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54-440: Fernand Petzl, born in 1912, began his caving career in the late 1920s and early 1930s. In 1936, Petzl was introduced to, then small-time caver, Pierre Chevalier. The two began work on improving the technology behind their sport. In 1943, Chevalier designed and tested the first nylon rope to replace caving ladders. This technology provided the foundation for nearly all vertical safety methods to come. Chevalier's innovation led to

108-581: A cave in 1934) can be directly associated to the exploration of the Dent de Crolles cave system. In 1941, American cavers organized themselves into the National Speleological Society (NSS) to advance the exploration, conservation, study and understanding of caves in the United States. American caver Bill Cuddington , known as "Vertical Bill", further developed the single-rope technique (SRT) in

162-468: A discipline, their worst result is discarded (provided that IFSC organizes at least 6 competitions for that season). At the end of the season, the athlete with highest ranking in each discipline will be considered to be the overall winner of the World Cup series, and will be awarded a trophy. The athletes ranking second and third will be awarded a plate. At the end of each competition, a national team ranking

216-442: A dissolution of existing features. Pollution is also of concern. Since water that flows through a cave eventually comes out in streams and rivers, any pollution may ultimately end up in someone's drinking water, and can even seriously affect the surface environment, as well. Even minor pollution such as dropping organic material can have a dramatic effect on the cave biota. Cave-dwelling species are also very fragile, and often,

270-503: A flexible metal ladder . In addition to the equipment already described, cavers frequently carry packs containing first-aid kits, emergency equipment, and food. Containers for securely transporting urine are also commonly carried. On longer trips, containers for securely transporting feces out of the cave are carried. During very long trips, it may be necessary to camp in the cave – some cavers have stayed underground for many days, or in particularly extreme cases, for weeks at

324-499: A group for companionship or to provide emergency help if needed. Some however consider the assistance cavers give each other as a typical team sport activity. The term potholing refers to the act of exploring potholes , a word originating in the north of England for predominantly vertical caves . Clay Perry , an American caver of the 1940s, wrote about a group of men and boys who explored and studied caves throughout New England . This group referred to themselves as spelunkers ,

378-525: A particular species found in a cave may live within that cave alone, and be found nowhere else in the world, such as Alabama cave shrimp . Cave-dwelling species are accustomed to a near-constant climate of temperature and humidity, and any disturbance can be disruptive to the species' life cycles. Though cave wildlife may not always be immediately visible, it is typically nonetheless present in most caves. Bats are one such fragile species of cave-dwelling animal. Bats which hibernate are most vulnerable during

432-534: A pristine floor of sand or silt which may be thousands of years old, dating from the last time water flowed through the cave. Such deposits may easily be spoiled forever by a single misplaced step. Active formations such as flowstone can be similarly marred with a muddy footprint or handprint, and ancient human artifacts, such as fiber products, may even crumble to dust under all but the most gentle touch. In 1988, concerned that cave resources were becoming increasingly damaged through unregulated use, Congress enacted

486-693: A term derived from the Latin spēlunca ("cave, cavern, den"). This is regarded as the first use of the word in the Americas . Throughout the 1950s, spelunking was the general term used for exploring caves in US English . It was used freely, without any positive or negative connotations, although only rarely outside the US. In the 1960s, the terms spelunking and spelunker began to be considered déclassé among experienced enthusiasts. In 1985, Steve Knutson – editor of

540-424: A time. This is particularly the case when exploring or mapping extensive cave systems, where it would be impractical to retrace the route back to the surface regularly. Such long trips necessitate the cavers carrying provisions, sleeping, and cooking equipment. Caves can be dangerous places; hypothermia, falling , flooding , falling rocks and physical exhaustion are the main risks. Rescuing people from underground

594-463: Is determined, for each discipline, by adding the ranking points of the three highest ranked individual team members. For each discipline (lead, bouldering and speed), the points awarded to each team are added together throughout the World Cup series in order to determine the overall team ranking. If a team participates in all competitions in a discipline, its worst result is discarded (provided that IFSC organizes at least 6 competitions for that season). At

