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62-762: Pelleas / ˈ p ɛ l i ə s / , or Pellias , is an Arthurian Knight of the Round Table whose story first appears in the Post-Vulgate Cycle . He becomes the husband of Nimue, the Lady of the Lake in Le Morte d'Arthur . His character might have been connected to the figure of Pwyll , the fairy Rhiannon 's human husband in Welsh mythology. In the Post-Vulgate, Pellias, the son of

124-595: A "deliberate spoof", although this is based on misidentifying Walter, archdeacon of Oxford, as Walter Map , a satirical writer who lived a century later. It continues to have an influence on popular culture. For example, Mary Stewart's Merlin Trilogy and the TV miniseries Merlin both contain large elements taken from the Historia . Two hundred and fifteen medieval manuscripts of the Historia survive, dozens of them copied before

186-539: A Gaulish army for Leir, who returns to Britain, defeats his sons-in-law and regains the kingdom. Leir rules for three years and then dies; Cordelia inherits the throne and rules for five years before Marganus and Cunedagius, her sisters' sons, rebel against her. They imprison Cordelia; grief-stricken, she kills herself. Marganus and Cunedagius divide the kingdom between themselves, but soon quarrel and go to war with each other. Cunedagius eventually kills Marganus in Wales and retains

248-406: A copy of Historia Regum Britanniae , which both Robert and Henry used uncritically as authentic history and subsequently used in their own works, by which means some of Geoffrey's fictions became embedded in popular history. The history of Geoffrey forms the basis for much British lore and literature as well as being a rich source of material for Welsh bards . It became tremendously popular during

310-542: A dedication to Robert, Earl of Gloucester and Waleran, Count of Meulan , whom he enjoins to use their knowledge and wisdom to improve his tale. The work of the History of Kings which was complied by Geoffrey of Monmouth in the 12th century has since been cited by medieval English and Welsh kings to assert the claim to a kingdom as its ruler. The legend began 3,000 years ago after the Trojan War ( c.  1184 BC ). It

372-527: A detailed list of the Kings of Wales with his ancestry going back to Brutus of Troy. However, Gruffudd's descent was from Locrinus of Scotland and not his brother King Camber of Wales. Otherwise, it is said that in the 8th century, the Welsh monk Nennius wrote the now questioned ancestry list, and that it was Geoffrey who published the king list accepted to date. In an exchange of manuscript material for their own histories, Robert of Torigny gave Henry of Huntington

434-622: A fleet to Britain, but he is overwhelmed by Cassivellaunus's army and forced to retreat to Gaul. Two years later he makes another attempt, but is again pushed back. Then Cassivellaunus quarrels with one of his dukes, Androgeus, who sends a letter to Caesar asking him to help avenge the duke's honour. Caesar invades once more and besieges Cassivellaunus on a hill. After several days Cassivellaunus offers to make peace with Caesar, and Androgeus, filled with remorse, goes to Caesar to plead with him for mercy. Cassivellaunus pays tribute and makes peace with Caesar, who then returns to Gaul. Cassivelaunus dies and

496-771: A golden arm circlet, the prize of a tournament that he won, as a token of his love. Ettarre, selfish and having gained the circlet and thus some social elevation, desires to be left alone; but despite her treachery Pelleas cannot forget her. He defeats all knights sent by her but, after each victory, deliberately allows himself to be captured and taken prisoner to her castle, as it is the only way that he can ever see his true love. Unsympathetic, Ettarre takes his horse from him and sends him on his way, only to return again and again. Gawain offers to try to persuade Ettarre to love Pelleas. Gawain instead lies to her, telling her he has slain Pelleas, and betrays him, sleeping with her himself. Pelleas finds

558-559: A minor character at other points in both of these works. He is active fighting in tournaments and defending Guinevere from her abductor Maleagant as one of the Queen's Knights. In Tennyson 's Idylls of the King , Pelleas is knighted by Arthur at a young age. As a young knight, he deeply loves the maiden named Ettarre who finds his youthful shyness and stammering bothersome and does not return his affection. She lies to him to induce him to give her

