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122-620: The Pandya dynasty ( Tamil: [paːɳɖijɐr] ), also referred to as the Pandyas of Madurai , was an ancient Tamil dynasty of South India , and among the four great kingdoms of Tamilakam , the other three being the Pallavas , the Cholas and the Cheras . Existing since at least the 4th to 3rd centuries BCE, the dynasty passed through two periods of imperial dominance, the 6th to 10th centuries CE, and under

244-557: A "kinship-based redistributive economies" largely shaped by "pastoral-cum-agrarian subsistence" and "predatory politics". Tamil Brahmi cave label inscriptions, describe Ilam Kadungo, son of Perum Kadungo , and the grandson of Ko Athan Cheral of the Irumporai clan. Inscribed portrait coins with Brahmi legends give a number of Chera names. Reverse of these coins often contained the Chera bow and arrow symbol. The anthologies of early Tamil texts are

366-578: A Hindu family and who had converted to Islam before becoming Delhi Sultanate's army commander, a favorite of Alauddin Khalji. In 1311, Alauddin ordered a massacre of Mongols in the Delhi Sultanate wherein between 15,000 and 30,000 Mongol settlers, who had recently converted to Islam, were killed after Khalji suspected them of plotting an uprising against him. Alauddin Khalji died in January 1316. Thereafter,

488-505: A Pandya king in the context of Prince Vijaya 's (543–505 BCE) arrival in Sri Lanka with his 700 followers. ...Nelcynda is distant from Muziris by river and sea about five hundred stadia, and is of another kingdom, the Pandian. This place [Nelcynda] also is situated on a river, about one hundred and twenty stadia from the [Arabian] sea.... ...the kingdom of Panyue is also called Hanyuewang . It

610-778: A Pandya queen from 3rd century BCE representing a confederacy of the Tamil countries. Madurai , in south Tamil Nadu, was the most important cultural centre in south India as the core of the Tamil speakers. Megalithic relics such as menhirs, dolmens, urn burials, stone circles and rock-cut chambers/passages can be found in south India. Burial goods include iron objects, ivory ornaments, Black-and-Red Ware and even some Roman Imperial coins. The so-called "velir" hill chieftains are assumed to be associated with these megalithic burials. Greek and Latin accounts (early centuries CE), coins with legends in Tamil-Brahmi script, and Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions suggest

732-685: A Turkish ruling elite to a non-Turkish one. André Wink however, states that Khaljis were a Turkicized group and remnants of early Indo-European nomads such as Kushans , Hephthalites, and Sakas who later merged with the Afghans. Also, stating that "at that time they were not perceived as Turks or Mongols . Contemporary historians clearly distinguish the Khaljis from the Turks" The Khalaj are, according to Doerfer , perhaps of Sogdians who were Turkicized. These Khalaj were later Afghanized and are believed to be

854-508: A battle fought near Kumbakonam. By c.  897 CE , Chola king Aditya I was the master of the old Pallava, Ganga and Kongu countries. It is a possibility that Aditya I conquered the Kongu country from the Pandya king Parantaka Viranarayana (r. 880–900 CE). Parantaka I , successor to Aditya, invaded the Pandya territories in 910 CE and captured Madurai from king Maravarman Rajasimha II (hence

976-589: A gift of rock-cut beds, to a Jain ascetic. It is assumed that the people found in the Mangulam inscription, Nedunjeliyan, Kadalan, and Izhanchadikan predate rulers such as Talaiyanganam Nedunjelyan and Palyaga-salai Mudukudimi Peruvaludi. Kharavela , the Kalinga king who ruled during c. 1st century BCE, in his Hathigumpha inscription , claims to have destroyed an old confederacy of Tamil countries ("the tamira–desa–sanghata") which had lasted 132 years, and to have acquired

1098-560: A large number of pearls from the Pandyas. Silver punch-marked coins with the fish symbol of the Pandyas dating from around the same time have also been found. The early historic Pandyas are celebrated in the earliest available Tamil poetry . The poems refers to about twelve Pandya rulers. According to tradition, the legendary Sangams ("the Academies") were held in Madurai under the patronage of

1220-537: A long term influence on Indian taxation system and state administration, Alauddin Khalji's taxation system was probably the one institution from his reign that lasted the longest, surviving indeed into the nineteenth or even the twentieth century. From now on, the land tax ( kharaj or mal ) became the principal form in which the peasant's surplus was expropriated by the ruling class. Within Sultanate's capital city of Delhi, during Alauddin Khalji's reign, at least half of

1342-404: A lost wax process they pioneered; that continues (to a certain extent) to this day. They established a centralized form of government and a disciplined bureaucracy. The Chola school of art spread to Southeast Asia and influenced the architecture and art of Southeast Asia. The medieval Cholas are best known for the construction of the magnificent Brihadisvara temple at Thanjavur, commissioned by

