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106-894: The Pennsylvania-Lithuania National Guard Partnership is one of 25 European partnerships that make-up the U.S. European Command State Partnership Program and one of 88 worldwide partnerships that make-up the National Guard State Partnership Program . The Partnership was established on April 27, 1993. In the 30 years that have followed, Pennsylvania and Lithuania have conducted more than 500 exchanges that cover diverse topics such as Senior Leader Engagements, Recruiting, NCO Professional Development, Military Decision Making Process and Strategic Planning, Range Development, Airfield Development and Standards, Defense Support to Civil Authorities, Family Programs, and Resiliency. Also, Pennsylvania and Lithuania have jointly deployed to Afghanistan in support of ISAF, including four rotations of

212-450: A § ) as their basic coherent units, and sections are numbered sequentially across the entire title without regard to the previously-mentioned divisions of titles. Sections are often divided into (from largest to smallest) subsections, paragraphs, subparagraphs, clauses, subclauses, items, and subitems. Congress, by convention, names a particular subdivision of a section according to its largest element. For example, "subsection (c)(3)(B)(iv)"

318-696: A Police Operational Mentor and Liaison Team. Pennsylvania also provided nine rotations of a team of Logistics Advisors to the Lithuanian led Provincial Reconstruction Team in the Gowhr Province. Pennsylvania and Lithuania are looking at other opportunities to jointly deploy to further expand the relationship between their militaries. Lithuanian’s #1 defense priority is energy security. Additional focus areas include Cyber Defense, continuing to participate in expeditionary operations and ISAF, as well as developing new and capable interagency partnerships. Lithuania also hosts

424-528: A bloody suppression of a native Hungarian uprising by forces of the Soviet Union . Soviet tanks in the streets of Budapest were a scene depicted by the media of the times. The Soviets under Nikita Khrushchev seemed implacable in their resolution to pursue and eliminate all the revolutionaries they could find. Former co-nationals of Austria in the Austro-Hungarian Empire , Hungary had been an ally of

530-454: A candidate has been SPP, PfP and then NATO. Once started, SPP activities appear to continue regardless of what other memberships a host nation may have. By nature the program creates close friends and allies. Previously, and currently outside the program, the Guard was and is subject to a jurisdictional duality: it can be either Federally active or not. If inactive it is a reserve component only of

636-705: A five-year strategic plan to find ways to cooperate, along with the Pennsylvania National Guard in areas like Disaster Preparedness and Defense Support of Civil Authorities. State Partnership Program The SPP is widespread. The JCTP is recommended when more extensive support is needed. Sometimes the names are interchangeable. A large share of originally JCTP activity was subsumed by the NATO Partnership for Peace (PfP) program made active in 1994. It prepares nations for membership in NATO. A typical path for

742-459: A host country reorganize its military. The program's written goals aimed at every conceivable ideal from respect for human rights, the rule of law, political democracy, and a market economy, to a complete understanding of and sensitivity to American culture; in short, total Americanization. They would in fact be trying to redefine the national culture. In the Spring of 1992, all the proposals arrived at

848-481: A limited time, such as most appropriation acts or budget laws, which apply only for a single fiscal year . If these limited provisions are significant, however, they may be printed as "notes" underneath related sections of the Code. The codification is based on the content of the laws, however, not the vehicle by which they are adopted; so, for instance, if an appropriations act contains substantive, permanent provisions (as

954-566: A little too offensive to the Russians or the folks that were in there, so the idea was to use the small footprint of National Guard troops." The "small footprint" also included an economic smallness. The Boehm source reports that "In the United States, it had been shown that operating a standing army costs 80 percent more than a reserve element. The plan was considered complete in January (even though

1060-477: A new Title 52 , which has not been enacted into positive law. When sections are repealed, their text is deleted and replaced by a note summarizing what used to be there. This is so that lawyers reading old cases can understand what the cases are talking about. As a result, some portions of the Code consist entirely of empty chapters full of historical notes. For example, Title 8, Chapter 7 is labeled "Exclusion of Chinese". This contains historical notes relating to

1166-464: A number of crisis relief and humanitarian activities. The deployment authorized by the SPP under the joint management of State and Federal governments can only be in the "State Partnership" relationship, which according to the current United States Code (USC) is defined as a "program of activities." The Secretary of Defense is authorized to establish it between the "military forces," the "security forces," or

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1272-618: A policy of never communicating with countries behind the Iron Curtain but always approaching the Soviet Union first. The gates between east and west were resolutely shut. The Cold War was on. Over three decades later, President Reagan, standing near the Berlin Wall , delivered what has been called his Berlin Wall speech addressing Mikhail Gorbachev (not there in person), then General Secretary of

1378-635: A result of an antitrust settlement when the parent of Lawyers Co-operative Publishing acquired West. These annotated versions contain notes following each section of the law, which organize and summarize court decisions, law review articles, and other authorities that pertain to the code section, and may also include uncodified provisions that are part of the Public Laws. The publishers of these versions frequently issue supplements (in hard copy format as pocket parts ) that contain newly enacted laws, which may not yet have appeared in an official published version of