620-414: A physician and poison Ambrosius. When the king dies, a comet taking the form of a dragon's head ( pendragon ) appears in the night sky, which Merlin interprets as a sign that Ambrosius is dead and that Uther will be victorious and succeed him. So after defeating his latest enemies, Uther adds "Pendragon" to his name and is crowned king. But another enemy strikes, forcing Uther to make war again. This time he

682-714: A poor vavasour , seeks the love of the high-born maiden, named Arcade or Archade. Though he wins her a golden circlet in a tournament, she spurns him, holes up in her castle refusing to see him, and sends her knights daily to humiliate him in hopes of driving him away. During the course of unrelated adventures, Gawain , Arthur's nephew, witnesses Pellias's humiliation and vows to help him by going to Arcade wearing Pellias' armour so that it appears that Pellias killed Gawain. Once in her confidences, Gawain plans to woo Arcade on behalf of Pellias, delivering her to him. Instead, Gawain falls for Arcade himself, his passion causing him to forget his promise to Pellias. When Gawain does not return with

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744-764: A son, Guivret the Younger, who later becomes one of Arthur's knights. Thomas Malory reworked the Post-Vulgate story in the first book of his seminal compilation Le Morte d'Arthur . There, Gawain leaves the maiden—who in this version is called Ettarde—after the incident with the sword. Nimue , one of the Ladies of the Lake, comes upon Pelleas, hears his story, and falls in love with him herself. She takes vengeance on Ettarde by magic, enchanting her to fall in love with Pelleas as deeply as he loved her. Pelleas, whose love has turned to hate, spurns Ettarde, and she dies of sorrow. Nimue and Pelleas fall in love and marry. Pelleas also appears as

806-466: A valuable piece of medieval literature, which contains the earliest known version of the story of King Lear and his three daughters, and helped popularise the legend of King Arthur . Geoffrey starts the book with a statement of his purpose in writing the history: "I have not been able to discover anything at all on the kings who lived here before the Incarnation of Christ, or indeed about Arthur and all

868-475: Is a central component of the Matter of Britain. Geoffrey drew on a number of ancient British texts, including the 9th-century Historia Brittonum . The Historia Brittonum is the earliest known source of the story of Brutus of Troy . Traditionally attributed to Nennius , its actual compiler is unknown; it exists in several recensions. This tale went on to achieve greater currency because its inventor linked Brutus to

930-653: Is also possible to read the Arthurian literature, particularly the Grail tradition, as an allegory of human development and spiritual growth, a theme explored by mythologist Joseph Campbell amongst others. Historia Regum Britanniae Although taken as historical well into the 16th century, it is now considered to have no value as history. When events described, such as Julius Caesar 's invasions of Britain , can be corroborated from contemporary histories, Geoffrey's account can be seen to be wildly inaccurate. It remains, however,

992-476: Is also the first record we have of the great figure King Lear, and the beginning of the mythical King Arthur figure. For centuries, the Historia was accepted at face value, and much of its material was incorporated into Holinshed 's 16th-century Chronicles . Modern historians have regarded the Historia as a work of fiction with some factual information contained within. John Morris in The Age of Arthur calls it

1054-525: Is given rule of Brittany to compensate him for not succeeding. After a long period of Roman rule, the Romans decide they no longer wish to defend the island and depart. The Britons are immediately besieged by attacks from Picts , Scots and Danes, especially as their numbers have been depleted due to Conan colonizing Brittany and Maximianus using British troops for his campaigns. In desperation the Britons send letters to

1116-448: Is succeeded by his brother, Cassibelanus , as Lud's sons Androgeus and Tenvantius are not yet of age. In recompense, Androgeus is made Duke of Kent and Trinovantum (London), and Tenvantius is made Duke of Cornwall . After his conquest of Gaul, Julius Caesar looks over the sea and resolves to order Britain to swear obedience and pay tribute to Rome. His commands are answered by a letter of refusal from Cassivellaunus. Caesar sails

1178-404: Is succeeded by his nephew Tenvantius, as Androgeus has gone to Rome. Tenvantius is succeeded in turn by his son Kymbelinus , and then Kymbelinus's son Guiderius . Guiderius refuses to pay tribute to emperor Claudius , who then invades Britain. After Guiderius is killed in battle with the Romans, his brother Arvirargus continues the defence, but eventually agrees to submit to Rome, and is given

