The landmass known as Patagonia hosts a series of archipelagoes , all of them located on its western and southern coast. These archipelagoes, with the exception of Tierra del Fuego (which is shared with Argentina ), lie in Chile and in the Pacific Ocean , covering about one third of Chile's coast.
101-401: The United States Hydrographic Office , stated in its South America Pilot (1916): The Patagonian Archipelago, the range of islands lying west of Tierra del Fuego and stretching along the western coast of Patagonia for 11° of latitude north of the western entrance to Magellan Strait , is about as inhospitable a land as is to be found in the globe, especially in its more southern parts. The land
202-611: A San Francisco , California, newspaper into an addendum to that year ' s Annual Report of the Superintendent of the Coast Survey . Although the Survey had previously published its work indirectly via the Blunts ' American Coast Pilot , it was the first time that the Survey had published its sailing directions directly in any way other than through local newspapers. On June 21, 1860,
303-558: A solar eclipse from a vantage point off Aulezavik , Labrador , on July 18, 1860, as part of an international effort to study the eclipse. Bibb became the first Coast Survey vessel to operate in subarctic waters. The outbreak of the American Civil War in April 1861 caused a dramatic shift in direction for the Coast Survey. All U.S. Army officers were withdrawn from the Survey, as were all but two U.S. Navy officers. Since most men of
404-563: A harbor red and those on the left black; instituted by Lieutenant Commander John R. Goldsborough in 1847, the "red right return" system of markings has been in use in the United States ever since. In the early 1840s, the Survey began work in Delaware Bay to chart the approaches to Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . Amid renewed calls for the Survey again to be transferred to the Department of
505-415: A means of reducing U.S. government expenditures, and Hassler and Bache had fought back periodic attempts to cut its funding. By 1850, the Coast Survey had surveyed enough of the U.S. coastline for a long enough time to learn that – with a few exceptions, such as the rocky coast of New England – coastlines were dynamic and required return visits by Coast Surveyors to keep charts up to date. In 1858, Bache for
606-639: A proper survey of the Pacific Ocean, for which the charts were in many areas inadequate. That year a great deal had been achieved in charting the Caribbean. By 1880 the office was divided into the Division of Archives, Chart Division, Meteorological Division, Division of Drafting and Engraving and Division of Longitudes. The office had published about 700 charts of foreign coasts. In 1881 the office employed 22 naval officers and 28 civilians. An 1889 report described
707-651: A transcontinental triangulation between the United States East and West Coasts, the Hawaiian Islands , Alaska , and "other coasts under the jurisdiction of the United States," which by then included also included the Philippines, Guam , American Samoa , and Puerto Rico. In 1903, the Organization and Law of the Department of Commerce and Labor stated that from the time the Survey began scientific activities in
808-468: A way of giving them a pension even though the law did not provide for a pension system, paid employees whether they worked or not, and misused per diem money intended for the expenses of personnel in the field by paying per diem funds to employees who were not in the field as a way of augmenting their very low authorized wages and providing them with fair compensation. Chenoweth saw these practices as embezzlement . Chenoweth also suspected embezzlement in
909-529: A wide range of technical positions. Coast and Geodetic Survey personnel also worked as reconnaissance surveyors for a worldwide aeronautical charting effort, and a Coast and Geodetic Survey Corps officer was the first commanding officer of the Army Air Forces Aeronautical Chart Plant at St. Louis , Missouri . Coast and Geodetic Survey civilians who remained in the United States during the war produced over 100 million maps and charts for
1010-674: Is at its minimum – and to the development of telemetering radio sonobuoys and marine seismic exploration techniques. The Air Commerce Act , which went into effect on May 20, 1926, among other things directed that the airways of the United States be charted for the first time and assigned this mission to the Coast and Geodetic Survey. In 1933, the Coast and Geodetic Survey opened a ship base in Norfolk , Virginia . From 1934 to 1937, it organized surveying parties and field offices to employ over 10,000 people, including many unemployed engineers , during
1111-435: Is mountainous, presenting an alternation of matted forest, bare rock, and deep bogs, and is cut up by deep channels into peninsulas and islands whose forms are yet very imperfectly known. Drenching rains , varied by snow and sleet, prevail throughout the year, while furious westerly gales succeed each other with rapidity. The scenery is magnificently stern, but is seldom seen to advantage, the clouds and mists usually screening
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#17330853407651212-573: The Allied forces. Three Coast and Geodetic Survey officers and eleven members of the agency who had joined other services were killed during the war. Following World War II, the Coast and Geodetic Survey resumed its peacetime scientific and surveying efforts. In 1945 it adapted the British Royal Air Force ' s Gee radio navigation system to hydrographic surveying, ushering in a new era of marine electronic navigation. In 1948 it established