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1464-506: A major power during the reign of Mahendravarman I (600–630 CE) and Narasimhavarman I (630–668 CE), and dominated the southern Telugu Region and the northern parts of the Tamil region for about 600 years, until the end of the 9th century. Throughout their reign, they remained in constant conflict with both the Chalukyas of Badami in the north, and the Tamil kingdoms of Chola and Pandyas in

1586-701: A major source of information about the early Cheras. Chenguttuvan, or the Good Chera , is famous for the traditions surrounding Kannaki , the principal female character of the Tamil epic poem Chilapathikaram . After the end of the early historical period, around the 3rd–5th century CE, there seems to be a period where the Cheras' power declined considerably. Cheras of the Kongu country are known to have controlled western Tamil Nadu and central Kerala in early medieval period. Present-day central Kerala probably detached from Kongu Chera kingdom around 8th–9th century AD to form

1708-440: A rebellion; At the same time, he confiscated all landed property from his courtiers and officers. Revenue assignments to Muslim jagirdars were also cancelled and the revenue was collected by the central administration. Henceforth, state Kulke and Rothermund, "everybody was busy with earning a living so that nobody could even think of rebellion." Alauddin Khalji taxation methods and increased taxes reduced agriculture output and

1830-464: A short period). Unfortunately, the Pandya civil war coincided with the Khalji raids in south India. Taking advantage of the political situation, the neighbouring Hoysala king Ballala III invaded the Pandya territory. However, Ballala had to retreat to his capital, when Alauddin Khalji's general Malik Kafur invaded his kingdom at the same time. After subjugating Ballala III, the Khalji forces marched to

1952-444: A tax on standing crop, so as to fill sultanate granaries. His officers enforced tax payment by beating up middlemen responsible for rural tax collection. Furthermore, Alauddin Khalji demanded, state Kulke and Rothermund, from his "wise men in the court" to create "rules and regulations in order to grind down the common man, so as to reduce them to abject poverty and deprive them of wealth and any form of surplus property that could foster

2074-654: Is credited with the early Indo-Mohammedan architecture, a style and construction campaign that flourished during Tughlaq dynasty . Among works completed during Khalji dynasty, are Alai Darwaza - the southern gateway of Qutb complex enclosure, the Idgah at Rapri, and the Jamat Khana Masjid in Delhi. The Alai Darwaza, completed in 1311, was included as part of Qutb Minar and its Monuments UNESCO World Heritage site in 1993. Perso-Arabic inscriptions on monuments have been traced to

2196-608: Is known to have fought battles with the Pallavas, the Gangas, and probably with the Pandyas too, on the Kaveri basin. Kirtivarman II (r. 744/5–55 CE), the last Chalukya king, managed to lose to his southern countries as a result of his battles with the Pandyas. Pandya kings Maravarman Rajasimha I (r. 730–65 CE) and Nedunjadaiyan/Varagunavarman I (r. 765–815 CE) threatened Pallava king Nandivarman II Pallavamalla (r. 731–96 CE) who had managed to defeat

2318-468: Is listed as one of the ancestors in the Velvikudi Inscription of Nedunjadaiyan Varaguna-varman I (Jatila Parantaka Nedunjadaiyan). The Greek ambassador to Chandragupta Maurya , Megasthenes mentions Queens of Pandyas as 'Pandaia' and locates them in the south of India extending into the ocean. It consisted of 365 villages which met the needs of the royal palace each day of the year. He described

2440-479: Is several thousand li to the southeast of Tianzhu (northern India) ...The inhabitants are small; they are the same height as the Chinese ;... The darkest man is here the most highly esteemed and [considered] better than the others who are not so dark. Let me add that in very truth these people portray and depict their gods and their idols as black and their devils white as snow. For they say that god and all

2562-496: Is that the word pandya is derived from the ancient Tamil word "pandu" meaning "old". The theory suggests that in early historic Tamil lexicon the word pandya means old country in contrast with Chola meaning new country , Chera meaning hill country and Pallava meaning branch in Sanskrit . Another theory is that the word Pandya is derived from the Sanskrit word Pandu to mean white or pale, in reference to king Pandu and

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2684-534: Is thought of ruling the whole western and northern coast of Sri Lanka from her capital Kudiramalai , where remains of what is thought of as her fort are found. She is sometimes seen as an incarnation of the Pandya associated gods, Meenakshi and Kannagi . The medieval Pandya kings were claimed to have belonged to the Chandra-vamsa or the Lunar Race . They claimed Pururavas and Nahusha as ancestors. Pururavas