1240-447: Is temporarily defeated, gaining final victory only with the help of Duke Gorlois of Cornwall . But while celebrating this victory with Gorlois, he falls in love with the duke's wife, Igerna . This leads to war between Uther Pendragon and Gorlois of Cornwall, during which Uther clandestinely lies with Igerna through the magic of Merlin. Arthur is conceived that night. Then Gorlois is killed and Uther marries Igerna. But he must war against

1302-650: Is the best-known part of the Matter of Britain. It has succeeded largely because it tells two interlocking stories that have intrigued many later authors. One concerns Camelot , usually envisioned as a doomed utopia of chivalric virtue, undone by the fatal flaws of the heroes like Arthur, Gawain and Lancelot . The other concerns the quests of the various knights to achieve the Holy Grail ; some succeed ( Galahad , Percival ), and others fail. The Arthurian tales have been changed throughout time, and other characters have been added to add backstory and expand on other Knights of

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1364-622: The Galfridian works Geoffrey to Robert III of Scotland . Glyndwr referenced himself as the Prince of Wales and a direct descendant and heir of the son of Brutus of Troy, King Camber, and also of later the medieval King Cadwaladr . The work of Geoffrey of Monmouth was considered to take inspiration from the Latin publication of the life of 11th and 12th century King Gruffudd ap Cynan (written from 1137), finished by Gerald of Wales . Gruffudd's biography has

1426-475: The Harleian Genealogies ) and king-lists, the poems of Taliesin , the Welsh tale Culhwch and Olwen , and some of the medieval Welsh saints' lives, expanded and turned into a continuous narrative by Geoffrey's own imagination. The medieval works are deemed to be drawn from traditional Celtic materials and are supposed to have deep roots to the point that the publications are considered reliable and not

1488-551: The High Middle Ages , revolutionising views of British history before and during the Anglo-Saxon period despite the criticism of such writers as Gerald of Wales and William of Newburgh , who stated "no one but a person ignorant of ancient history [can doubt] how impertinently and impudently he falsifies in every respect." . The prophecies of Merlin in particular were often drawn on in later periods, for instance by both sides in

1550-461: The Norman world in the 11th–12th centuries. The remainder are obscure. After Aurelius Ambrosius defeats and kills Vortigern , becoming king, Britain remains in a state of war under him and his brother Uther. They are both assisted by the wizard Merlin. At one point during the continuous string of battles, Ambrosius takes ill and Uther must lead the army for him. This allows an enemy assassin to pose as

1612-477: The Saxons under Hengist and Horsa to fight for him as mercenaries, but they rise against him. He loses control of much of his land and encounters Merlin . At this point Geoffrey abruptly pauses his narrative by inserting a series of prophecies attributed to Merlin . Some of the prophecies act as an epitome of upcoming chapters of the Historia , while others are veiled allusions to historical people and events of

1674-581: The Strata Florida Abbey in Wales, and then translated by Hywel Fychan ap Hywel Goch of Buellt into Latin- Welsh during 1250 in the manuscript Chronicle of Kings ( Welsh : Brut y Brenhinedd ). Both of which are part of the medieval manuscripts of Wales ( Wales Library collection ), a lot of which are kept at the National Library of Wales in Aberystwyth today. Geoffrey's work was to do with

1736-566: The Trojan Aeneas , who, according to the Aeneid of Virgil , settled in Italy after the Trojan War . His great-grandson Brutus is banished, and, after a period of wandering, is directed by the goddess Diana to settle on an island in the western ocean. Brutus lands at Totnes and names the island, then called Albion , "Britain" after himself. Brutus defeats the giants who are the only inhabitants of

1798-448: The legendary kings and heroes associated with it, particularly King Arthur . The 12th-century writer Geoffrey of Monmouth 's Historia Regum Britanniae ( History of the Kings of Britain) is a central component of the Matter of Britain. It was one of the three great Western story cycles recalled repeatedly in medieval literature, together with the Matter of France , which concerned

1860-488: The British tongue", given to him by Walter, Archdeacon of Oxford . However, no modern scholars take this claim seriously. Much of the work appears to be derived from Gildas 's 6th-century De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae , Bede 's 8th-century Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum , the 9th-century Historia Brittonum ascribed to Nennius , the 10th-century Annales Cambriae , medieval Welsh genealogies (such as