1313-523: The British Admiralty hydrographic office or the French depot of charts, but as an office that could publish charts and directions where there was sufficient information available, priced to cover the cost of paper and printing but not the cost of preparation. In 1873 the office prepared the instruments needed to determine by using the electric telegraph the longitude of West Indian islands and of points on
1414-515: The Coast and Geodetic Survey Corps was created as a new uniformed service of the United States to carry out both wartime and peacetime surveying and related operations. In 1970, the Coast and Geodetic Survey was abolished when it merged with other government agencies to create the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), but its elements were reorganized and incorporated into NOAA as
1515-625: The Gedney Channel at the entrance to New York Harbor , which significantly reduced sailing times to and from New York City. Gedney was in command of the Revenue-Marine revenue cutter USRC Washington on August 26, 1839, when she discovered and seized the Spanish schooner La Amistad off Culloden Point on Long Island , New York . A slave ship , La Amistad had been taken over by African people on board who were being transported to
1616-801: The North Sea (where they supported the laying of the North Sea Mine Barrage ), as troop transport navigators, as intelligence officers, and as officers on the staff of U.S. Army General John "Black Jack" Pershing , commander of the American Expeditionary Forces on the Western Front . During the period between the world wars, the Coast and Geodetic Survey returned to its peaceful scientific and surveying pursuits, including land surveying, sea floor charting, coastline mapping, geophysics , and oceanography . In 1923 and 1924, it began
1717-698: The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center in Honolulu Hawaii . The onset of the Cold War in the late 1940s led the Survey also to make a significant effort in support of defense requirements, such as conducting surveys for the Distant Early Warning Line and for rocket ranges, performing oceanographic work for the U.S. Navy, and monitoring nuclear tests. In 1955, the Coast and Geodetic Survey ship USC&GS Pioneer (OSS 31) conducted
1818-648: The Survey of the Coast from 1807 to 1836, and as the United States Coast Survey from 1836 until 1878) was the first scientific agency of the United States Government . It existed from 1807 to 1970, and throughout its history was responsible for mapping and charting the coast of the United States , and later the coasts of U.S. territories . In 1871, it gained the additional responsibility of surveying
1919-684: The United States Revenue Cutter Service ) for surveying operations afloat, the U.S. Department of the Navy worked around the law by allowing Lieutenant Thomas R. Gedney to purchase the schooner Jersey for the Navy, then deeming Jersey suited only for use by the Survey. Under Gedney ' s command, Jersey began the Survey ' s first depth sounding operations in October 1834, and made its first commercially and militarily significant discovery in 1835 by discovering what became known as
2020-445: The United States government ' s first scientific agency, represented the interest of the administration of President Thomas Jefferson in science and the stimulation of international trade by using scientific surveying methods to chart the waters of the United States and make them safe for navigation. A Swiss immigrant with expertise in both surveying and the standardization of weights and measures , Ferdinand R. Hassler ,
2121-510: The copyright for the American Coast Pilot – the Blunt family publication which had appeared in 21 editions since 1796 and had come to consist almost entirely of public information produced by the Survey anyway – in 1867, and the Survey thus took responsibility for publishing it regularly for the first time, spawning a family of such publications for the various coasts of the United States and
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#17330853407652222-561: The " American Method ," it soon was emulated worldwide. Disaster struck the Coast Survey on September 8, 1846, when the survey brig Peter G. Washington encountered a hurricane while she was conducting studies of the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of North Carolina . She was dismasted in the storm with the loss of 11 men who were swept overboard, but she managed to limp into port. The Mexican War of 1846–1848 saw
2323-451: The 1807 law. On July 10, 1832, Congress passed a law renewing the original law of 1807 and somewhat extending its scope, placing the responsibility for coastal surveying back in the Survey of the Coast, returning it to the Department of the Treasury, and permitting the hiring of civilians to carry it out. Hassler was reappointed as the Survey ' s superintendent that year. As authorized by
2424-669: The 1832 law, the administration of President Andrew Jackson expanded and extended the Survey of the Coast ' s scope and organization. The Survey of the Coast resumed field work in April 1833. In July 1833, Edmund E. Blunt, the son of hydrographer Edmund B. Blunt , accepted a position with the Survey. The elder Blunt had begun publication of the American Coast Pilot – the first book of sailing directions , nautical charts , and other information for mariners in North American waters to be published in North America – in 1796. Although
2525-415: The 1850s, the Coast Survey also conducted surveys and measurements in support of efforts to reform the Department of the Treasury ' s Lighthouse Establishment , and it briefly employed the artist James McNeill Whistler as a draughtsman in 1854–1855. Ever since it began operations, the Coast Survey had faced hostility from politicians who believed that it should complete its work and be abolished as
