Monstera and Philodendron are known to be used by Trigona bees in the construction of their nests. Indigenous people from South America use

7744-477: The flowering. The increased temperature increases the metabolism of the beetles, causing them to move about more within the spathe and increasing the likelihood they will be sufficiently coated with pollen. A sticky resin is also produced in drops attached to the spadix which help to keep the pollen attached to the beetles. This resin producing quality is unique to Philodendron and Monstera , as other genera of Araceae do not produce it on their spadices. The resin

7865-436: The flowers). The nectar attracts ants, with which the plant enjoys a protective symbiotic relationship. Nectaries can be found in a variety of locations on the plant, including the stalks , sheaths, lower surfaces of the leaves, and spathes . The nectaries produce a sweet, sticky substance the ants like to eat and which provides an incentive for them to build their nests amongst the roots of the given philodendron. In some cases,

7986-446: The form "author, year" in zoology, and "standard abbreviated author name" in botany. Thus in the examples above, the genus Canis would be cited in full as " Canis Linnaeus, 1758" (zoological usage), while Hibiscus , also first established by Linnaeus but in 1753, is simply " Hibiscus L." (botanical usage). Each genus should have a designated type , although in practice there is a backlog of older names without one. In zoology, this

8107-422: The form of calcium oxalate crystals as raphides . The risk of death, if even possible, is extremely low if ingested by an average adult, although its consumption is generally considered unhealthy. In general, the calcium oxalate crystals have a very mild effect on humans , and large quantities have to be consumed for symptoms to even appear. Possible symptoms include increased salivation, a sensation of burning of

8228-727: The generic name (or its abbreviated form) still forms the leading portion of the scientific name, for example, Canis lupus lupus for the Eurasian wolf subspecies, or as a botanical example, Hibiscus arnottianus ssp. immaculatus . Also, as visible in the above examples, the Latinised portions of the scientific names of genera and their included species (and infraspecies, where applicable) are, by convention, written in italics . The scientific names of virus species are descriptive, not binomial in form, and may or may not incorporate an indication of their containing genus; for example,

8349-407: The ground below, the plant will begin taking up nutrients from the soil, of which it had been previously deprived. As a result, the plant will quickly morph into its adult leaves and gain in size dramatically. Another quality of philodendrons leaves is they are often quite different in shape and size even between two plants of the same species. As a result of all these different possible leaf shapes, it

8470-443: The heat's ability to waft the pheromones into the air. Oxidizing stored carbohydrates and lipids has been found to be the energy source for thermogenesis. The part of the spadix that heats up is the sterile zone. As it heats up, carbohydrates are used, but once the spadix has reached its maximum temperature, lipids are oxidized. The lipids are not first converted to carbohydrates, but rather are directly oxidized. The thermogenic reaction

8591-432: The idea that a newly defined genus should fulfill these three criteria to be descriptively useful: Moreover, genera should be composed of phylogenetic units of the same kind as other (analogous) genera. The term "genus" comes from Latin genus , a noun form cognate with gignere ('to bear; to give birth to'). The Swedish taxonomist Carl Linnaeus popularized its use in his 1753 Species Plantarum , but

8712-408: The inflorescence both have short lives, which means a large collection of philodendrons is necessary if crossbreeding is to be done successfully. The pollen life can be extended to a few weeks by storing it in film canisters in a refrigerator . Artificial pollination is usually achieved by first mixing the pollen with water. A window is then cut into the spathe and the water-pollen mixture is rubbed on

8833-437: The inflorescence is of great importance in determining the species of a given philodendron, since it tends to be less variable than the leaves. The genus Philodendron could be classified further by means of differentiating them based on the pattern of thermogenesis observed, although this is not currently used. Philodendron diverged from Adelonema and diversified during the late Oligocene , c. 25 million years ago, in

8954-628: The largest component, with 23,236 ± 5,379 accepted genus names, of which 20,845 ± 4,494 are angiosperms (superclass Angiospermae). By comparison, the 2018 annual edition of the Catalogue of Life (estimated >90% complete, for extant species in the main) contains currently 175,363 "accepted" genus names for 1,744,204 living and 59,284 extinct species, also including genus names only (no species) for some groups. The number of species in genera varies considerably among taxonomic groups. For instance, among (non-avian) reptiles , which have about 1180 genera,