2806-531: The Akananuru and the Purananuru collections, there are two major works – Mathuraikkanci and Netunalvatai – which give a glimpse into the society and commercial activities in the Pandya country during the early historic period. The Purananuru and Agananuru collections contain poems sung in praise of various Pandya rulers and also poems that were claimed to be composed by the rulers themselves. Besides

2928-488: The Chera Perumal kingdom (c. 9th- 12th century AD). The exact nature of the relationships between the various branches of Chera rulers is somewhat unclear. Some of the major dynasties of medieval south India – Chalukya, Pallava, Pandya, Rashtrakuta, and Chola – seems to have conquered the Chera or Kerala country. Kongu Cheras appear to have been absorbed into the Pandya political system by 10th/11th century AD. Even after

3050-509: The Cheras , Pandyas and Satiyaputras . These polities, possibly not part of the Maurya empire, were on friendly terms with Asoka: The conquest by dharma has been won here, on the borders, and even six hundred yojanas (5,400–9,600 km) away, where the Greek king Antiochos rules, beyond there where the four kings named Ptolemy , Antigonos , Magas and Alexander rule, likewise in the south among

3172-483: The Cholas , the Pandyas , and as far as Tamraparni river. (Major Rock Edict No.13), Ven. S. Dhammika translation Everywhere within the conquered province of King Piyadasi (Ashoka), the beloved of the gods, as well as in the parts occupied by the faithful, such as Chola , Pandya , Satiyaputra , and Keralaputra , even as far as Tambapanni (Ceylon) and within the dominions the Greek (of which Antiochus generals are

3294-715: The Hoysala Empire south of the Krishna River and raided Madurai in Tamil Nadu. He then looted the treasury in capitals and from the temples of south India. Among these loots was the Warangal loot that included one of the largest known diamond in human history, the Koh-i-Noor . Malik Kafur returned to Delhi in 1311, laden with loot and war booty from Deccan peninsula which he submitted to Alauddin Khalji. This made Malik Kafur, born in

3416-591: The Hoysalas . Jatavarman I ( c.  1251 ) successfully expanded the kingdom into the Telugu country (as far north as Nellore ), south Kerala, and conquered northern Sri Lanka . The city of Kanchi became a secondary capital of the Pandyas.The Hoysalas, in general, were confined to the Mysore Plateau and even king Somesvara was killed in a battle with Pandyas. Maravarman Kulasekhara I (1268) defeated an alliance of

3538-553: The Hoysalas . Jatavarman I ( c.  1251) successfully expanded the kingdom into the Telugu country (as far north as Nellore ), south Kerala, and conquered northern Sri Lanka . The city of Kanchi became a secondary capital of the Pandyas. Maravarman Kulasekhara I (1268) defeated an alliance of the Hoysalas and the Cholas (1279) and invaded Sri Lanka . The venerable Tooth Relic of the Buddha

3660-585: The Khalaj , are said to have been initially a Turkic people who migrated together with the Hunas and Hephthalites from Central Asia, into the southern and eastern regions of modern-day Afghanistan as early as 660 CE, where they ruled the region of Kabul as the Buddhist Turk Shahis . According to R.S. Chaurasia, the Khaljis slowly inherited many Afghan habits and customs, and that they were treated as Afghans by

3782-566: The Madurai sultanate (1334). The Pandyas of Ucchangi (9th–13th century), in the Tungabhadra Valley were related to the Pandyas of Madurai. According to tradition, the legendary Sangams ("the Academies") were held in Madurai under the patronage of the Pandyas, and some of the Pandya rulers claimed to be poets themselves. Pandya Nadu was home to a number of renowned temples, including the Meenakshi Temple in Madurai . The revival of

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3904-589: The Pala ruler of Pataliputra , Mahipala . In 1025, he also successfully invaded cities of Srivijaya of Malaysia and Indonesia . Chola invasion ultimately failed to install direct administration over Srivijaya, since the invasion was short and only meant to plunder the wealth of Srivijaya. Chola rule or influence on Srivijava would last until 1070 when the Cholas began to lose almost all of its overseas territories. The Later Cholas (1070–1279) would still rule portions of Southern India. The Chola dynasty went into decline at

4026-482: The Pandavas . Apart from these derivations mentioned, several other theories do appear in historical studies. According to the ancient Tamil legends , the three brothers Cheran , Cholan and Pandyan ruled in common at the southern city of Korkai . While Pandya remained at home, his two brothers Cheran and Cholan after a separation founded their own kingdoms in north and west. Epic poem Silappatikaram mentions that