2626-718: The Coast Survey, developed the Sigsbee sounding machine while conducting the first true bathymetric surveys in the Gulf of Mexico . With the outbreak of the Spanish–American War in April 1898, the U.S. Navy again withdrew its officers from Coast and Geodetic Survey duty. As a result of the war, which ended in August 1898, the United States took control of the Philippine Islands and Puerto Rico , and surveying their waters became part of
2727-617: The Coast and Geodetic Survey also operated in support of military and naval requirements. About half of the Survey ' s civilian work force, slightly over 1,000 people, joined the armed services. Officers and civilians of the Survey saw service in North Africa , Europe , and the Pacific and in the defense of North America and its waters, serving as artillery surveyors, hydrographers , amphibious engineers, beachmasters (i.e., directors of disembarkation), instructors at service schools, and in
2828-628: The Coast and Geodetic Survey and its successor organizations ever since. On February 5, 1889, by a joint resolution of Congress, the U.S. government accepted an invitation by the government of the German Empire to become a party to the International Geodetic Association . By law, the U.S. delegate to the association was a Coast and Geodetic Survey officer appointed by the President. By a resolution of April 12, 1892, Congress granted
2929-513: The Coast and Geodetic Survey continuing its entire program of scientific research, and recommended that the Coast and Geodetic Survey remain under civilian control rather than be subordinated to the U.S. Navy. It was a victory for Thorn and Colonna. Another victory followed in 1887, when Thorn headed off a congressional attempt to subordinate the Survey to the Navy despite the Allison Commission's findings, providing Cleveland with information on
3030-456: The Coast and Geodetic Survey introduced the wire-drag technique into hydrography, in which a wire attached to two ships or boats and set at a certain depth by a system of weights and buoys was dragged between two points. This method revolutionized hydrographic surveying, as it allowed a quicker, less laborious, and far more complete survey of an area than did the use of lead lines and sounding poles that had preceded it, and it remained in use until
3131-607: The Coast and Geodetic Survey raised by the Allison Commission and the Chenoweth investigation, Cleveland made the Chief Clerk of the Internal Revenue Bureau , Frank Manly Thorn , Acting Superintendent of the Coast and Geodetic Survey on July 23, 1885, and appointed him as the permanent superintendent on September 1. Thorn, a lawyer and journalist who was the first non-scientist to serve as superintendent, quickly concluded that
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3232-500: The Coast and Geodetic Survey was transferred from the Department of the Treasury to the newly created United States Department of Commerce and Labor . By the time of its transfer, the Survey had established suboffices at San Francisco , California , and at Manila in the Philippines and had expanded the scope of its operations to include Lake Champlain , the Pacific coast of North America from San Diego , California, to Panama ,
3333-510: The Coast and Geodetic Survey's duties. The Survey opened a field office in Seattle , Washington in 1899, to support survey ships operating in the Pacific Ocean as well as survey field expeditions in the western United States ; this office eventually would become the modern National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Pacific Marine Center. The system of U.S. Navy officers and men crewing
3434-412: The Coast and Geodetic Survey, at least some scientists were not prone to following bureaucratic requirements related to the funding of their projects, and their lax financial practices led to charges of mismanagement of funds and corruption. When Grover Cleveland became president in 1885, James Q. Chenoweth became First Auditor of the Department of the Treasury, and he began to investigate improprieties at
3535-528: The Coast and Geodetic Survey, traces its ancestry to the Coast and Geodetic Survey's Office of Weights and Measures. The United States Coast and Geodetic Survey began its existence as the United States Survey of the Coast , created within the United States Department of the Treasury by an Act of Congress on February 10, 1807, to conduct a "Survey of the Coast." The Survey of the Coast,
3636-513: The Confederates while working in support of Union forces. Army officers never returned to the Coast Survey, but after the war Navy officers did, and the Coast Survey resumed its peacetime duties. The acquisition of the Department of Alaska in 1867 expanded its responsibilities, as did the progressive exploration, settlement, and enclosure of the continental United States . George W. Blunt sold
3737-406: The Department of the Treasury to resume the administration of the Survey, which was renamed the United States Coast Survey in 1836. However, the Navy retained a close connection with the hydrographic efforts of the Coast Survey under law requiring Survey ships to be commanded and crewed by U.S. Navy officers and men when the Navy could provide such support. Under this system, which persisted until
3838-663: The Department, District , and Territory of Alaska in the coming years. In 1888, the publications for the United States East and Gulf coasts took the name United States Coast Pilot for the first time, and the publications for the United States West Coast took this name 30 years later. NOAA produces the United States Coast Pilots to this day. In 1871, Congress officially expanded the Coast Survey ' s responsibilities to include geodetic surveys in