1484-562: A section in the Code. To cite any particular section, it is enough to know its title and section numbers. According to one legal style manual, a sample citation would be " Privacy Act of 1974 , 5 U.S.C.   § 552a (2006)", read aloud as "Title five, United States Code, section five fifty-two A" or simply "five USC five fifty-two A". Some section numbers consist of awkward-sounding combinations of letters, hyphens, and numerals. They are especially prevalent in Title 42. A typical example

1590-510: A series of provisions together as a means of addressing a social or governmental problem; those provisions often fall in different logical areas of the Code. For example, an Act providing relief for family farms might affect items in Title 7 (Agriculture), Title 26 (Tax), and Title 43 ( Public Lands ). When the Act is codified, its various provisions might well be placed in different parts of those various Titles. Traces of this process are generally found in

1696-764: A token professional army as a sort of inner guiding corps. With the defeat of the Russian coup in August, 1991, they knew that they would be allowed to rebuild a military. Their very first unit of August was the Latvian National Guard , a contingent of citizen-soldiers. They were not first of all outsiders. They would be defending the country in which they were born and raised, nor could any foreign power remove them from there for missions not their own. Second, they were needed to work with civilian authorities for solving domestic problems of security and order. The requirement did not fit

1802-664: Is also true that the extensive forest of the Valdai Hills in adjoining Russia gave shelter to various successful partisan groups . Wars are not won by partisans alone. The Latvian Rifles only fought for Latvia as units in the Tsar's army. They were expected to hold their sector of the Eastern Front , but as the war retreated from there, so did they. Baltic military experts, still expert, were perfectly familiar with these well-known circumstances. The Latvians did not therefore plan for more than

1908-414: Is common for lawyers to refer to a " Chapter 11 bankruptcy " or a "Subchapter S corporation " (often shortened to " S corporation "). In the context of federal statutes, the word "title" has two slightly different meanings. It can refer to the highest subdivision of the Code itself, but it can also refer to the highest subdivision of an Act of Congress which subsequently becomes part of an existing title of

2014-837: Is due to there being one partnership with the Regional Security System (RSS), a prior security organization of 7 island nations in the Eastern Caribbean. All other cases follow the rule, one nation, one partnership. In some cases more than one Guard unit is partnered with a nation. The following is a list of partnerships, with the year they were formed. USAFRICOM currently maintains 16 SPP relationships: USCENTCOM currently maintains 9 SPP relationships: USEUCOM currently maintains 25 SPP relationships: USINDOPACOM currently maintains 13 SPP relationships: USNORTHCOM currently maintains one SPP relationship: USSOUTHCOM currently maintains 24 SPP relationships: A report to

2120-408: Is not a subsection but a clause, namely clause (iv) of subparagraph (B) of paragraph (3) of subsection (c); if the identity of the subsection and paragraph were clear from the context, one would refer to the clause as "subparagraph (B)(iv)". Not all titles use the same series of subdivisions above the section level, and they may arrange them in different order. For example, in Title 26 (the tax code),

2226-521: Is required to determine what laws are in force at any given time. The United States Code is the result of an effort to make finding relevant and effective statutes simpler by reorganizing them by subject matter, and eliminating expired and amended sections. The Code is maintained by the Office of the Law Revision Counsel (LRC) of the U.S. House of Representatives. The LRC determines which statutes in

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2332-580: Is required. The State Partnership Program is authorized under 10 USC 341. Activities conducted under the program may also be carried out under: Expenses for the SPP partnerships are the standard maintenance required to keep Guard units in the field, the standard maintenance required by the partner units, which must be paid by the partner governments, and the "travel-related expenses" above and beyond them. The Guard units are maintained by "Army or Air Force Personal Accounts," including "pay and allowances." The travel-related expenses are paid from separate funds,

2438-691: Is routinely cited by the Supreme Court and other federal courts without mentioning this theoretical caveat. On a day-to-day basis, very few lawyers cross-reference the Code to the Statutes at Large . Attempting to capitalize on the possibility that the text of the United States Code can differ from the United States Statutes at Large , Bancroft-Whitney for many years published a series of volumes known as United States Code Service (USCS), which used

2544-541: Is sometimes the case), these provisions will be incorporated into the Code even though they were adopted as part of a non-permanent enactment. Early efforts at codifying the Acts of Congress were undertaken by private publishers; these were useful shortcuts for research purposes, but had no official status. Congress undertook an official codification called the Revised Statutes of the United States approved June 22, 1874, for

2650-647: Is that of the "enrolled bill" (traditionally printed on parchment ) presented to the President for his signature or disapproval . Upon enactment of a law, the original bill is delivered to the Office of the Federal Register (OFR) within the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA). After authorization from the OFR, copies are distributed as " slip laws " (as unbound, individually paginated pamphlets ) by