1922-433: The Round Table . The medieval legend of Arthur and his knights is full of Christian themes; those themes involve the destruction of human plans for virtue by the moral failures of their characters, and the quest for an important Christian relic. Finally, the relationships between the characters invited treatment in the tradition of courtly love , such as Lancelot and Guinevere , or Tristan and Iseult . In more recent years,

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1984-724: The Saxons again. Although Uther ultimately triumphs, he dies after drinking water from a spring the Saxons had poisoned. Uther's son Arthur assumes the throne and inflicts a severe enough defeat against the Saxons that they cease to be a threat until after his death. In the meantime, Arthur conquers most of northern Europe and ushers in a period of peace and prosperity that lasts until the Romans, led by Lucius Hiberius , demands that Britain once again pay tribute to Rome. Arthur defeats Lucius in Gaul, intending to become Emperor, but in his absence, his nephew Mordred seduces and marries Guinevere and seizes

2046-402: The Saxons") contains the lines: Ne sont que III matières à nul homme atandant: De France et de Bretaigne et de Rome la grant There are only three subject matters for any discerning man: That of France, that of Britain, and that of great Rome. The name distinguishes and relates the Matter of Britain from the mythological themes taken from classical antiquity , the " Matter of Rome ", and

2108-527: The aid of King Alan of the Armoricans. However an angel's voice tells him the Britons will no longer rule and he should go to Rome. Cadwallader does so, dying there, though leaves his son and nephew to rule the remaining Britons. The remaining Britons are driven into Wales and the Saxon Athelstan becomes King of Loegria. Geoffrey claimed to have translated the Historia into Latin from "a very ancient book in

2170-764: The diaspora of heroes that followed the Trojan War . As such, this material could be used for patriotic myth-making just as Virgil linked the founding of Rome to the Trojan War in The Æneid . Geoffrey lists Coel Hen as a King of the Britons , whose daughter, Helena marries Constantius Chlorus and gives birth to a son who becomes the Emperor Constantine the Great , tracing the Roman imperial line to British ancestors. It has been suggested that Leir of Britain, who later became King Lear,

2232-599: The early Arthurian and pseudo-historical sources of the Matter of Britain. The Scots , for instance, formulated a mythical history in the Pictish and the Dál Riata royal lines. While they do eventually become factual lines, unlike those of Geoffrey, their origins are vague and often incorporate both aspects of mythical British history and mythical Irish history. The story of Gabrán mac Domangairt especially incorporates elements of both those histories. The Arthurian literary cycle

2294-432: The end of the 12th century. Even among the earliest manuscripts a large number of textual variants, such as the so-called "First Variant", can be discerned. These are reflected in the three possible prefaces to the work and in the presence or absence of certain episodes and phrases. Certain variants may be due to "authorial" additions to different early copies, but most probably reflect early attempts to alter, add to or edit

2356-764: The general of the Roman forces, asking for help, but receive no reply (this passage borrows heavily from the corresponding section in Gildas' De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae ). After the Romans leave, the Britons ask the King of Brittany (Armorica), Aldroenus , descended from Conan, to rule them. However, Aldroenus instead sends his brother Constantine to rule the Britons. After Constantine's death, Vortigern assists his eldest son Constans in succeeding, before enabling their murder and coming to power. Constantine's remaining sons Aurelius Ambrosius and Uther are too young to rule and are taken to safety in Armorica. Vortigern invites

2418-467: The hand of Claudius's daughter Genvissa in marriage. Claudius returns to Rome, leaving the province under Arvirargus's governorship. The line of British kings continues under Roman rule, and includes Lucius , Britain's first Christian king, and several Roman figures, including the emperor Constantine I , the usurper Allectus and the military commander Asclepiodotus . When Octavius passes the crown to his son-in-law Maximianus , his nephew Conan Meriadoc

2480-578: The history of the British kings who hailed from the Greek Empire and specifically from after the Trojan War (fall of Troy). Then, the books detail the Welsh medieval era during of the Kingdom of Gwynedd , from around 682, culminating in the life of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd until 1282, it was Prince Llywelyn II who referenced Geoffrey's work. Also, another king to cite the books was Prince Owain Glyndwr , he spoke of