3939-504: The Gulf Stream study served as a model for all subsequent integrated oceanographic cruises. Bache also instituted regular and systematic observations of the tides and investigated magnetic forces and directions, making the Survey the center of U.S. government expertise in geophysics for the following century. In the late 1840s, the Survey pioneered the use of the telegraph to provide highly accurate determinations of longitude ; known as
4040-604: The Hydrographical Office came from a petition submitted to Congress in 1863 by the American Shipmasters Association. A Senate committee prepared a report, and a Senate bill was passed on 24 June 1864. The purpose was to empower the Navy Department to give navy and merchant ships the results of surveys and explorations by naval officers in foreign waters. The office was not envisioned as being a rival to
4141-739: The National Ocean Survey, later renamed the National Ocean Service . In addition to the National Ocean Service, NOAA's National Geodetic Survey , Office of Coast Survey , and NOAA fleet all trace their ancestry in whole or in part to the Coast and Geodetic Survey, and the NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps is the descendant of the Coast and Geodetic Survey Corps. In addition, the modern National Institute of Standards and Technology , although long separated from
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4242-410: The Navy could perform hydrography, it could not provide the full range of geodetic disciplines necessary for scientifically accurate surveying and mapping work. In 1886, the Allison Commission wrapped up its investigation and published its final report. Although it determined that all topographic responsibility outside of coastal areas would henceforth reside in the U.S. Geological Survey, it approved of
4343-407: The Navy, Congress enacted legislation on March 3, 1843, providing for President John Tyler to establish a board to study the Survey and recommend a permanent organization for it. Its report recommended an organization which Tyler approved on April 29, 1843, and still was in place when the Survey left the Department of the Treasury in 1903. Professor Alexander Dallas Bache became superintendent of
4444-626: The Survey ' s operations from nine U.S. states to seventeen, and by 1849 it also operated along the United States West Coast , giving it a presence along all coasts of the United States. In 1845, he instituted the world ' s first systematic oceanographic project for studying a specific phenomenon when he directed the Coast Survey to begin systematic studies of the Gulf Stream and its environs, including physical oceanography, geological oceanography, biological oceanography, and chemical oceanography. Bache ' s initial orders for
4545-452: The Survey ' s ships that had prevailed for most of the 19th century came to an end when the appropriation law approved on June 6, 1900, provided for "all necessary employees to man and equip the vessels" instead of Navy personnel. The law went into effect on July 1, 1900; at that point, all Navy personnel assigned to the Survey ' s ships remained aboard until the first call at each ship ' s home port , where they transferred off, with
4646-428: The Survey during its early years. Hassler believed that expertise in coastal surveys would be of importance in future wars and welcomed the participation of Army and Navy personnel, and his vision in this regard laid the foundation for the commissioned corps of officers that would be created in the Survey in 1917 as the ancestor of today ' s National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Commissioned Corps . During
4747-538: The Survey had Union sympathies, all but seven of them stayed on with the Survey rather than resigning to serve the Confederate States of America , and their work shifted in emphasis to support of the Union Navy and Union Army . Civilian Coast Surveyors were called upon to serve in the field and provide mapping, hydrographic, and engineering expertise for Union forces. One of the individuals who excelled at this work
4848-522: The Survey in its disputes with its critics. Eventually, the relationship between the Survey and the Blunts would lead to the establishment of the Survey ' s United States Coast Pilot publications in the latter part of the 19th century. The Survey had barely resumed its work when President Jackson transferred it from the Department of the Treasury to the Department of the Navy on March 11, 1834. Survey results under Navy Department authority again were unsatisfactory, and on March 26, 1836, Jackson ordered
4949-401: The Survey of the Coast from the Department of the Treasury, prohibited the U.S. government from employing civilians to conduct coastal surveys, and gave the U.S. Army and U.S. Navy responsibility for such surveys under the auspices of the United States Department of War and United States Department of the Navy , respectively. Although the 1818 law did not abolish the Survey of the Coast, it had
5050-519: The Survey reimbursing the Navy for their pay accrued after July 1, 1900. Thereafter, the Coast and Geodetic Survey operated as an entirely civilian organization until May 1917. In 1901, the Office of Weights and Measures was split off from the Coast and Geodetic Survey to become the separate National Bureau of Standards. It became the National Institute of Standards and Technology in 1988. In 1903,