9075-552: The latter, the cataphylls are prevented from falling off in a timely manner due to the short internodes of the plant. The cataphylls will remain attached, drying out and becoming nothing more than fibers attached at the nodes. In some philodendrons, the cataphylls build up over time and eventually form a wet mass at the nodes. This may keep emerging roots moist and provide some form of lubrication to new leaves. Philodendrons have both aerial and subterranean roots. The aerial roots occur in many shapes and sizes and originate from most of

9196-579: The leaves they eat. Also, in the making of a particular recipe for curare by the Amazonian Taiwanos , the leaves and stems of an unknown philodendron species are used. The leaves and stems are mixed with the bark of Vochysia ferruginea and with some parts of a species in the genus Strychnos . Yet another use of philodendrons is for catching fish . A tribe in the Colombian Amazon is known to use Philodendron craspedodromum to add poison to

9317-399: The lizard genus Anolis has been suggested to be broken down into 8 or so different genera which would bring its ~400 species to smaller, more manageable subsets. Morphogenesis Morphogenesis (from the Greek morphê shape and genesis creation, literally "the generation of form") is the biological process that causes a cell , tissue or organism to develop its shape. It

9438-430: The mice died. The same experiment was done with 100 mg of P. cordatum stems on three mice and none of them died. Leaves and flowers of Philodendron sagittifolium were also orally administered in 100-mg doses to the mice. Three mice were used for each of the leaves and flowers; none of the mice died. A similar experiment was done on rats with the leaves and stems of P. cordatum , but instead of oral administration of

9559-448: The morphogenesis sequence. Phage T4 morphogenesis is divided into three independent pathways: the head, the tail and the long tail fibres as detailed by Yap and Rossman. An approach to model morphogenesis in computer science or mathematics can be traced to Alan Turing 's 1952 paper, "The chemical basis of morphogenesis", a model now known as the Turing pattern . Another famous model

9680-403: The most (>300) have only 1 species, ~360 have between 2 and 4 species, 260 have 5–10 species, ~200 have 11–50 species, and only 27 genera have more than 50 species. However, some insect genera such as the bee genera Lasioglossum and Andrena have over 1000 species each. The largest flowering plant genus, Astragalus , contains over 3,000 species. Which species are assigned to a genus

9801-541: The mouth, swelling of the tongue , stomatitis , dysphagia , an inability to speak, and edema . Cases of mild dermatitis due to contact with the leaves have also been reported, with symptoms including vesiculation and erythema . The chemical derivatives of alkenyl resorcinol are believed to be responsible for the dermatitis in some people. Contact with philodendron oils or fluids with the eyes have also been known to result in conjunctivitis . Fatal poisonings are extremely rare; one case of an infant eating small quantities of

9922-428: The name could not be used for both. Johann Friedrich Blumenbach published the replacement name Ornithorhynchus in 1800. However, a genus in one kingdom is allowed to bear a scientific name that is in use as a generic name (or the name of a taxon in another rank) in a kingdom that is governed by a different nomenclature code. Names with the same form but applying to different taxa are called "homonyms". Although this

10043-417: The only beetles seen to pollinate the inflorescence are in the genera Cyclocephala or Erioscelis . Other smaller types of beetles in the genus Neelia visit the inflorescences, as well, but they are not believed to be involved in pollinating philodendrons. To attract the beetles, the sterile male flowers give off pheromones to attract the male beetles, usually at dusk . This process, female anthesis ,

10164-420: The ovaries of many Philodendron species, resulting in galled inflorescences. Philodendrons exhibit extremely few physical reproductive barriers to prevent hybridization , but very few natural hybrids are found in nature. This may be because philodendrons have many geographic and time barriers to prevent any such cross pollination. For example, it is rare for more than one philodendron species to be flowering at

10285-402: The past due to these differences, causing juvenile and adult plants to mistakenly be classified as different species. The trigger for the transformation to adult leaves can vary considerably. One possible trigger is the height of the plant. Secondary hemiepiphytes start off on the dark forest floor and climb their way up a tree, displaying their juvenile type leaves along the way. Once they reach

10406-408: The pheromones produced by the philodendron flowers. As a result, the male beetles benefit from this relationship with the philodendrons because they do not have to produce pheromones to attract females, since the philodendrons do it for them. Additionally, male beetles benefit because they are ensured of mating with only sexually receptive females, which is not necessarily certain otherwise. In doing so,