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648-400: Is difficult and time-consuming, and requires special skills, training, and equipment. Full-scale cave rescues often involve the efforts of dozens of rescue workers (often other long-time cavers who have participated in specialized courses, as normal rescue staff are not sufficiently experienced in cave environments), who may themselves be put in jeopardy in effecting the rescue. This said, caving

702-413: Is not necessarily a high-risk sport (especially if it does not involve difficult climbs or diving). As in all physical sports, knowing one's limitations is key. Caving in warmer climates carries the risk of contracting histoplasmosis , a fungal infection that is contracted from bird or bat droppings. It can cause pneumonia and can disseminate in the body to cause continued infections. In many parts of

756-474: Is the scientific study of caves and the cave environment. The challenges involved in caving vary according to the cave being visited; in addition to the total absence of light beyond the entrance, negotiating pitches , squeezes, and water hazards can be difficult. Cave diving is a distinct, and more hazardous, sub-speciality undertaken by a small minority of technically proficient cavers. In an area of overlap between recreational pursuit and scientific study,

810-496: Is to promote low-impact outdoor activity as well as raise social and environmental awareness for outdoor sports such as mountaineering. This is accomplished through the Petzl Foundation's endorsement of ecological preservation projects, research in risk prevention, and general education in work at height and recreational activities at height. In 2006, Petzl America commissioned the recall of approximately 8,000 Carabiners due to

864-434: Is used, to provide some abrasion protection while remaining as cool as possible. Wetsuits may be worn if the cave is particularly wet or involves stream passages. On the feet boots are worn – hiking-style boots in drier caves, or rubber boots (such as wellies ) often with neoprene socks ("wetsocks") in wetter caves. Knee -pads (and sometimes elbow -pads) are popular for protecting joints during crawls. Depending on

918-507: The Dent de Crolles cave system near Grenoble , which became the deepest explored system in the world (-658m) at that time. The lack of available equipment during the war forced Pierre Chevalier and the rest of the team to develop their own equipment, leading to technical innovation. The scaling-pole (1940), nylon ropes (1942), use of explosives in caves (1947) and mechanical rope-ascenders (Henri Brenot's "monkeys", first used by Chevalier and Brenot in

972-587: The Federal Cave Resources Protection Act , giving land management agencies in the United States expanded authority to manage cave conservation on public land. Cavers in many countries have created organizations for the administration and oversight of caving activities within their nations. The oldest of these is the French Federation of Speleology (originally Société de spéléologie) founded by Édouard-Alfred Martel in 1895, which produced

1026-426: The National Speleological Society (NSS) publication American Caving Accidents  – made the following distinction: …Note that (in this case) the term 'spelunker' denotes someone untrained and unknowledgeable in current exploration techniques, and 'caver' is for those who are. This sentiment is exemplified by bumper stickers and T-shirts displayed by some cavers: "Cavers rescue spelunkers". Nevertheless, outside

1080-433: The general rankings applied to the whole set of participants. If an eligible athlete participated in more than two competitions in a discipline, only the best two results in that discipline were considered. For each eligible athlete, the relative rankings obtained in the selected six events were multiplied together to determine a combined score. Athletes were ranked according to their combined score in ascending order. Namely,

1134-432: The rappel rack and the evolution of mechanical ascension systems extended the practice and safety of vertical exploration to a wider range of cavers. Hard hats are worn to protect the head from bumps and falling rocks. The caver's primary light source is usually mounted on the helmet in order to keep the hands free. Electric LED lights are most common. Many cavers carry two or more sources of light – one as primary and

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1188-801: The 1890s, Balch was introduced to the caves of the Mendip Hills . One of the oldest established caving clubs, Yorkshire Ramblers' Club , was founded in 1892. Caving as a specialized pursuit was pioneered by Édouard-Alfred Martel (1859–1938), who first achieved the descent and exploration of the Gouffre de Padirac , in France, as early as 1889 and the first complete descent of a 110-metre wet vertical shaft at Gaping Gill in 1895. He developed his own techniques based on ropes and metallic ladders. Martel visited Kentucky and notably Mammoth Cave National Park in October 1912. In