4148-677: The Rashtrakutas in the Deccan. The Pandyas took on the growing Pallava ambitions in south India, and from time to time they also joined in alliances with the kingdoms of the Deccan Plateau (such as with the Gangas of Talakad in late 8th century CE). In the middle of the 9th century, the Pandyas had managed to advance as far as Kumbakonam (north-east of Tanjore on the Kollidam river). Sendan (r. 654–70 CE),

4270-513: The Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam , along with the Chera and Pandya , the dynasty continued to govern over varying territory until the 13th century CE. Despite these ancient origins, the period when it is appropriate to speak of a "Chola Empire" only begins with the medieval Cholas in the mid-9th century CE when Vijayalaya Chola , the successor of Srikantha Chola captured Thanjavur from

4392-408: The mandi and had the power to seize anyone trying to buy or sell anything at a price different from the official controlled prices. Those found violating these mandi rules were severely punished, such as by cutting out their flesh. Taxes collected in form of seized crops and grains were stored in sultanate's granaries. Over time, farmers quit farming for income and shifted to subsistence farming,

4514-559: The three major powers (muventar) of ancient Tamilakam  in the early centuries of the Common Era. Chera bow and arrow insignia in Sangam era copper coin, Amaravati River , Karur The Chera country was geographically well placed to profit from maritime trade via the extensive Indian Ocean networks. Exchange of spices, especially black pepper , with Middle Eastern and Graeco-Roman merchants are attested in several sources. The Cheras of

4636-528: The " three crowned rulers (the mu-ventar) of the Tamil Region " in the southern part of India . The origin and the timeline of the Pandya dynasty are difficult to establish. The early Pandya chieftains ruled their country ( Pandya Nadu ) from the ancient period, which included the inland city of Madurai and the southern port of Korkai . The Pandyas are celebrated in the earliest available Tamil poetry ( Sangam literature ). Graeco-Roman accounts (as early as

4758-401: The 'Later Pandyas' (13th to 14th centuries CE). Under Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan I and Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I , the Pandyas ruled extensive territories including regions of present-day South India and northern Sri Lanka through vassal states subject to Madurai . Pandya dynasty is the longest ruling dynasty in the world. The rulers of the three Tamil dynasties were referred to as

4880-535: The 4th century BCE), the edicts of Maurya emperor Ashoka , coins with legends in Tamil-Brahmi script, and Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions suggest the continuity of the Pandya dynasty from the 3rd century BCE to the early centuries CE. The early historic Pandyas faded into obscurity upon the rise of the Kalabhra dynasty in south India. From the 6th century to the 9th century CE, the Chalukyas of Badami or Rashtrakutas of

5002-551: The Abode of the Tamils). The three chiefly lines of early historic south India – the Cheras, Pandyas and Cholas – were known as the mu-vendar ("the three vendars"). They were traditionally based at their original headquarters in the interior Tamil Nadu ( Karur , Madurai and Uraiyur respectively). The powerful chiefdoms of the three ventar dominated the political and economic life of early historic south India. The frequent conflicts between

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5124-543: The Chera, the Chola and the Pandya are well documented in ancient (the Sangam ) Tamil poetry. The Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas also controlled the ports of Muziris (Muchiri) , Korkai and Kaveri respectively (for the trade with the Graeco-Roman world). The gradual shift from chiefdoms to kingdoms seems to have occurred in the following period. The famous inscription of king Kharavela at Hathigumpha (mid-first century BCE) mentions

5246-445: The Chola kingdom had shrunk to the size of a small principality (its vassals in the extreme south had proclaimed their independence). It is a possibility that Pandya ruler Vira Pandya defeated Chola king Gandaraditya and claimed independence. Chola ruler Sundara Parantaka II (r. 957–73) responded by defeating Vira Pandya I in two battles (and Chola prince Aditya II killed Vira Pandya on the second occasion). The Pandyas were assisted by

5368-491: The Deccan, the Pallavas of Kanchi , and Pandyas of Madurai dominated the politics of south India. The Pandyas often ruled or invaded the fertile estuary of Kaveri (the Chola country), the ancient Chera country (Kongu and central Kerala ) and Venadu (southern Kerala), the Pallava country and Sri Lanka . The Pandyas fell into decline with the rise of the Cholas of Thanjavur in the 9th century and were in constant conflict with

5490-443: The Deccan, the Pallavas of Kanchi , and Pandyas of Madurai dominated the politics of south India. The Pandyas often ruled or invaded the fertile estuary of Kaveri (the Chola country), the ancient Chera country (Kongu and central Kerala ) and Venadu (southern Kerala), the Pallava country , and Sri Lanka . The Pandyas fell into decline with the rise of the Cholas of Thanjavur in the 9th century and were in constant conflict with