5151-409: The Survey relied on articles it published in local newspapers to provide information to mariners in the next decades, Blunt ' s employment with the Survey began a relationship between the American Coast Pilot and the Survey in which the Survey ' s findings were incorporated into the American Coast Pilot and the Survey ' s charts were sold by the Blunt family, which became staunch allies of
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#17330853407655252-479: The Survey was granted the authority to crew its ships in 1900, nearly half the Survey's ships were crewed and officered by U.S. Navy personnel over the 50-year period between 1848 and 1898; U.S. Navy officers and Coast Survey civilians served alongside one another aboard ship, and many of the most famous names in hydrography for both the Survey and Navy of the period are linked. In addition, the United States Department of War provided U.S. Army officers for service with
5353-406: The Survey's financial and budgetary procedures and improving its operations so as to demonstrate the value of its scientific program in performing accurate mapping while setting and meeting production deadlines for maps and charts. To the Survey's critics, Thorn and Colonna championed the importance of the Coast and Geodetic Survey's inland geodetic work and how it supported, rather than duplicated,
5454-446: The Survey's practice of providing its employees with money in advance for large and expensive purchases when operating in remote areas because of the Survey's inability to verify that the expenses were legitimate. Moreover, the Superintendent of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, Julius Hilgard , was exposed as a drunkard and forced to resign in disgrace along with four of his senior staff members at Survey headquarters. To address issues at
5555-608: The U.S. Coast Survey after Hassler ' s death in 1843. During his years as superintendent, he reorganized the Coast Survey in accordance with the plan President Tyler approved and expanded the Survey's work southward along the United States East Coast into the Florida Keys . In 1846 the Survey began to operate a ship, Phoenix , on the United States Gulf Coast for the first time. By 1847, Bache had expanded
5656-513: The U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey or the U.S. Geological Survey; whether the Coast and Geodetic Survey should be removed from the Department of the Treasury and placed under the control of the Department of the Navy, as it had been previously from 1834 to 1836; and whether weather services should reside in a military organization or in the civilian part of the government, raising the broader issue of whether U.S. government scientific agencies of all kinds should be under military or civilian control. At
5757-656: The U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, U.S. Geological Survey, and United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries, more commonly referred to as the United States Fish Commission . He had little impact on the Geological Survey or the Fish Commission, but at the Coast and Geodetic Survey he found many improprieties. Chenoweth found that the Coast and Geodetic Survey had failed to account for government equipment it had purchased, continued to pay retired personnel as
5858-702: The U.S. Navy Hydrographic Office published an ice atlas covering the North American Arctic on a scale of about 1:20,000,000. In 1954 aerial observation of sea ice moved from development into operations, with navy weathermen trained by the Hydrographic Office. Information was transmitted to the Hydrographic office, which prepared forecasts used in planning movement of shipping. United States Coast and Geodetic Survey The United States Coast and Geodetic Survey ( abbreviated USC&GS ; known as
5959-483: The U.S. Navy, the Survey operated as a completely civilian organization from 1900 until after the United States entered World War I in April 1917. To avoid the dangerous situation Coast Survey personnel had faced during the American Civil War, when they could have been executed as spies if captured by the enemy, a new Coast and Geodetic Survey Corps was created on May 22, 1917, as one of the uniformed services of
6060-647: The U.S. government, namely the Coast and Geodetic Survey, the United States Geological Survey , the United States Army Signal Corps (responsible for studying and predicting weather at the time), and the United States Navy 's United States Hydrographic Office . The commission looked into three main issues: the role of geodesy in the U.S. government's scientific efforts and whether responsibility for inland geodetics should reside in
6161-572: The United States , giving the Survey ' s officers a commissioned status that protected them from treatment as spies if captured, as well as providing the United States armed forces with a ready source of officers skilled in surveying that could be rapidly assimilated for wartime support of the armed forces. Over half of all Coast and Geodetic Survey Corps officers served in the U.S. Army, U.S. Navy, and U.S. Marine Corps during World War I, and Coast and Geodetic Survey personnel were active as artillery orienteering officers, as minelaying officers in
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#17330853407656262-409: The United States to be sold as slaves , and Gedney's seizure of La Amistad led to the freedom suit United States v. Schooner Amistad , argued before the United States Supreme Court in 1841. In 1838, U.S. Navy Lieutenant George M. Bache , while attached to the Survey, suggested standardizing the markings of buoys and navigational markers ashore by painting those on the right when entering