1242-713: The 1920s famous US caver Floyd Collins made important explorations in the area and in the 1930s, as caving became increasingly popular, small exploration teams both in the Alps and in the karstic high plateaus of southwest France ( Causses and Pyrenees ) transformed cave exploration into both a scientific and recreational activity. Robert de Joly , Guy de Lavaur and Norbert Casteret were prominent figures of that time, surveying mostly caves in Southwest France. During World War II , an alpine team composed of Pierre Chevalier , Fernand Petzl , Charles Petit-Didier and others explored

1296-515: The Petzl corporation was born as Fernand Petzl established the first company headquarters in Crolles, France . “This was the beginning of Petzl manufacturing.”. The initial workshop was approximately 7,200 square feet (670 m), and located at the base of Dent de Crolles “Tooth of Crolles” close to Grenoble. Two years after establishing a base, Petzl produced its first vertical safety harness in 1977. In

1350-623: The Speleological Society of the District of Columbia on May 6, 1939). An international speleological congress was proposed at a meeting in Valence-sur-Rhone, France in 1949 and first held in 1953 in Paris. The International Union of Speleology (UIS) was founded in 1965. IFSC Climbing World Cup The IFSC Climbing World Cup is a series of competition climbing events held during

1404-495: The athlete with the lowest score was awarded the combined title. For instance, in 2018 Jakob Schubert won the Combined World Cup with a score of 48 points, determined as shown in the table. In 2019, individual combined events were introduced in the World Cup series, where participants are required to compete in all disciplines (Bouldering, Lead and Speed) and medals are awarded based on their combined results. Nevertheless, at

1458-455: The brand name TIKKA. As of 2001, Petzl had approximately 600 products. Later in 2002, the QUARK ERGO was developed and designed to be the first leashless, angled ice axe. In 2004, Petzl's first fall arrest device for work at height was developed. In 2006, the Petzl corporation introduced new general director Pascal Bonino, and the Petzl Foundation was also developed. The aim of the foundation

1512-462: The caving community, "spelunking" and "spelunkers" predominately remain neutral terms referring to the practice and practitioners, without any respect to skill level. In the mid-nineteenth century, John Birkbeck explored potholes in England, notably Gaping Gill in 1842 and Alum Pot in 1847–8, returning there in the 1870s. In the mid-1880s, Herbert E. Balch began exploring Wookey Hole Caves and in

1566-516: The early 1980s the company began expanding its products from caving to vertical sports such as rock climbing and mountaineering , as well as to rescue. The company's first brand name head lamp , the ZOOM, was produced in 1981. Later, in 1986, Petzl developed its first R&D department and testing tower. In 1990, Petzl's first products for work at height were produced, and the Petzl Securité department

1620-417: The end of the season, the team with highest overall ranking is awarded a trophy. For each season, results obtained by each athlete across events and across disciplines (Lead, Bouldering and Speed) are considered to determine a combined ranking. At the end of the season, prizes are awarded to the top three athletes. The combined title was first introduced in 1998, together with the first speed event. Bouldering

1674-444: The environment of the cave being explored, and the local culture. In cold caves, the caver may wear a warm base layer that retains its insulating properties when wet, such as a fleece ("furry") suit or polypropylene underwear, and an oversuit of hard-wearing (e.g., cordura ) or waterproof (e.g., PVC ) material. Lighter clothing may be worn in warm caves, particularly if the cave is dry, and in tropical caves thin polypropylene clothing

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1728-464: The first 1,000 meter cave descent when Petzl explored the Gouffre Berger in France in 1950. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Petzl began experimenting further with vertical safety technology, and in 1968 he produced his first rope ascenders , then marketed as “Produits Fernand Petzl (Fernand Petzl Products)”. Five years later, in 1973, Petzl developed his first mountaineering headlamp. In 1975,

1782-671: The first corporate owned distribution center outside of its own country (France). At the time Petzl depended upon 28 private firms for distribution outside of North America. Pigeon Mountain Industries was the former distributor of Petzl products in North America before the development of the Clearfield location. Petzl acquired the ice axe and crampon developer Charlet Moser in 2000, thereby expanding its production to include ice climbing technology. The first LED headlamps were produced in 2000 under