5612-500: The Gangas in c.  760 CE . Varagunavarman I invaded the Pallava country and conquered the Kongu country (western Tamil Nadu) and Venadu (south Kerala). King Srimara Srivallabha (r. 815–62 CE) sailed to Sri Lanka, subjugated and overpowered King Sena I, and sacked his capital Anuradhapura (the Panya invasion of Sri Lanka followed a period of vassalage). However, Srimara Srivallabha

5734-553: The Horse). At the beginning of his reign, defeated a major Mongol invasion, at the Battle of Jaran-Manjur (1298) . The victory consolidated Alauddin's power and prestige, thus stabilizing his position on the throne of Delhi. To secure a route to Gujarat's trading ports, Ayn al-Mulk Multani was sent to conquer the Paramara kingdom of Malwa . Its Rai defended it with a large Rajput army, but he

5856-550: The Hoysala control to the Mysore Plateau (the ancient Chola country was now overrun by the Pandyas). Kanchi functioned as the second major city in the kingdom. In his conquests, Jatavarman Sundara I assisted joined number of Pandya royals such as Jatavarman Vira Pandya. Jatavarman Sundara I subdued Rajendra II around 1258–1260 CE and made him pay tribute. The rule of the Cholas ended c.  1279 with Rajendra III. The Pandya attacked

5978-429: The Hoysalas and the Cholas (1279) and invaded Sri Lanka . The venerable Tooth Relic of the Buddha was carried away by the Pandyas. During this period, the rule of the kingdom was shared among several royals, one of them enjoying primacy over the rest. An internal crisis in the Pandya kingdom coincided with the Khalji invasion of south India in 1310–11. The ensuing political crisis saw more sultanate raids and plunder,

6100-405: The Hoysalas in the Kaveri and captured the fort of Kannanur Koppam. Hoysala king Somesvara was forced to fall back into the Mysore Plateau. The Hoysala king, pressed by enemies from north and south, "assigned" the southern half of his kingdom to his younger son Ramanatha (r. 1254–1292). Somesvara was eventually killed by the Pandya in 1262 CE. Ramanatha managed to recover Kannanur and hold against

6222-457: The Kaveri river was severely weakened by this move (and straightened the position of the Pallava ruler Nripatunga). Pandya ruler Varaguna-varman II (r. c. 862–880 CE) responded by marching into the Chola country and facing a formidable alliance of Pallava prince Aparajita, the Chola king Aditya I and the Ganga king Prithvipati I. The Pandya king suffered a crushing defeat ( c.  880 CE ) in

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6344-634: The Khalji dynasty era. Historians have questioned the reliability of historical accounts about the Khalji dynasty. Genuine primary sources and historical records from 1260 to 1349 period have not been found. One exception is the short chapter on Delhi Sultanate from 1302 to 1303 AD by Wassaf in Persia, which is duplicated in Jami al-Tawarikh , and which covers the Balban rule, start of Jalal-ud-din Chili's rule and circumstances of

6466-565: The Pallava territory was reduced by the encroachment from the Pandyas from the south (and Rashtrakutas and the Telugu-Cholas from nand orth). Pallava king Nandivarman III (r. 846–69 CE) was able to defeat the Pandyas and Telugu-Cholas (and even the Rashtrakutas) with the help of the Gangas and the emerging Cholas. (Varaguna-varman I) While the Pandyas and the Rashtrakutas were busy engaging

6588-559: The Pallavas, with the Gangas and the Simhalas (Sri Lanka) also in the mix, the Cholas emerged from the Kaveri delta and took on the chieftains of Thanjavur (the Mutharaiyar chieftain had transferred their loyalty from the Pallava to the Pandya). The Chola king Vijayalaya conquered Thanjavur by defeating the Mutharaiyar chieftain around c.  850 CE . The Pandya control north of

6710-416: The Pandya country the venerable Tooth Relic", and the wealth of the island. Sri Lanka remained under Pandya control until c. 1308–1309 CE. After the death of Maravarman Kulasekhara I (1310), his sons Vira Pandya IV and Sundara Pandya IV fought a war of succession for control of the empire. It seems that Maravarman Kulasekhara wanted Vira Pandya to succeed him (who in turn was defeated by Sundara Pandya after

6832-502: The Pandya is said to have defeated his enemies (which included the Chera and the Chola). He is also praised for his victory of Mizhalai and Mutturu, two "vel" centres along the ocean (in Pudukkottai). The Netunalvatai (in the collection of Pattupattu ) by Nakkirar contains a description of king Nedunjeliyan's palace. The Buddhist text Mahavamsa (composed in the 5th century CE) mentions

6954-413: The Pandya power by Kadungon (7th century CE) coincided with the prominence of the Shaivite nayanars and the Vaishnavite alvars . The Chola dynasty was a Tamil thalassocratic empire of southern India, one of the longest-ruling dynasties in the world history. The earliest datable references to the Chola are in inscriptions from the 3rd century BCE left by Ashoka , of the Maurya Empire . As one of