2756-523: Is that the original drafters of the Code in 1926 failed to foresee the explosive growth of federal legislation directed to "The Public Health and Welfare" (as Title 42 is literally titled) and did not fashion statutory classifications and section numbering schemes that could readily accommodate such expansion. Title 42 grew in size from 6 chapters and 106 sections in 1926 to over 160 chapters and 7,000 sections as of 1999. Titles that have been enacted into positive law are indicated by blue shading below with

2862-559: Is the Religious Freedom Restoration Act of 1993 (RFRA), which is codified in Chapter 21B of Title 42 at 42 U.S.C.   § 2000bb through 42 U.S.C.   § 2000bb-4 . In the case of RFRA, Congress was trying to squeeze a new act into Title 42 between Chapter 21A (ending at 42 U.S.C.   § 2000aa-12 ) and Chapter 22 (beginning at 42 U.S.C.   § 2001 ). The underlying problem

2968-533: The Chinese Exclusion Act , which is no longer in effect. There are conflicting opinions on the number of federal crimes, but many have argued that there has been explosive growth and it has become overwhelming. In 1982, the U.S. Department of Justice could not come up with a number, but estimated 3,000 crimes in the United States Code. In 1998, the American Bar Association said that it

3074-725: The Czech Republic and Slovakia caused them to be deferred until 1993. Plans were made to extend invitations to all the Central and Eastern European countries, but the State Department reneged temporarily. The ambassadors believed it was too precipitous. Unrest in Romania and potential unrest in Albania caused their deferment. Despite the delays the IWG gradually began to approve countries for MLT's. With

3180-758: The Government Publishing Office (GPO). The OFR assembles annual volumes of the enacted laws and publishes them as the United States Statutes at Large . By law, the text of the Statutes at Large is "legal evidence" of the laws enacted by Congress. Slip laws are also competent evidence. The Statutes at Large , however, is not a convenient tool for legal research. It is arranged strictly in chronological order; statutes addressing related topics may be scattered across many volumes, and are not consolidated with later amendments. Statutes often repeal or amend earlier laws, and extensive cross-referencing

3286-609: The Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact (popularly known as the Stalin–Hitler Pact) of August 23, 1939, in which Stalin and Hitler divided Poland into spheres of influence. Hitler's invasion of Poland was the immediate cause of WW II. The Baltics considered Stalin's invasion and therefore his acquisition of their countries illegal and invalid acts. On March 11, 1990, Lithuania redeclared independence, Latvia on August 21, 1991, and Estonia on August 20, 1991. Russian troops still occupied

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3392-594: The Third Reich , contributing some ten divisions to the invasion of Russia. They recanted in 1944, following the model of Italy's recantation, but it was too late. Overrun by Soviet forces on the way to Berlin, they became a satellite of the Soviet Union and member of the Warsaw Pact . They were behind the Iron Curtain . The revolutionaries called upon the United States for support. It offered them assurances of backing in

3498-517: The United States . It contains 53 titles, which are organized into numbered sections. The U.S. Code is published by the U.S. House of Representatives ' Office of the Law Revision Counsel . New editions are published every six years, with cumulative supplements issued each year. The official version of these laws appears in the United States Statutes at Large , a chronological, uncodified compilation. The official text of an Act of Congress

3604-568: The United States Code (published as Statutes at Large Volume 44, Part 1) includes cross-reference tables between the USC and two of these unofficial codes, United States Compiled Statutes Annotated by West Publishing Co. and Federal Statutes Annotated by Edward Thompson Co. During the 1920s, some members of Congress revived the codification project, resulting in the approval of the United States Code by Congress in 1926. The official version of

3710-568: The "governmental organizations" designed to respond to disasters or other emergencies, and the "National Guard of a state or territory." The nature of the activities is that they must support United States "Security Cooperation" (SC) objectives. A State Partnership is thus an agreement between the United States and a foreign government to conduct joint security operations with the United States National Guard. These are mainly training exercises. They may (or may not) lead to membership of

3816-716: The "regime change" associated with the end of communism in Hungary (1989) . Despite the fiasco of 1956, the Hungarians were still interested in the support of the United States. They had nothing to fear from Soviet tanks now. A former member of the Civil Rights Movement and the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee , as well as being co-founder of the National Endowment for Democracy , Palmer

3922-633: The 12 and the 15 was the three Baltic States : Lithuania , Latvia , and Estonia . They had been part of the Russian Empire , which inherited them from the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . The Russian Empire ended in 1917. The Baltics were ceded to Germany by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk , March 3, 1918. When Germany conceded the loss of World War I, it attempted to retain the Baltics, who had been