6363-427: The United States until August 16, 1815. The Survey finally began surveying operations in 1816, when Hassler started work in the vicinity of New York City . The first baseline was measured and verified in 1817. With surveying work barely underway, Hassler was taken by surprise when the United States Congress – frustrated by the slow and limited progress the Survey had made in its first decade, unwilling to endure
6464-405: The charges against Coast and Geodetic Survey personnel largely were overblown, and he set his mind to the issues of rebuilding the Survey's integrity and reputation and ensuring that it demonstrated its value to its critics. Ignorant of the Survey's operations and the scientific methods that lay behind them, he left such matters to his assistant, Benjamin J. Colonna , and focused instead on reforming
6565-401: The design of experiments and on a criterion for the statistical treatment of outliers . Ferdinand Hassler became the first Superintendent of Weights and Measures beginning in November 1830, and the Office of Weights and Measures, the ancestor of today ' s National Institute of Standards and Technology , was placed under the control of the Coast Survey in 1836; until 1901, the Survey thus
6666-412: The development of early current measurement technology, particularly the Pillsbury current meter invented by John E. Pillsbury , USN , while on duty with the Survey. It was in connection with intensive studies of the Gulf Stream that the Coast and Geodetic Survey ship USC&GS George S. Blake became such a pioneer in oceanography that she is one of only two U.S. ships with her name inscribed in
6767-426: The early 19th century it had produced "a stimulus to all educational and scientific work. The methods used by the Survey have been the standard for similar undertakings in the United States, and many commendations of their excellence have been received from abroad. The influence of the Survey in the various operations resulting from the advancing scientific activity of the country can hardly be overestimated." In 1904,
6868-449: The effect of removing Hassler from the superintendency and suspending the Survey's operations. During the 14 years from 1818 to 1832, the Survey existed without a superintendent or civilian workforce and without conducting any surveys. During these years, the Army conducted no surveys, those the Navy carried out achieved unsatisfactory results, and the United States Secretary of the Navy and others repeatedly called on Congress to revive
6969-442: The façade of the Oceanographic Museum (Musée Océanographique) in Monaco due to her being "the most innovative oceanographic vessel of the Nineteenth Century" with development of deep ocean exploration through introduction of steel cable for sounding, dredging and deep anchoring and data collection for the "first truly modern bathymetric map of a deep sea area." By the mid-1880s, the Coast and Geodetic Survey had been caught up in
7070-453: The first time publicly stated that the Coast Survey was not a temporary organization charged with charting the coasts once, but rather a permanent one that would continually survey coastal areas as they changed over time. Another significant moment in the Survey ' s history that occurred in 1858 was the first publication of what would later become the United States Coast Pilot , when Survey employee George Davidson adapted an article from
7171-400: The front lines carrying out mapping duties, and Coast Survey officers produced many of the coastal charts and interior maps used by Union forces throughout the war. Coast Surveyors supporting the Union Army were given assimilated military rank while attached to a specific command, but those supporting the U.S. Navy operated as civilians and ran the risk of being executed as spies if captured by
7272-453: The function of the office as mainly being reconnaissance of foreign coasts, office duties and publication of compiled maps. The United States Coast and Geodetic Survey , a component of the United States Department of the Treasury was responsible for the systematic hydrographic survey of the coasts of the United States. That year the office employed 39 officers and 40 civilians. The office gave out instruments for meteorological observations to
7373-478: The fundamental standards of length and mass of the United States from the customary English system to the metric system . The metric standards defined under the order remained the U.S. standard until July 1, 1959, by which time increasing precision in measurement required their revision. During the 1890s, while attached to the Coast and Geodetic Survey as commanding officer of George S. Blake , Lieutenant Commander Charles Dwight Sigsbee , USN , Assistant in
7474-462: The greatest loss of life in a single incident in the history of NOAA and its ancestor agencies occurred when a commercial schooner collided with the Coast Survey paddle steamer Robert J. Walker in the Atlantic Ocean off New Jersey . Robert J. Walker sank with the loss of 20 men. A Coast Survey ship took part in an international scientific project for the first time when Bibb observed
7575-561: The growing role of geodesy in its operations, the U.S. Coast Survey was renamed the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey ( USC&GS ) by a statute passed on June 20, 1878. The American Coast Pilot had long been lacking in current information when the Coast Survey took control of it in 1867, and the Survey had recognized that deficit but had been hindered by a lack of funding and the risks associated with mooring vessels in deep waters or along dangerous coasts in order to collect
7676-523: The height of the Great Depression . When the United States entered World War II in December 1941, all of this work was suspended as the Survey dedicated its activities entirely to support of the war effort. Over half of the Coast and Geodetic Corps commissioned officers were transferred to either the U.S. Army, U.S. Navy, U.S. Marine Corps, or United States Army Air Forces , while those who remained in