1836-472: The first periodical journal in speleology, Spelunca . The first University-based speleological institute in the world was founded in 1920 in Cluj-Napoca , Romania, by Emil Racovita , a Romanian biologist, zoologist, speleologist and explorer of Antarctica. The British Speleological Association was established in 1935 and the National Speleological Society in the US was founded in 1941 (originally formed as

1890-434: The following: Several members of the team are professional climbers. Some such as Chris Sharma have climbed some of the world's hardest routes. Such routes by Sharma include Jumbo Love (5.15ab) in 2008, La Rambla , Es Pontàs and Realization (considered to be first 5.15 class route) in 2001. Lynn Hill, another Petzl team member, was the first woman to set and ascend a route graded at 5.12+ or 5.13. In 1990, Hill

1944-580: The last unexplored regions on Earth and much effort is put into trying to locate, enter and survey them. In well-explored regions (such as most developed nations), the most accessible caves have already been explored, and gaining access to new caves often requires cave digging or cave diving. Caving, in certain areas, has also been utilized as a form of eco and adventure tourism, for example in New Zealand . Tour companies have established an industry leading and guiding tours into and through caves. Depending on

1998-621: The late 1950s. In 1958, two Swiss alpinists, Juesi and Marti teamed together, creating the first rope ascender known as the Jumar . In 1968 Bruno Dressler asked Fernand Petzl, who worked as a metals machinist, to build a rope-ascending tool, today known as the Petzl Croll , that he had developed by adapting the Jumar to vertical caving. Pursuing these developments, Petzl started in the 1970s a caving equipment manufacturing company named Petzl . The development of

2052-451: The models’ susceptibility to failure. In January 2007, Petzl participated in safety and rescue demonstrations in Dubai at the world's largest security and safety fair Fernand Petzl died in 2003. His son, Paul, is the president and founder of the Petzl corporation. The Petzl Team is a group of climbers and innovators who assist the company to develop and test its products. The team consists of

2106-479: The most devoted and serious-minded cavers become accomplished at the surveying and mapping of caves and the formal publication of their efforts. These are usually published freely and publicly, especially in the UK and other European countries, although in the US they are generally more private. Although caving is sometimes categorized as an " extreme sport ," cavers do not commonly use this terminology and typically dislike

2160-610: The nature of the cave, gloves are sometimes worn to protect the hands against abrasion or cold. In pristine areas and for restoration, clean oversuits and powder-free, non-latex surgical gloves are used to protect the cave itself from contaminants. Ropes are used for descending or ascending pitches (single rope technique or SRT) or for protection. Knots commonly used in caving are the figure-of-eight - (or figure-of-nine -) loop, bowline , alpine butterfly , and Italian hitch . Ropes are usually rigged using bolts , slings , and carabiners . In some cases cavers may choose to bring and use

2214-430: The others as backup in case the first fails. More often than not, a second light will be mounted to the helmet for quick transition if the primary fails. Carbide lamp systems are an older form of illumination, inspired by miner's equipment, and are still used by some cavers, particularly on remote expeditions where electric charging facilities are not available. The type of clothes worn underground varies according to

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2268-469: The slightest touch and some by impacts as slight as a breath. Research suggests that increased carbon dioxide levels can lead to "a higher equilibrium concentration of calcium within the drip waters feeding the speleothems, and hence causes dissolution of existing features." In 2008, researchers found evidence that respiration from cave visitors may generate elevated carbon dioxide concentrations in caves, leading to increased temperatures of up to 3 °C and

2322-514: The term being used in reference to caving, as it implies a disregard for safety. Many caving skills overlap with those involved in canyoning and mine and urban exploration . Caving is often undertaken for the enjoyment of the outdoor activity or for physical exercise, as well as original exploration, similar to mountaineering or diving . Physical or biological science is also an important goal for some cavers, while others are engaged in cave photography. Virgin cave systems comprise some of