10527-445: The philodendron provides male beetles a more efficient way to find females than what they could achieve on their own. Pheromones produced by the philodendrons may be similar to those produced by female beetles when they wish to attract males to mate. Also, the pheromones have a sweet, fruity smell in many species and no noticeable smell for others. Not all beetle behavior directly benefits the philodendrons in this symbiosis: in addition to

10648-408: The philodendron's life, it starts producing adult leaves, a process called metamorphosis . Most philodendrons go through metamorphosis gradually; there is no immediately distinct difference between juvenile and adult leaves. Aside from being typically much bigger than the juvenile leaves, the shape of adult leaves can be significantly different. In fact, considerable taxonomic difficulty has occurred in

10769-516: The plant's nodes or occasionally from an internode. The size and number of aerial roots per node depends on the presence of a suitable substrate for the roots to attach themselves. Aerial roots serve two primary purposes. They allow the philodendron to attach itself to a tree or other plant, and they allow it to collect water and nutrients. As such, the roots are divided morphologically into these two categories. Aerial roots used for attaching to trees tend to be shorter, more numerous, and sometimes have

10890-502: The poisoning of the fish possibly are coumarins formed during the fermentation process. Some philodendrons are also used for ceremonial purposes. Among the Kubeo tribe, native to Colombia , Philodendron insigne is used by witch doctors to treat ill patients. They use the juice of the spathe to stain their hands red, since many such tribes view the color red as a sign of power. Philodendrons can contain as much as 0.7% of oxalates in

11011-400: The presence of a specific beetle species to achieve pollination. The reverse is not always the case, as many beetle species will pollinate more than one philodendron species. These same beetles could also pollinate other genera outside of philodendron, as well as outside of the family Araceae . The pollinating beetles are males and members of the subfamily Rutelinae and Dynastinae , and to date

11132-526: The provisions of the ICZN Code, e.g., incorrect original or subsequent spellings, names published only in a thesis, and generic names published after 1930 with no type species indicated. According to "Glossary" section of the zoological Code, suppressed names (per published "Opinions" of the International Commission of Zoological Nomenclature) remain available but cannot be used as the valid name for

11253-403: The red coloration in the spathes. The upper portion of the spathe is called the limb or blade, while the lower portion is called the convolute tube or chamber due to its tubular structure at the base. The spadix is more often than not white and shorter than the spathe. On the spadix are found fertile female, fertile male, and sterile male flowers. The fertile male and female flowers are separated on

11374-439: The reproductive benefits to beetles, the philodendrons provide food in two forms. Pollen from the fertile male flowers is eaten by the beetles throughout the night. Secondly, the sterile male flowers consumed by the beetles are rich in lipids . The male beetles will stay overnight in the spathe, eating and mating throughout the night due to the benefits provided by the spathe and spadix. Typically, five to 12 beetles will be within

11495-473: The resin from the bees' nests to make their blowguns air- and watertight. Though they contain calcium oxalate crystals, the berries of some species are eaten by the locals. For example, the sweet white berries of Thaumatophyllum bipinnatifidum are known to be used. Additionally, the aerial roots are also used for rope in this particular species. The leaves of philodendrons are also known to be eaten by Venezuelan red howler monkeys, making up 3.1% of all

11616-448: The rooting, cuttings should be kept out of direct sunlight. Once rooted, the plants can be transplanted to larger pots or directly outside in milder climates. Stem cuttings, particularly from trailing varieties, can be rooted in water. In four to five weeks, the plant should develop roots and can be transferred to pots. Philodendrons can also propagate through air layering which is a more advanced method of propagation that involves creating

11737-622: The same time or to be pollinated by the same species of beetles. The beetles have also been observed to be selective to the height of the plant they pollinate, which would serve as an additional preventive measure to make hybrids less likely. Because of these outside barriers, philodendrons may not have had to evolve physical mechanisms to prevent cross-pollination. Hybrids in nature are only rarely reported. When found, these hybrids often can show remarkable genetic relationships. Crosses between two philodendrons in different sections can occur successfully. Philodendrons are known to have been collected from

11858-412: The same type. The ability of cells to do this has been proposed to arise from differential cell adhesion by Malcolm Steinberg through his differential adhesion hypothesis . Tissue separation can also occur via more dramatic cellular differentiation events during which epithelial cells become mesenchymal (see Epithelial–mesenchymal transition ). Mesenchymal cells typically leave the epithelial tissue as