7777-451: The higher peaks and snow fields. Glaciers , however, extend in many places either nearly or quite to the level of the sea. In such a climate life is scarce, sea fowl and a few wild fowl being the main representatives of the animal kingdom. The scenery in the western portion of the Strait is grand and savage. The snow-capped peaks supply ice and snow for numerous glaciers, which descend nearly to
7878-537: The increased scrutiny of U.S. government agencies by politicians seeking to reform governmental affairs by curbing the spoils system and patronage common among office holders of the time. One outgrowth of this movement was the Allison Commission – a joint commission of the United States Senate and United States House of Representatives – which convened in 1884 to investigate the scientific agencies of
7979-451: The information necessary for updates. The U.S. Congress specifically appropriated funding for such work in the 1875–1876 budget under which the 76-foot (23-meter) schooner Drift was constructed and sent out under U.S. Navy Acting Master and Coast Survey Assistant Robert Platt to the Gulf of Maine to anchor in depths of up to 140 fathoms (840 feet; 256 meters) to measure currents. The Survey's requirement to update sailing directions led to
8080-490: The interior of the United States and geodesy became a more important part of its work, leading to it being renamed the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey in 1878. Long the U.S. government's only scientific agency, the Survey accumulated other scientific and technical responsibilities as well, including astronomy , cartography , metrology , meteorology , geology , geophysics , hydrography , navigation , oceanography , exploration, pilotage , tides , and topography . It also
8181-468: The interior of the country, and one of its first major projects in the interior was to survey the 39th Parallel across the entire country. Between 1874 and 1877, the Coast Survey employed the naturalist and author John Muir as a guide and artist during the survey of the 39th Parallel in the Great Basin of Nevada and Utah . To reflect its acquisition of the mission of surveying the U.S. interior and
8282-401: The late 1980s. The Department of Commerce and Labor was abolished in 1913 and divided into the United States Department of Commerce and the United States Department of Labor . With this change, the Coast and Geodetic Survey came under the jurisdiction of the Department of Commerce. Although some personnel aboard Coast and Geodetic Survey ships wore uniforms virtually identical to those of
8383-416: The masters of vessels willing to record and report their findings, requiring only that they take reasonable care of the instruments. In 1894 the hydrographic office paid the sum of $ 20,000 for patents taken out by a former employee for engraving machines, which would greatly reduce the time and cost of engraving soundings, compasses and border shadings. A number of these machines were in use by 1907. In 1946
8484-514: The need for the Survey to focus on the broad range of geodetic disciplines Colonna identified as necessary for accurate chart- and mapmaking: triangulation , astronomical observations , levelling , tidal observations , physical geodesy , topography , hydrography , and magnetic observations. To those who advocated transfer of the Coast and Geodetic Survey's work to the Navy Hydrographic Office, Thorn and Colonna replied that although
8585-454: The newly acquired coasts of Texas and California . The famous naturalist Louis Agassiz studied marine life off New England from the Coast Survey steamer Bibb in 1847 and also conducted the first scientific study of the Florida reef system in 1851 under a Coast Survey commission; his son, Alexander Agassiz , later also served aboard Coast Survey ships for technical operations. In
8686-455: The nineteenth century, the remit of the Survey was rather loosely drawn and it had no competitors in federally funded scientific research. Various superintendents developed its work in fields as diverse as astronomy , cartography , meteorology , geodesy , geology , geophysics , hydrography , navigation , oceanography , exploration , pilotage , tides , and topography . The Survey published important articles by Charles Sanders Peirce on
8787-496: The northern coast of South America where telegraph cables had been laid. A survey of the Gulf of Mexico had found many errors. Some surveying had been carried out in the Pacific Ocean. In July 1875 the Commodore responsible for the office, describing the work that had been accomplished in the previous year, called for a permanent building with proper fireproofing instead of the temporary rented premises, and asked for funding to conduct
8888-523: The previous lack of success of such an arrangement. When Thorn left the superintendency in 1889, the Coast and Geodetic Survey's position in the U.S. government had become secure. Before Thorn left the superintendency, the United States Congress passed a bill requiring that henceforth the president would select the superintendent of the Coast and Geodetic Survey with the consent of the U.S. Senate. This practice has continued for senior positions in
8989-671: The sea in some places, and frequently crown the precipices. Many waterfalls and cascades, some of which are of great height, fall into the bays, furnishing scenery that rivals the fiords of Norway . It is unfortunate for the voyager in these parts that the weather is such as to render exceptional an opportunity to witness this grandeur of the best advantage. The archipelagoes of Patagonia include: 50°S 75°W / 50°S 75°W / -50; -75 United States Hydrographic Office The United States Hydrographic Office ( USHO ) prepared and published maps, charts, and nautical books required in navigation . The office