4028-696: The ANG), Wayne Gosnell (a senior officer in the ARNG), Max Alston (Army Reserve, retired), and staff, had been planning a new form of assistance, later to be called the SPP. For now, it was simply "the Baltic initiative." In retropect, Air Force Col. Joey Booher, Chief of International Affairs for the NGB, said: “The U.S. was trying to engage with the former communist nations that were in the Warsaw Pact, and using active duty troops might have been

4134-479: The Baltic Air Policing Mission at the Šiauliai International Airport. Pennsylvania and Lithuanian consistently participate in joint exercises together, such as SABRE STRIKE and AMBER HOPE, which promote regional stability and security, strengthens international military partnering and fosters trust while improving interoperability between participating nations. The State Partnership Program highlights

4240-484: The Baltic states are far different now than they were in 1915. The states are too small to put up much of a defense as individual countries; moreover, the terrain is mainly indefensible. Any defense force could be easily outflanked by a larger army. It is true that the retreating army of the 3rd Reich for a time formed a redoubt on the Kurland Peninsula, but it had no hope of victory, and was forced to surrender. It

4346-697: The Baltic states. Meanwhile, NATO was not waiting for the United States to solve its impasses. At its July, 1990, Summit Meeting , it had determined to extend "the hand of friendship" to the Eastern Bloc. Over the course of the next year, a new organization was proposed, the North Atlantic Cooperation Council (NACC) to include Warsaw Pact and CIS nations. Its Charter was presented at the 1991 Rome summit in November. By providing mutual consultation services it would smooth over and help to stabilize

Pennsylvania–Lithuania National Guard Partnership - Misplaced Pages Continue

4452-542: The Berlin wall, as Germans could travel between the two Germanies via Hungary and Austria. Its demolition began on November 9. German reunification was declared complete (and is celebrated as such) on October 3, 1990, considered the final settlement of World War II after 45 years of occupation. Russian troops everywhere were going home. Without fear of military intervention, the republics of the Soviet Union were negotiating their release and declaring independence. The dissolution of

4558-619: The Code from a private company. The two leading annotated versions are the United States Code Annotated , abbreviated as USCA, and the United States Code Service , abbreviated as USCS. The USCA is published by West (part of Thomson Reuters ), and USCS is published by LexisNexis (part of Reed Elsevier ), which purchased the publication from the Lawyers Co-operative Publishing Co. in 1997 as

4664-461: The Code is published by the LRC ( Office of the Law Revision Counsel ) as a series of paper volumes. The first edition of the Code was contained in a single bound volume; today, it spans several large volumes. Normally, a new edition of the Code is issued every six years, with annual cumulative supplements identifying the changes made by Congress since the last "main edition" was published. The official code

4770-574: The Code, "From 1897 to 1907 a commission was engaged in an effort to codify the great mass of accumulating legislation. The work of the commission involved an expenditure of over $ 300,000, but was never carried to completion." Only the Criminal Code of 1909 and the Judicial Code of 1911 were enacted. In the absence of a comprehensive official code, private publishers once again collected the more recent statutes into unofficial codes. The first edition of

4876-555: The Code, as well as updated secondary materials such as new court decisions on the subject. When an attorney is viewing an annotated code on an online service, such as Westlaw or LexisNexis, all the citations in the annotations are hyperlinked to the referenced court opinions and other documents. The Code is divided into 53 titles (listed below), which deal with broad, logically organized areas of legislation. Titles may optionally be divided into subtitles, parts, subparts, chapters, and subchapters. All titles have sections (represented by

4982-521: The Code. For example, when Americans refer to Title VII, they are usually referring to the seventh title of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 . That Act is actually codified in Title 42 of the United States Code , not Title 7 . The intermediate subdivisions between title and section are helpful for reading the Code (since Congress uses them to group together related sections), but they are not needed to cite

5088-806: The Committees on Armed Services of the Senate and House of Representatives published in May 2012 enumerates benefits of the State Partnership Program as reported by the State Partnership Program Coordinators , the Bilateral Affairs Officers , and Combatant Command officials: The SPP began and developed as a streamlined program to assist the former satellite republics of the Soviet Union to find stability and acceptance by NATO after

5194-518: The Communist Party of the Soviet Union : "... If you seek prosperity for the Soviet Union ... if you seek liberalization ... tear down this wall! " He had no idea how close it was to being torn down, and with it the Iron Curtain and the Cold War. The cost of maintaining the Soviet Union and its satellites against widespread dissent was too great. The economy was beyond control. Communist Party membership

5300-675: The DoD. Its main function is as a state militia under the command of the Governor through the Adjutant General of the state or equivalent officer of the Territory or D.C. If active, it is entirely out of the jurisdiction of the state and under the DoD, which might or might not keep its original identity, but more likely plunders it for replacements or special units of the Regular Army or Air Force. In

5406-474: The East Europe IWG initiated a two-year program of "confidence-building visits" by staff members of EUCOM: the legal advisor, the chaplain, the surgeon, etc., with reciprocal visits to EUCOM headquarters. The purpose of the visits was to open and maintain dialogues on various special topics. In November, 1991, the IWG delegated the authority to initiate such contacts in Europe to EUCOM. As the Soviet Union defeated an attempted military coup in August, 1991 , which