11979-432: The soil. In this manner, the plant's strategy is to obtain light early in its life at the expense of nutrients. Some primary epiphytic species have a symbiotic relationship with ants. In these species, the ants' nest is grown amongst the plant's roots, which help keep the nest together. Philodendrons have extrafloral nectaries , glands that secrete nectar to attract the ants. The philodendron, in turn, obtains nutrients from

12100-480: The spadix by a sterile zone or staminodal region composed of sterile male flowers. This barrier of sterile male flowers ensures fertile male flowers do not fertilize the female flowers. The arrangement tends to be vertical, with fertile male flowers at the top of the spadix followed by sterile male flowers, and fertile female flowers very close to the bottom in the region known as the spathe tube or chamber. In some philodendrons, an additional region of sterile male flowers

12221-425: The spathe begins to close from the bottom, working its way up and forcing the beetles to move up and across the upper region of the spathe, where the fertile male flowers are located. In doing so, the philodendron controls when the beetles come and when they leave and forces them to rub against the top of the spadix where the pollen is located as they exit, thus ensuring they are well-coated with pollen. One would expect

12342-402: The spathe throughout the night. Rarely, cases of 200 beetles at a time have been observed and almost always the beetles are of the same species. Another feature of this symbiotic relationship, less well understood, is the series of events in which the spadix begins to heat up prior to the spathe opening up for the beetles. This process is known as thermogenesis . By the time the spathe is open and

12463-435: The spathe. The spathe provides a safe breeding area for the beetles. As such, the male beetles are often followed by female beetles with the intent of mating with the males within the spathe. The philodendrons benefit from this symbiotic relationship because the males will eventually leave the spathe covered in pollen and repeat the process at another philodendron, pollinating it in the process and thus providing philodendrons

12584-593: The spatial patterning of cells within tissues. Abnormal morphogenesis is called dysmorphogenesis . Some of the earliest ideas and mathematical descriptions on how physical processes and constraints affect biological growth, and hence natural patterns such as the spirals of phyllotaxis , were written by D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson in his 1917 book On Growth and Form and Alan Turing in his The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis (1952). Where Thompson explained animal body shapes as being created by varying rates of growth in different directions, for instance to create

12705-497: The specific name particular to the wolf. A botanical example would be Hibiscus arnottianus , a particular species of the genus Hibiscus native to Hawaii. The specific name is written in lower-case and may be followed by subspecies names in zoology or a variety of infraspecific names in botany . When the generic name is already known from context, it may be shortened to its initial letter, for example, C. lupus in place of Canis lupus . Where species are further subdivided,

12826-412: The standard format for a species name comprises the generic name, indicating the genus to which the species belongs, followed by the specific epithet, which (within that genus) is unique to the species. For example, the gray wolf 's scientific name is Canis lupus , with Canis ( Latin for 'dog') being the generic name shared by the wolf's close relatives and lupus (Latin for 'wolf') being

12947-488: The stem and base of the leaf meet. In philodendrons, cataphylls typically fall into two categories: deciduous and persistent types. A deciduous cataphyll curls away from the leaf once it has formed, eventually turning brown and drying out, and finally falling off the plant, leaving a scar on the stem where it was attached. Deciduous cataphylls are typically found on vining philodendrons, whereas persistent cataphylls are typical of epiphytic philodendrons or appressed climbers. In

13068-429: The stem. A quality of philodendrons is that they do not have a single type of leaf on the same plant. Instead, they have juvenile leaves and adult leaves, which can be drastically different from one another. The leaves of seedling philodendrons are usually heart-shaped early in the life of the plant. But after it has matured past the seedling stage, the leaves will acquire the typical juvenile leaf's shape and size. Later in

13189-594: The strongest adhesion move to the center of a mixed aggregates of cells. Moreover, cell-cell adhesion is often modulated by cell contractility, which can exert forces on the cell-cell contacts so that two cell populations with equal levels of the same adhesion molecule can sort out. The molecules responsible for adhesion are called cell adhesion molecules (CAMs). Several types of cell adhesion molecules are known and one major class of these molecules are cadherins . There are dozens of different cadherins that are expressed on different cell types. Cadherins bind to other cadherins in

13310-521: The surrounding ant nest, and the aggressive nature of the ants serves to protect the plant from other insects which would eat it. Secondary hemiepiphytes start life on the ground or on part of a tree trunk very close to the ground, where the seeds sprout. These philodendrons have their roots in the ground early in their lives. They then begin climbing up a tree and eventually may become completely epiphytic, doing away with their subterranean roots. Secondary hemiepiphytes do not always start their lives close to