2542-606: The imagination of one man, aka Geoffrey. However, since Geoffrey's publication of the Historia Regum Britanniae (De gestis Britonum), his work has been downgraded due to factual errors that were once recorded for the publication of his work i.e. observations to do with Stonehenge . Then, it was merely a century later that Geoffrey's 'The History of Kings' was rewritten and translated in Cistercian monasteries at locations such as Whitland , St Davids Cathedral and later

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2604-529: The island with their husbands, the Dukes of Albany and Cornwall. Cordelia marries Aganippus, King of the Franks, and departs for Gaul. Soon Goneril and Regan and their husbands rebel and take the whole kingdom. After Leir has had all his attendants taken from him, he begins to regret his actions towards Cordelia and travels to Gaul. Cordelia receives him compassionately and restores his royal robes and retinue. Aganippus raises

2666-522: The island, and establishes his capital, Troia Nova ("New Troy"), on the banks of the Thames; later it is known as Trinovantum , and eventually renamed London. When Brutus dies, his three sons, Locrinus, Kamber and Albanactus, divide the country between themselves; the three kingdoms are named Loegria , Kambria (North and West of the Severn to Humber) and Albany (Scotland). The story then progresses rapidly through

2728-565: The issue of English influence over Scotland under Edward I and his successors. The Historia was quickly translated into Norman verse by Wace (the Roman de Brut ) in 1155. Wace's version was in turn translated into Middle English verse by Layamon (the Brut ) in the early 13th century. In the second quarter of the 13th century, a version in Latin verse, the Gesta Regum Britanniae ,

2790-475: The legends of Charlemagne and his companions , as well as the Matter of Rome , which included material derived from or inspired by classical mythology and classical history . Its pseudo- chronicle and chivalric romance works, written both in prose and verse, flourished from the 12th to the 16th century. The three "matters" were first described in the 12th century by French poet Jean Bodel , whose epic Chanson des Saisnes  [ fr ] ("Song of

2852-434: The maiden, Pellias seeks them out and finds them in bed together. Though distraught, Pellias cannot bring himself to kill them, so leaves his bare sword between them in the bed and returns home, where he says he will never leave his bed until he dies from grief. The next morning, Arcade recognises the sword and Gawain remembers his promise. He convinces Arcade to love Pellias and arranges for them to meet. The pair marry and have

2914-609: The other kings and establishes his rule over the whole island. He is said to have "established the so-called Molmutine Laws which are still famous today among the English". Dunvallo's sons, Belinus and Brennius , fight a civil war before being reconciled by their mother, and proceed to sack Rome . Victorious, Brennius remains in Italy, while Belinus returns to rule Britain. Numerous brief accounts of successive kings follow. These include Lud , who renames Trinovantum " Kaerlud " after himself; this later becomes corrupted to Lon don . Lud

2976-406: The others who followed on after the Incarnation. Yet the deeds of these men were such that they deserve to be praised for all time." He claims that he was given a source for this period by Archdeacon Walter of Oxford, who presented him with a "certain very ancient book written in the British language" from which he has translated his history. He also cites Gildas and Bede as sources. Then follows

3038-550: The reigns of the descendants of Locrinus, including Bladud , who uses magic and even tries to fly, but dies in the process. Bladud's son Leir reigns for sixty years. He has no sons, so upon reaching old age he decides to divide his kingdom among his three daughters, Goneril, Regan and Cordelia. To decide who should get the largest share, he asks his daughters how much they love him. Goneril and Regan give extravagant answers, but Cordelia answers simply and sincerely; angered, he gives Cordelia no land. Goneril and Regan are to share half

3100-474: The so-called Brut Tysilio , was proposed in 1917 by the archaeologist William Flinders Petrie to be the ancient British book that Geoffrey translated, although the Brut itself claims to have been translated from Latin by Walter of Oxford, based on his own earlier translation from Welsh to Latin. Geoffrey's work is greatly important because it brought the Welsh culture into British society and made it acceptable. It