7076-465: The Pandya power. Jatavarman Sundara I also came into conflict with the Kadava ruler Kopperunjinga II . It seems that Bana (Magadai) and Kongu countries came under the Pandya rule during the wars against the Hoysalas and the Kadavas. Jatavarman Sundara I also fought the Kakatiya ruler Ganapati (1199–1262). Sri Lanka was invaded by Jatavarman Sundara I in 1258 and on his behalf by his younger brother Jatavarman Vira II between 1262 and 1264 CE. The island

7198-402: The Pandya supremacy in south India was laid by Maravarman Sundara I early in the 13th century. He succeeded his older brother Jatavarman Kulasekhara in 1216. He invaded the Chola country, sacked Uraiyur and Thanjavur , and drove the Chola king Kulothunga III into exile. The Chola king subsequently made a formal submission to Maravarman Sundara I and acknowledged his overlordship. Attempts by

7320-452: The Pandya territory in March 1311. The Pandya brothers fled their headquarters, and the Khaljis pursued them unsuccessfully. By late April 1311, the Khaljis gave up their plans to pursue the Pandya princes, and returned to Delhi with the plunder. By 1312 the Pandya control over south Kerala was also lost. Tamil Dynasties The medieval period of the history of Tamil Nadu saw the rise and fall of many kingdoms, some of whom went on to

7442-421: The Pandyas and defeated two Pandya royals including Maravarman Sundara II . Hoysala king Somesvara (r. 1233 – 1267 CE) then came to the aid of the Pandyas, defeated Rajendra III and then made peace with the Cholas. Jatavarman Sundara I ascended the Pandya throne in 1251 CE. He led his army to the Chola country (even as far as Nellore ), to Sri Lanka and to south Kerala . He was also successful in confining

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7564-509: The Pandyas. The heartland of the Cholas was the fertile valley of the Kaveri River , but they ruled a significantly larger area at the height of their power from the later half of the 9th century till the beginning of the 13th century. The whole country south of the Tungabhadra was united and held as one state for a period of three centuries and more between 907 and 1215 AD. Under Rajaraja I and his successors Rajendra I , Rajadhiraja I , Rajendra II , Virarajendra , and Kulothunga Chola I ,

7686-471: The Pandyas. Several Tamil literary works, such as Iraiyanar Agapporul, mention the legend of three separate Sangams and ascribe their patronage to the Pandyas. Pandya rulers from early historic south India Pandya rulers – such as Nedunjeliyan , the Victor of Talaiyalanganam, and Mudukudimi Peruvaludi, the Patron of Several Sacrificial Halls ("the Palyaga-salai") – find mention in several poems (such as Mathuraikkanci ). Besides several short poems found in

7808-567: The Sri Lanka forces of King Mahinda IV. Chola emperor Rajaraja I (r. 985–1014 CE) is known to have attacked the Pandyas. He fought against an alliance of the Pandya, Chera and Sri Lankan kings, and defeated the Cheras and "deprived" the Pandyas of their ancient capital Madurai. Emperor Rajendra I continued to occupy the Pandya kingdom, and even appointed a series of Chola viceroys with the title "Chola Pandya" to rule from Madurai (over Pandya and Western Chera/Kerala countries). The very beginning of Chola emperor Kulottunga 's rule (r. from 1070 CE)

7930-652: The Sultanate witnessed massive inflation. In order to compensate for salaries that he had cut and fixed for Muslim officials and soldiers, Alauddin introduced price controls on all agriculture produce, goods, livestocks and slaves in the kingdom, as well as controls on where, how, and by whom these could be sold. Markets called shahana-i-mandi were created. Muslim merchants were granted exclusive permits and monopoly in these mandi to buy and resell at official prices. No one other than these merchants could buy from farmers or sell in cities. Alauddin deployed an extensive network of Munhiyans (spies, secret police) who would monitor

8052-408: The Turkic nobles of the Delhi Sultanate. Even to the point where Turkic nobles in the Delhi Sultanate opposed Jalal-ud-din's ascension to the throne of Delhi after the Khalji Revolution . According to The New Cambridge History of Islam in the thirteenth century the Khalji were regarded as a separate people distinct from the Turks. The so-called “Khalji revolution” was the transfer of power from

8174-526: The Turks) and their language had undergone enough alterations to become a distinct dialect. However, the Jahan-nama describes them as "tribe of Turks" going through a language shift , speaking the Khalaj dialect, which was summarized by V. Minorsky. Khaljis were vassals of the Mamluk dynasty of Delhi and served the Sultan of Delhi, Ghiyas ud din Balban , as a minor part of the Muslim nobility. The last major Turkic ruler, Balban, in his struggle to maintain power over his insubordinate Turkish officers, destroyed