9090-592: The time and expense involved in scientifically precise surveying, unconvinced of the propriety of expending U.S. government funds on scientific endeavors, and uncomfortable with Hassler leading the effort because of his foreign birth – enacted legislation on April 14, 1818, which repealed most of the 1807 statute. Congress believed that United States Army and United States Navy officers could achieve surveying results adequate for safe navigation during their routine navigation and charting activities and could do so more quickly and cheaply than Hassler, so its 1818 law removed
9191-414: The use of acoustic sounding systems and developed radio acoustic ranging , which was the first marine navigation system in history that did not rely on a visual means of position determination. These developments led to the Survey ' s 1924 discovery of the sound fixing and ranging (SOFAR) channel or deep sound channel (DSC) – a horizontal layer of water in the ocean at which depth the speed of sound
9292-605: The use of the facilities of the Coast and Geodetic Survey for research and study by scientific investigators and students of any institution of higher education. On April 5, 1893, Survey Superintendent Thomas Corwin Mendenhall , with the approval of United States Secretary of the Treasury John Griffin Carlisle , formally issued the Mendenhall Order , which required the Office of Weights and Measures to change
9393-406: The withdrawal of virtually all U.S. Army officers from the Coast Survey and the Coast Survey brig Washington was taken over for U.S. Navy service in the war, but overall the war effort had little impact on the Coast Survey ' s operations. Army officers returned after the war, and the expansion of U.S. territory as a result of the war led to the Coast Survey expanding its operations to include
9494-505: The work of the Geological Survey and was in any event an important component of the Coast and Geodetic Survey's hydrographic work along the coasts. Thorn also advocated civilian control of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, pointing out to Cleveland and others that earlier experiments with placing it under U.S. Navy control had fared poorly. Thorn described the Coast and Geodetic Survey's essential mission as, in its simplest form, to produce "a perfect map,". and to this end he and Colonna championed
9595-449: Was Joseph Smith Harris , who supported Rear Admiral David G. Farragut and his Western Gulf Blockading Squadron in the Battle of Forts Jackson and St. Philip in 1862; this survey work was particularly valuable to Commander David Dixon Porter and his mortar bombardment fleet. Coast Surveyors served in virtually all theaters of the war and were often in the front lines or in advance of
9696-471: Was established "for the improvement of the means for navigating safely the vessels of the Navy and of the mercantile marine, by providing, under the authority of the Secretary of the Navy, accurate and cheap nautical charts, sailing directions, navigators and manuals of instructions for the use of all vessels of the United States, and for the benefit and use of navigators generally". The impetus for establishing
9797-633: Was established by an act of 21 June 1866 as part of the Bureau of Navigation , Department of the Navy . It was transferred to the Department of Defense on 10 August 1949. The office was abolished on 10 July 1962, replaced by the Naval Oceanographic Office . Before the hydrographic office was established in 1866, U.S. navigators were almost entirely dependent on British charts. A few private enterprises had prepared and published charts, but had not been able to do so profitably. The Hydrographic Office
9898-567: Was not until 1811 that Jefferson ' s successor, President James Madison , sent Hassler to Europe to purchase the instruments necessary to conduct the planned survey, as well as standardized weights and measures. Hassler departed on August 29, 1811, but eight months later, while he was in England , the War of 1812 broke out, forcing him to remain in Europe until its conclusion in 1815. Hassler did not return to
9999-448: Was responsible for the standardization of weights and measures throughout the United States from 1836 to 1901. In 1959, it was assigned the responsibility for U.S. government oceanographic studies worldwide. By the mid-19th century, the Coast and Geodetic Survey operated a fleet of survey ships that constituted a distinct seagoing service of the United States until 1970. The Survey supported U.S. military operations in wartime, and in 1917
10100-543: Was responsible for the standardization of weights and measures throughout the United States. When it resumed operations in 1833, the Survey returned to surveys of the New York City area and its maritime approaches. Although U.S. law prohibited the Survey from procuring its own ships, requiring it to use existing public ships such as those of the Navy and the United States Revenue-Marine (which in 1894 became
10201-547: Was selected to lead the Survey. Hassler submitted a plan for the survey work involving the use of triangulation to ensure scientific accuracy of surveys, but international relations prevented the new Survey of the Coast from beginning its work; the Embargo Act of 1807 brought American overseas trade virtually to a halt only a month after Hassler ' s appointment and remained in effect until Jefferson left office in March 1809. It
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