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5512-412: The Notes accompanying the "lead section" associated with the popular name, and in cross-reference tables that identify Code sections corresponding to particular Acts of Congress. Usually, the individual sections of a statute are incorporated into the Code exactly as enacted; however, sometimes editorial changes are made by the LRC (for instance, the phrase "the date of enactment of this Act" is replaced by

5618-408: The Operations and Maintenance (O&M) accounts, of which there are many, such as the following: All SPP activities are coordinated through the geographic Combatant Commanders , the U.S. Ambassadors' country teams, the partner State, and other agencies as appropriate, to ensure that National Guard support is tailored to meet both U.S. and country objectives. Specifically, all activities must support

5724-408: The President's desk in Washington. The Presidential watch had changed. George H. W. Bush , Reagan's Vice President, was President since January, 1989. He was concerned about political stability and the disposition of the nuclear weapons in the possession of the former Soviet republics. Aiming at creating a stable policy for the region, he affirmed the IWG as the steering organization and turned over all

5830-429: The Russian Civil War, except for a disastrous attempted rescue of the Czar by British forces, which ended in the massacre of the Czar and all his family. At the end of the Civil War the Baltics were independent. The new Soviet Union was not strong enough to recapture them. On September 22, 1921, the League of Nations made a statement of its own by admitting the Baltic states. The Baltics were recaptured by invasion after

5936-400: The SPP, the State (or territory, etc.) and the DoD collaborate in the deployment of the unit, through the National Guard Bureau , and the Adjutant General of the State. The unit keeps its State identity. In the words of one source, it is "managed by the National Guard Bureau, but executed by the states." In that case there is collaboration between the state Adjutant General and the commander in

6042-414: The Soviet Union was declared by itself on December 26, 1991. Gorbachev had been its last President. He was to recede gradually into obscurity. The President of Russia, Boris Yeltsin , came to the fore. The Russian flag flew that evening at the Kremlin. The nations of the Warsaw Pact were no less eager to escape from it. The Pact declared itself dissolved on July 1, 1991, from lack of members. In 1990, with

6148-409: The Soviet Union disintegrated between 1989 and 1991, U.S. government officials explored options to minimize instability and encourage democratic governments in the former Soviet bloc nations. One effort to address these policy goals was to expand military-to-military contacts with the newly independent states of Central and Eastern Europe. At the time the United States cautiously put the new policy before

6254-415: The Soviet Union. There would be in fact a failed attempt at a military coup in favor of restoring the old Soviet Union. The Americans not only found ready assent from the new Soviet Union, but that Union itself was asking for the assistance Reagan had promised if democratic and humanitarian measures were taken, such as tearing down the wall. In 1989 the DOD sponsored the Interagency Working Groups (IWG's) for

6360-478: The Soviets in 1945, developed from suggestion to real beginning between January and November, 1992. Learning by some means that the JCTP would need a Guard unit, John B. Conaway , Chief of the National Guard Bureau , wrote to Colin Powell offering the services of the United States National Guard. Having already taken the initiative to develop a Guard solution to the impasse, he had been waiting for some such opportunity as this. He, Vance Renfroe (a senior officer in

6466-408: The Statutes at Large and the text of a provision of the United States Code that has not been enacted as positive law, the text of the Statutes at Large takes precedence. In contrast, if Congress enacts a particular title (or other component) of the Code into positive law, the enactment repeals all of the previous Acts of Congress from which that title of the Code derives; in their place, Congress gives

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6572-485: The Supreme Court ruled that § 92 was still valid law. A positive law title is a title that is itself a federal statute, that is to say that it is one that has been enacted and codified into law by the United States Congress . The title itself has been enacted. By contrast, a non-positive law title is a title that has not been codified into federal law, and is instead merely an editorial compilation of individually enacted federal statutes. By law, those titles of

6678-441: The Theater Campaign Plan (TCP) as well as individual U.S. Ambassador mission plans in the countries where they operate. The unique civil-military nature of the National Guard allows active participation in a wide range of security cooperation activities, such as: The State Partnership Program consists of 88 partnerships (1 March 2023) with 100 sovereign countries across all six combatant commands. The discrepancy between 88 and 100

6784-410: The United States Code that have not been enacted into positive law are " prima facie evidence" of the law in effect. The United States Statutes at Large remains the ultimate authority. If a dispute arises as to the accuracy or completeness of the codification of an unenacted title, the courts will turn to the language in the United States Statutes at Large. In case of a conflict between the text of

6890-406: The United States Statutes at Large should be codified, and which existing statutes are affected by amendments or repeals, or have simply expired by their own terms. The LRC updates the Code accordingly. Because of this codification approach, a single named statute (like the Taft–Hartley Act or the Embargo Act ) may or may not appear in a single place in the Code. Often, complex legislation bundles