8296-416: The ancestors of Ghilzai/Ghilji Pashtuns. According to C. E. Bosworth, the Ghilzai, who make up the majority of the Pashtuns in Afghanistan, are the modern result of the Khalaj assimilation into the Pashtuns . Between the 10th and 13th centuries, some sources refer to the Khalaj people as of Turkic, but some others do not. Minorsky argues that the early history of the Khalaj tribe is obscure and adds that

8418-636: The banks of the Sind River in central India with the help of his nephew Juna Khan. In a plot by his nephew, Jalaluddin was assassinated by Muhammad Salim of Samana, Punjab . Alauddin Khalji was the nephew and son-in-law of Jalal-ud-din. He raided the Deccan peninsula and Deogiri - then the capital of the state of Maharashtra, looting their treasure. He returned to Delhi in 1296, murdered Jalal-ud-din and assumed power as Sultan. He would appoint his allies such as Zafar Khan (Minister of War), Nusrat Khan (Wazir of Delhi), Ayn al-Mulk Multani , Malik Kafur , Malik Tughlaq, and Malik Nayk (Master of

8540-601: The beginning of the 13th century with the rise of the Pandyan dynasty , which ultimately caused their downfall. The Cholas left a lasting legacy. Their patronage of Tamil literature and their zeal in the building of temples has resulted in some great works of Tamil literature and architecture. The Chola kings were avid builders and envisioned the temples in their kingdoms not only as places of worship but also as centers of economic activity. They were also well known for their art, specifically temple sculptures and 'Chola bronzes', exquisite bronze sculptures of Hindu deities built in

8662-438: The continuity of the Pandya dynasty from the 3rd century BCE to early centuries CE. The early Pandyas, along with the Cheras and the Cholas, were eventually displaced by the Kalabhra dynasty . The Pandya kingdom was revived by king Kadungon (r. 590–620 CE) towards the end of the 6th-century CE. In the Velvikudi inscription , a later copper-plate, Kadungon appears as the "destroyer" of the "anti-Brahmanical" Kalabhra kings. With

8784-666: The coup known as the Khalji Revolution by Jalal ud din Firuz Khalji . Jalaluddin Firuz Khalji, who was around 70 years old at the time of his ascension, was known as a mild-mannered, humble and kind monarch to the general public. Jalaluddin succeeded in overcoming the opposition of the Turkish nobles and ascended the throne of Delhi in January 1290. Jalal-ud-din was not universally accepted: during his six-year reign (1290–96), Balban's nephew revolted due to his assumption of power and

8906-536: The decline of the Kalabhra dynasty, the Pandyas grew steadily in power and territory. With the Cholas in obscurity in Uraiyur , the Tamil country was divided between the Pallavas of Kanchi and the Pandyas of Madurai. From the 6th century to the 9th century CE, the Chalukyas of Badami , the Pallavas of Kanchi , and the Pandyas of Madurai dominated the politics of south India. The Badami Chalukyas were eventually replaced by

9028-403: The defeat of a confederacy of the "Tramira" countries which had been a threat to Kalinga. It also remembers the precious pearls brought to the capital as booty from the "Pandya" realm. The Pandya chiefdom was famous for its pearl fisheries and silk industry. Korkai and Alagankulam are believed to have been the exchange centres of the Pandyas. Korkai, a port at the mouth of the river Tambraparni,

9150-563: The dissolution of the Perumal kingdom, royal inscriptions and temple grants, especially from outside Kerala proper, continued to refer the country and the people as the "Cheras or Keralas". The rulers of Venad (the Venad Cheras or the "Kulasekharas"), based out of the port of Kollam in south Kerala, claimed their ancestry from the Perumals. Cheranad was also the name of an erstwhile province in

9272-529: The dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in South Asia and South-East Asia . The power of the new empire was proclaimed to the eastern world by the expedition to the Ganges which Rajendra Chola I undertook and by naval raids on cities of the city-state of Srivijaya , as well as by the repeated embassies to China. The Chola fleet represented the zenith of ancient Indian maritime capacity . During

9394-568: The early historical period (c. second century BCE – c. third century CE) are known to have had their original centre at Karur in Kongu Nadu and harbours at Muchiri (Muziris) and Thondi (Tyndis) on the Indian Ocean coast ( Kerala ). They governed the area of Malabar Coast between Alappuzha in the south to Kasaragod in the north. This included Palakkad Gap , Coimbatore , Dharapuram , Salem , and Kolli Hills . The region around Coimbatore