13431-403: The taxon is termed a synonym ; some authors also include unavailable names in lists of synonyms as well as available names, such as misspellings, names previously published without fulfilling all of the requirements of the relevant nomenclatural code, and rejected or suppressed names. A particular genus name may have zero to many synonyms, the latter case generally if the genus has been known for

13552-414: The temperature of the spadix will peak on the arrival of the beetles, then decrease, and finally increase reaching a maximum once again when the philodendron is ready for the beetles to leave. Other species, though, only show a maximum temperature on the arrival of the beetles, which remains roughly constant for about a day, and then steadily decreases. A few species will show three peaks in temperature during

13673-462: The toxicity of philodendrons in cats , the evidence is conflicting. In one study, 72 cases of cat poisonings were examined, of which 37 resulted in the death of the cat. The symptoms of the poisoned cats included excitability, spasms , seizures , kidney failure , and encephalitis . However, in another study, three cats were tube fed Philodendron cordatum and showed no signs of acute poisoning. In this study, two adult cats and one kitten were fed

13794-716: The trunks of trees with the aid of aerial roots . Philodendrons usually distinguish themselves in their environment by their large numbers compared to other plants, making them a highly noticeable component of the ecosystems in which they are found. They are found in great numbers in road clearings. Philodendrons can also be found in Australia , some Pacific islands , Africa and Asia , although they are not indigenous and were introduced or accidentally escaped. Philodendrons can be grown outdoors in mild climates in shady spots. They thrive in moist soils with high organic matter. In milder climates, they can be grown in pots of soil or in

13915-566: The values quoted are the mean of "accepted" names alone (all "uncertain" names treated as unaccepted) and "accepted + uncertain" names (all "uncertain" names treated as accepted), with the associated range of uncertainty indicating these two extremes. Within Animalia, the largest phylum is Arthropoda , with 151,697 ± 33,160 accepted genus names, of which 114,387 ± 27,654 are insects (class Insecta). Within Plantae, Tracheophyta (vascular plants) make up

14036-429: The virus species " Salmonid herpesvirus 1 ", " Salmonid herpesvirus 2 " and " Salmonid herpesvirus 3 " are all within the genus Salmonivirus ; however, the genus to which the species with the formal names " Everglades virus " and " Ross River virus " are assigned is Alphavirus . As with scientific names at other ranks, in all groups other than viruses, names of genera may be cited with their authorities, typically in

14157-435: The water, temporarily stunning the fish, which rise up to the surface, where they can be easily scooped up. To add the poison to the water, the leaves are cut into pieces and tied together to form bundles, which are allowed to ferment for a few days. The bundles are crushed and added to the water into which the poison will dissipate. Although the toxicity of Philodendron craspedodromum is not fully known, active ingredients in

14278-428: The ways this can occur is when cells share the same cell-to- cell adhesion molecules . For instance, homotypic cell adhesion can maintain boundaries between groups of cells that have different adhesion molecules. Furthermore, cells can sort based upon differences in adhesion between the cells, so even two populations of cells with different levels of the same adhesion molecule can sort out. In cell culture cells that have

14399-424: The wild as early as 1644 by Georg Marcgraf , but the first partly successful scientific attempt to collect and classify the genus was done by Charles Plumier . Plumier collected approximately six species from the islands of Martinique , Hispaniola , and St. Thomas . Since then, many exploration attempts have been made to collect new species by others. These include those by N.J. Jacquin who collected new species in

14520-431: Was first proposed to explain neural plate morphogenesis during gastrulation of the axolotl and the model was later generalized to all of morphogenesis. In the development of the lung a bronchus branches into bronchioles forming the respiratory tree . The branching is a result of the tip of each bronchiolar tube bifurcating, and the process of branching morphogenesis forms the bronchi, bronchioles, and ultimately

14641-642: Was proposed that Philodendron subg. Meconostigma be recognized as a separate genus, Thaumatophyllum . The genus Philodendron can also be subdivided into several sections and subsections. Section Baursia , section Philopsammos , section Philodendron (subsections Achyropodium , Canniphyllium , Macrolonchium , Philodendron , Platypodium , Psoropodium and Solenosterigma ), section Calostigma (subsections Bulaoana , Eucardium, Glossophyllum , Macrobelium and Oligocarpidium ), section Tritomophyllum , section Schizophyllum , section Polytomium , section Macrogynium and section Camptogynium . Typically,

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