6996-439: The United States, National Guard members are placed in a duty status by orders issued under 32 U.S.C. 502. This permits the participating members to receive appropriate military pay and benefits." 32 U.S. Code § 502 specifies that the uard must attend regular training exercises, for which they get paid. In summary, the Guard is either activated for out-of-country activities or regularly trained within it. No special SPP legislation

7102-434: The XML was designed to be consistent with the Akoma Ntoso project (from the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs ) XML schema, and the OASIS LegalDocML technical committee standard will be based upon Akoma Ntoso. A number of other online versions are freely available, such as Cornell 's Legal Information Institute . Practicing lawyers who can afford them almost always use an annotated version of

7208-500: The actual date). Though authorized by statute, these changes do not constitute positive law . The authority for the material in the United States Code comes from its enactment through the legislative process and not from its presentation in the Code. For example, the United States Code omitted 12 U.S.C.   § 92 for decades, apparently because it was thought to have been repealed. In its 1993 ruling in U.S. National Bank of Oregon v. Independent Insurance Agents of America ,

7314-408: The actual text of the United States Statutes at Large ; the series is now published by the Michie Company after Bancroft-Whitney parent Thomson Corporation divested the title as a condition of acquiring West . Only "general and permanent" laws are codified in the United States Code; the Code does not usually include provisions that apply only to a limited number of people (a private law ) or for

7420-402: The best was yet to come). Conaway was able to write to Powell, "The National Guard stands ready to advise and assist in the formation of U.S.-style National Guard military structures in the countries of the former Soviet Union, the Baltic Republics and the former Warsaw Pact, and to assist authorities in cooperative self-help projects to enhance democratization and stabilization of the countries of

7526-467: The coaching of an active United States Army unit. Instead it passed the word to the NACC that it would prefer a National Guard unit. This was a surprise because in the past Latvia had recruited some of Europe's best elite professional troops, such as the Latvian Rifles . There were but few in Latvia who remembered them. They fought for the Tsar , then for the Bolsheviks . Detained subsequently in Russia, most never got home again. The military needs of all

7632-521: The collapse of the Warsaw Pact impending, the United States reversed its "hands-off" policy and began to seek military-to-military contacts with individual nations of the Eastern Bloc through EUCOM , the Unified Combatant Command that would logically have jurisdiction over such contacts. The DoD was encouraged to do so by Mark Palmer , ambassador to Hungary, supported by Caspar Weinberger . Palmer's new views were based on his observation of

7738-406: The countries. The Russians owned much of the industrial capacities. There was some Russian resistance to their departure, but Gorbachev was obliged to follow his policies. In 1991 the Russians abroad were left hanging without authorization, as their current country had not stationed them there. It was to be years before national partitions were complete, during which Russians and Americans coexisted in

7844-536: The country to discuss its "interests and capabilities," offering a total package of military reconstruction. After consultation with the United States Department of State , EUCOM forwarded its ambitious proposal to Colin Powell , CJCS, on February 27, 1992. On December 16, 1991, Powell had already presented to his staff his idea of "contact teams." One team of about 50 specialists would spend 6–12 months helping

7950-557: The demise of the Warsaw Pact on July 1, 1991, and the dissolution of the Soviet Union on December 26 of that year. Its scope was originally limited to that theater under the jurisdiction of EUCOM. The first move in the direction of the Partnership Program was a change in U.S. policy toward Eastern-bloc countries under President Ronald Reagan . The previous policy had been a consequence of the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 ,

8056-622: The end of the Soviet Union. Its first meeting, on December 20, 1991, was interrupted by a message informing the Soviet ambassador his country did not exist any longer. Latvia had belonged to the NACC from its very beginning. As the reputation of the JCTP began to spread, Latvia made an unusual request in July, 1992, to the NACC, with which it was familiar, rather than to the JCTP itself. It wanted to join, but it did not want

8162-473: The event of victory; however, no actual combat support was forthcoming. The CIA appeared to have lost all its arms caches. Khrushchev at last quipped that American support might be compared to the support of a rope suspending a hanged man; i.e., the Americans would encourage the Hungarians to hang themselves by revolting but would make no move to assist them. As a result of this American fiasco the government adopted

8268-442: The expansion, a second difficulty began to appear, this time within the DoD. The Joint Staff was having a problem finding funds for the large budget submitted by EUCOM for only three host countries. It was at this time that CJCS initiated a search for special funds to enhance the regular budgets of the agencies involved. By 1994 the cost had run so high, 13 million as opposed to 1993's 6 million, that obtaining any money from Washington

8374-432: The field. The "partners" of the partnerships are the Guard units of various states and foreign nations that have requested and been granted partnerships. The program links National Guard units of U.S. States with partner countries around the world for the purpose of supporting the security cooperation objectives of the geographic Combatant Commands (CCMDs). It is not quite so cut-and-dried as pure security. There are quite