3162-584: The tales of the Paladins of Charlemagne and their wars with the Moors and Saracens , which constituted the " Matter of France ". King Arthur is the chief subject of the Matter of Britain, along with stories related to the legendary kings of Britain , as well as lesser-known topics related to the history of Great Britain and Brittany , such as the stories of Brutus of Troy , Coel Hen , Leir of Britain (King Lear), and Gogmagog . The legendary history of Britain

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3224-482: The text. The task of disentangling these variants and establishing Geoffrey's original text is long and complex, and the extent of the difficulties surrounding the text has been established only recently. The variant title Historia regum Britanniae was introduced in the Middle Ages, and this became the most common form in the modern period. A critical edition of the work published in 2007, however, demonstrated that

3286-502: The throne. Arthur returns and kills Mordred at the Battle of Camlann , but, mortally wounded, he is carried off to the isle of Avalon , and hands the kingdom to his cousin Constantine , son of Cador and Duke of Cornwall. The Saxons returned after Arthur's death, but would not end the line of British kings until the death of Cadwallader . Cadwallader is forced to flee Britain and requests

3348-401: The trend has been to attempt to link the tales of King Arthur and his knights with Celtic mythology , usually in highly romanticized, 20th-century reconstructed versions. The work of Jessie Weston , in particular From Ritual to Romance , traced Arthurian imagery through Christianity to roots in early nature worship and vegetation rites, though this interpretation is no longer fashionable. It

3410-412: The two together sleeping, and leaves his sword on their chests, revealing that he is alive and well, but also as a sign of honour, as he says he cannot kill a knight such as Gawain in his sleep. Arthurian legend By century The Matter of Britain ( French : matière de Bretagne ) is the body of medieval literature and legendary material associated with Great Britain and Brittany and

3472-431: The whole kingdom, ruling for thirty-three years. He is succeeded by his son Rivallo. A later descendant of Cunedagius, King Gorboduc , has two sons called Ferreux and Porrex. They quarrel and both are eventually killed, sparking a civil war. This leads to Britain being ruled by five kings, who keep attacking each other. Dunvallo Molmutius , the son of Cloten, the King of Cornwall, becomes pre-eminent. He eventually defeats

3534-565: Was Brutus of Troy 's family who fled modern day Republic of Türkiye to the now country of Italy , then afterwards he sailed to the British Isles , specifically Totnes in England, where the Brutus Stone is found today. Then, Brutus divided the island of Great Britain between his three sons as leaders of respective countries. Locrinus was his eldest and was given England to rule, Albanactus

3596-434: Was created partly to form a body of patriotic myth for the country. Several agendas thus can be seen in this body of literature. According to John J. Davenport, the question of Britain's identity and significance in the world "was a theme of special importance for writers trying to find unity in the mixture of their land's Celtic, Anglo-Saxon, Roman and Norse inheritance." Geoffrey of Monmouth 's Historia Regum Britanniae

3658-625: Was given Scotland , and Camber , the third son became the ruler of Wales , all three makes up the countries of Britain ( Latin : Brittonum ), which is today is part of the United Kingdom . The books then follow the timeline of the Kings of Britain for the following millennium, until the Roman invasion of Britain and the subsequent founding of medieval kingdoms in Britain. The Historia itself begins with

3720-646: Was interested in the legendary history of Britain, and was familiar with some of its more obscure byways. Shakespeare's plays contain several tales relating to these legendary kings, such as King Lear and Cymbeline . It has been suggested that Shakespeare's Welsh schoolmaster Thomas Jenkins introduced him to this material. These tales also figure in Raphael Holinshed 's The Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland , which also appears in Shakespeare's sources for Macbeth . Other early authors also drew from

3782-565: Was originally the Welsh sea-god Llŷr , related to the Irish Ler . Various Celtic deities have been identified with characters from Arthurian literature as well: for example Morgan le Fay was often thought to have originally been the Welsh goddess Modron or Irish the Morrígan . Many of these identifications come from the speculative comparative religion of the late 19th century and have been questioned in more recent years. William Shakespeare

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3844-400: Was produced by William of Rennes . Material from Geoffrey was incorporated into a large variety of Anglo-Norman and Middle English prose compilations of historical material from the 13th century onward. Geoffrey was translated into a number of different Welsh prose versions by the end of the 13th century, collectively known as Brut y Brenhinedd . One variant of the Brut y Brenhinedd ,

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