2376-521: The top six athletes are awarded prize money. As of 2022, the top 80 competitors of individual World Cup competitions are eligible to accrue points. Tied competitors are awarded the average of the points allocated for the tied rank positions, rounded down to two decimal places. For each discipline (lead, bouldering and speed), the points awarded to each athlete are added together throughout the World Cup series in order to determine an overall World Cup ranking. If an athlete participates in all competitions in

2430-426: The type of cave and the type of tour, the experience could be adventure-based or ecological-based. There are tours led through lava tubes by a guiding service (e.g. Lava River Cave , the oceanic islands of Tenerife , Iceland and Hawaii ). Caving has also been described as an "individualist's team sport" by some, as cavers can often make a trip without direct physical assistance from others but will generally go in

2484-659: The warmer months when they are most sensitive and vulnerable. Due to an affliction affecting bats in the northeastern US known as white nose syndrome (WNS), the US Fish & Wildlife Service has called for a moratorium effective March 26, 2009, on caving activity in states known to have hibernacula (MD, NY, VT, NH, MA, CT, NJ, PA, VA, and WV) affected by WNS, as well as adjoining states. Some cave passages may be marked with flagging tape or other indicators to show biologically, aesthetically, or archaeologically sensitive areas. Marked paths may show ways around notably fragile areas such as

2538-408: The winter season, when no food supply exists on the surface to replenish the bat's store of energy should it be awakened from hibernation. Bats which migrate are most sensitive during the summer months when they are raising their young. For these reasons, visiting caves inhabited by hibernating bats is discouraged during cold months; and visiting caves inhabited by migratory bats is discouraged during

2592-427: The world, leptospirosis ("a type of bacterial infection spread by animals" including rats ) is a distinct threat, owing to the presence of rat urine in rainwater or precipitation that enters the caves water system. Complications are uncommon, but can be serious. Safety risks while caving can be minimized by using a number of techniques: Many cave environments are very fragile. Many speleothems can be damaged by even

2646-516: The year at various locations around the world, organized by the International Federation of Sport Climbing (IFSC). At each event, the athletes compete in three disciplines: lead , bouldering , and speed . The number of events varies from year to year, and the winners for each discipline are decided by the points accumulated in the year. The first World Cup was held in 1989 and included only lead competition climbing events. Speed climbing

2700-540: Was developed. Petzl's first self braking device, the Grigri , was produced a year later in the United States. The Grigri is still produced and sold today [1] . Also developed in the 1990s was a modification of Fernand Petzl's initial rope ascender design. The TIBLOC, which is still sold today, was developed in 1998. In 1998, Petzl moved its North American distribution center from La Fayette, Georgia , United States, to Clearfield, Utah , United States. The Clearfield center became

2754-622: Was introduced in 1998, and bouldering in 1999. For 18 seasons, from 1989 to 2006, World Cups were held under the auspices of the International Council for Competition Climbing which was part of the UIAA ; they were called UIAA Climbing World Cups. Since 2007, they have been held under the auspices of the IFSC. At the end of each World Cup competition, a trophy is awarded to the winner, the top three athletes are awarded gold, bronze, and silver medals, and

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2808-510: Was introduced in the following year. From 1998 to 2017, the combined score for each athlete was obtained by adding together the overall World Cup scores obtained by that athlete in at least two different disciplines. For instance, in 2017 Janja Garnbret won the combined title with a combined score of 1135 points, which was the sum of the overall scores she obtained in Lead and Bouldering. Since she competed in no Speed event, her score in that discipline

2862-497: Was the winner of the IFSC Climbing World Cup . Hill also became the first person to free climb The Nose at Yosemite's El Capitan in under 24 hours. Official website Caving Caving , also known as spelunking (United States and Canada) and potholing (United Kingdom and Ireland), is the recreational pastime of exploring wild cave systems (as distinguished from show caves ). In contrast, speleology

2916-590: Was zero. Since 2018, more complex rules were applied to determine the combined score. Only athletes participating in at least two competitions in each discipline (i.e. 2 in Bouldering, 2 in Lead, and 2 in Speed) were eligible for the combined title. For each World Cup event, rankings were adjusted by discarding non-eligible athletes. Since they were relative to a selected subset of athletes (the eligible ones), these adjusted rankings were called relative rankings , as opposed to

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