8480-669: The halls of the Pentagon , it was somewhat too grandiose for the field. Initially not enough qualified persons bilingual in the desired languages could be found even to begin the program. The DoD advertised for bilingual volunteers, conducting telephone interviews with the few bilinguals they did have. Eventually a concentration was found in the 10th Special Forces Group , a unit that had been working with EUCOM in Europe. They were recruited, but with an unforeseen effect in public relations. They were not hired for their fighting skills, yet it appeared that

8586-479: The head of EUCOM. Contact Teams were to be sent forthwith to Hungary, Poland, and Czechoslovakia. The JCTP was to feature a Headquarters Contact Team Program Office (CCTPO), as many Military Liaison Teams (MLT's) as there were host countries contacted, and the first contact personnel, the Traveling Contact Teams (TCT's). Attempted implementation of the program revealed its weaknesses immediately. Planned in

8692-518: The laws in effect as of December 1, 1873. Congress re-enacted a corrected version in 1878. The 1874 version of the Revised Statutes were enacted as positive law, but the 1878 version was not and subsequent enactments of Congress were not incorporated into the official code, so that over time researchers once again had to delve through many volumes of the Statutes at Large . According to the preface to

8798-577: The left flank of the Eastern Front, through the use of Freikorps , supposedly non-national mercenary volunteers. The Russian Revolution began shortly and was settled by the Russian Civil War , which lasted November, 1917, through October, 1922. Units from the Baltic states fought on both sides, red (Bolshevik) and white (Czarist). The predominant theme in the states themselves was independence. The western victors of WW I withheld any interference in

8904-508: The mold of mil-to-mil associations; therefore, they requested an American unit that could work with civilians. The DoD response to a request from the new Latvian Republic through the JACC for assistance building a National Guard called Zemessargi , "Land National Guard," to distinguish it from the previous Aizsargi , "National Guard," which had served the German occupation army until its dissolution by

9010-463: The order of subdivision runs: Title – Subtitle – Chapter – Subchapter – Part – Subpart – Section – Subsection – Paragraph – Subparagraph – Clause – Subclause – Item – Subitem. The "Section" division is the core organizational component of the Code, and the "Title" division is always the largest division of the Code. Which intermediate levels between Title and Section appear, if any, varies from Title to Title. For example, in Title 38 (Veteran's Benefits),

9116-432: The order runs Title – Part – Chapter – Subchapter – Section. The word "title" in this context is roughly akin to a printed "volume", although many of the larger titles span multiple volumes. Similarly, no particular size or length is associated with other subdivisions; a section might run several pages in print, or just a sentence or two. Some subdivisions within particular titles acquire meaning of their own; for example, it

9222-506: The partner in regional defense organizations. "For SPP events conducted overseas, National Guard members are typically placed in a duty status by orders issued under the authority of 10 U.S.C. 12301," which is a list of various circumstances in which Secretary of Defense may issue an involuntary activation of the Guard as a Reserve Component of the DoD. The permission of the Governor may be required in some cases. "For SPP events conducted within

9328-480: The program over to the remaining IWG. Meanwhile, elated by its success, EUCOM went what turned out to be a bridge too far in proposing the EUCOM Coordination and Assistance Program (EUCAP), which would take the contact initiative away from the Eastern Bloc countries. The Americans themselves would identify and approach candidates instead of waiting for their applications. The Americans would on their own approach

9434-457: The program was preparing for some sort of invasive effort, which served to delay their acceptance. A sufficient number of bilinguals was not recruited until late in 1993. Meanwhile, they had to begin with what they had. By 1992, the MLT for the first country, Hungary, was only partly in place. Pushing on, the IWG was planning to send MLT's to Czechoslovakia and Poland, but the split of Czechoslovakia into

9540-461: The purpose of developing mil-to-mil contacts, one with the Soviet Union and one with Eastern and Central Europe. They were to be the oversight, or steering groups. The US-Soviet Union IWG did not outlast the break-up of the Soviet Union. The East Europe IWG met on August 15, 1990, to formulate objectives, of which the first was "Promoting development of non-political militaries accountable to democratically elected civilian leadership." In November, 1990,

9646-446: The region." Powell replied on 24 January, "I appreciate your insights and offer of assistance. Your expertise will be invaluable as we enhance our contacts with the former Soviet-bloc countries." United States Code The United States Code (formally the Code of Laws of the United States of America ) is the official codification of the general and permanent federal statutes of

9752-498: The relevant programs to it. During the previous year, meanwhile, Gorbachev, seeing the end coming, had been struggling to create some portable unity that would carry on after the fall of the Soviet Union. He proposed changing the government to a federation called the Union of Sovereign States , a less centralized government in which the Republics would have more independence. It failed to win

9858-625: The role of the National Guard as an all-volunteer, professional military with dual missions to support the nation and the state. The unique civil-military nature of the Pennsylvania National Guard enables it to interact with Lithuanian active and reserve forces, as well as civilian and governmental agencies. As a result, the Pennsylvania Emergency Management Agency and the Lithuanian Fire and Rescue Service have developed

9964-536: The same countries. The United States, under some urgency to forestall any Eastern-bloc backsliding, accelerated its IWG Program. Combining EUCOM's EUCAP with his own Contact Teams concept, on April 22, 1992, Colin Powell presented the Charter of a new program, the Joint Contact Team Program (JCTP). Command was to be entrusted to USCINCEUR (U.S. Command-in-Chief Europe, then Army General John Shalikashvili ),

10070-551: The task. The Code generally contains only those Acts of Congress, or statutes, designated as public laws. The Code itself does not include Executive Orders or other executive-branch documents related to the statutes, or rules promulgated by the courts. However, such related material is sometimes contained in notes to relevant statutory sections or in appendices. The Code does not include statutes designated at enactment as private laws, nor statutes that are considered temporary in nature, such as appropriations. These laws are included in

10176-424: The title of the Code itself the force of law. This process makes that title of the United States Code "legal evidence" of the law in force. Where a title has been enacted into positive law, a court may neither permit nor require proof of the underlying original Acts of Congress. The distinction between enacted and unenacted titles is largely academic because the Code is nearly always accurate. The United States Code

10282-456: The unanimous approval of the nine loyal Republics (out of 15, the other six abstaining from the vote). A second proposal for the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) was accepted and co-existed temporarily with the Soviet Union. It was an agreement to act together in matters of trade and security. Its core was the loyal nine, but the total membership would grow to 12. The difference between

10388-526: The year of last enactment. The Office of Law Revision Counsel (LRC) has produced draft text for three additional titles of federal law. The subject matter of these proposed titles exists today in one or several existing titles. The LRC announced an "editorial reclassification" of the federal laws governing voting and elections that went into effect on September 1, 2014. This reclassification involved moving various laws previously classified in Titles 2 and 42 into

10494-465: Was an uncertain and tedious process, not one which would secure reliable funds. To fund all the liaisons planned for the JCTP was unthinkable. The final nail in the coffin of the program as it was then might be termed psycho-political. It was based on fear and mistrust of the United States. EUCOM attempting to extend the JCTP to the CIS, the nine plus Republics loyal to Russia, was being stone-walled. An interest

10600-492: Was at an impasse. The solution to the impasse, as far as it could be solved, was already within the JCTP. Success was a matter of its being recognized by the senior officers. It had begun as an attempt to add the Baltic states to the list of prospective hosts. An MLT was already partly established in Hungary, the first host country. The Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Poland were deferred pending their achievement of stability. Romania, Bulgaria, and Albania were next, to be followed by

10706-619: Was attempting a restoration, and began to lose its Republics at an accelerated pace, the DoD became embued with a sense of urgency that outran the two-year program. Dick Cheney , United States Secretary of Defense , created independently a program of Bilateral Working Groups (BWG's), one per nation. A BWG would consist of senior officers in EUCOM and others from the host nation. They would agree to discuss "defense restructuring and reorganization." The BWG's began in September, 1992. In November, Cheney turned

10812-435: Was falling off. As the region was falling into poverty and cynicism, Gorbachev had proposed to the 27th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union on March 6, 1986, policies of glasnost , or candidness of governmental process, and peristroika , reorganization. The sibling policies amounted to a license to self-determine. In May, 1989, Hungary, acting on its own, opened the border between itself and Austria, negating

10918-399: Was idealistically motivated to help bring about democracy in the Eastern Bloc nations. In 1988 and 1989 he had already initiated friendly visits between five NATO nations and five Warsaw Pact nations, which impressed both sides with their spirit of conviviality. These experiences were building confidence in amicable partnership. Both sides were learning that they did not need to be enemies. As

11024-521: Was last printed in 2018. Both the LRC and the GPO offer electronic versions of the Code to the public. The LRC electronic version used to be as much as 18 months behind current legislation, but as of 2014 it is one of the most current versions available online. The United States Code is available from the LRC at uscode.house.gov in both HTML and XML bulk formats. The "United States Legislative Markup" (USLM) schema of

11130-614: Was likely much higher than 3,000, but did not give a specific estimate. In 2008, the Heritage Foundation published a report that put the number at a minimum of 4,450. When staff for a task force of the U.S. House Judiciary Committee asked the Congressional Research Service (CRS) to update its 2008 calculation of criminal offenses in the USC in 2013, the CRS responded that they lack the manpower and resources to accomplish

11236-406: Was overtly expressed, but no approvals seemed to be able to be secured, which could only be the result of clandestine rejection by Russia. The JCTP was giving the wrong impression. The CIS did not want Americanization, and certainly did not want a longer-term American presence. It appeared as though the Americans wished to take the place of the Soviet Union. Russia was having second thoughts. The JCTP

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