9516-409: The edicts of Maurya emperor Ashoka , coins with legends in Tamil-Brahmi script, and Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions suggest the continuity of the Pandya dynasty from the 3rd century BCE to the early centuries CE. The early historic Pandyas faded into obscurity upon the rise of the Kalabhra dynasty in south India. From the 6th century to the 9th century CE, the Chalukyas of Badami or Rashtrakutas of

9638-594: The emblem of the Pandyas was that of a fish . Indian traditions such as the Great Epics and the Puranas often associate southern India with Sage Agastya (who had his ashrama in the south). Agastya appears prominently in medieval Tamil literature also. Folklores attribute Alli Rani (meaning "the queen Alli") as one of the early historic rulers of the Pandyas. She is attributed as an "amazonian queen" whose servants were men and administrative officials and army were women. She

9760-462: The extent of empires, exerting influences both in India and overseas. The Cholas who were very active during the Sangam age were entirely absent during the first few centuries. The period started with the rivalry between the Pandyas and the Pallavas, which in turn caused the revival of the Cholas . The Cholas went on to become a great power. Their decline saw the brief resurgence of the Pandyas. This period

9882-628: The first ruler of the Tughluq dynasty . Alauddin Khalji changed the tax policies to strengthen his treasury to help pay the keep of his growing army and fund his wars of expansion. He raised agriculture taxes from 20% to 50% – payable in grain and agricultural produce (or cash), eliminating payments and commissions on taxes collected by local chiefs, banned socialization among his officials as well as inter-marriage between noble families to help prevent any opposition forming against him; he cut salaries of officials, poets and scholars in his kingdom. Regarding

10004-399: The foundations of medieval South Indian architecture. They developed the Pallava script , from which Grantha ultimately took form. This script eventually gave rise to several other Southeast Asian scripts such Khmer . The Chinese traveller Xuanzang visited Kanchipuram during Pallava rule and extolled their benign rule. The Pandya dynasty , also referred to as the Pandyas of Madurai ,

10126-535: The general food supply worsened in north India, shortages increased and Delhi Sultanate witnessed increasingly worse and extended periods of famines. The Sultan banned private storage of food by anyone. Rationing system was introduced by Alauddin as shortages multiplied; however, the nobility and his army were exempt from the per family quota-based food rationing system. During these famines, Khalji's sultanate granaries and wholesale mandi system with price controls ensured sufficient food for his army, court officials and

10248-407: The help of generals such as Malik Kafur and Khusraw Khan, collecting large war booty ( Anwatan ) from those they defeated. His commanders collected war spoils from conquered kingdoms and paid khums (one fifth) on ghanima (booty collected during war) to Sultan's treasury, which helped strengthen the Khalji rule. Alauddin Khalji reigned for 20 years. He conquered Rajputana , attacking and seizing

10370-730: The identity of the name Khalaj is still to be proved. Mahmud al-Kashgari (11th century) does not include the Khalaj among the Oghuz Turkic tribes, but includes them among the Oghuz-Turkman (where Turkman meant "Like the Turks") tribes. Kashgari felt the Khalaj did not belong to the original stock of Turkish tribes but had associated with them and therefore, in language and dress, often appeared "like Turks". Muhammad ibn Najib Bakran's Jahan-nama explicitly describes them as Turkic, although he notes that their complexion had become darker (compared to

10492-585: The kingdom of Zamorin of Calicut , which had included parts of present-day Tirurangadi and Tirur Taluks of Malappuram district in it. Later it became a Taluk of Malabar District , when Malabar came under the British Raj . The headquarters of Cheranad Taluk was the town of Tirurangadi . Later the Taluk was merged with Eranad Taluk. In the modern period the rulers of Cochin and Travancore (in Kerala) also claimed

10614-552: The latter. The Pandyas allied themselves with the Sinhalese and the Cheras against the Chola Empire until it found an opportunity to revive its frontiers during the late 13th century. The Pandyas entered their golden age under Maravarman I and Jatavarman Sundara Pandya I (13th century). Some early efforts by Maravarman I to expand into the Chola country were effectively checked by

10736-416: The latter. The Pandyas allied themselves with the Sinhalese and the Cheras in harassing the Chola Empire until it found an opportunity for reviving its frontiers during the late 13th century. The Pandyas entered their golden age under Maravarman I and Jatavarman Sundara Pandya I (13th century). Some early efforts by Maravarman I to expand into the ancient Chola country were effectively checked by

10858-532: The loss of south Kerala (1312), and north Sri Lanka (1323) and the establishment of the Madurai sultanate (1334). The Pandyas of Ucchangi (9th–13th century) in the Tungabhadra valley were related to the Pandyas of Madurai. According to tradition, the legendary Sangams ("the Academies") were held in Madurai under the patronage of the Pandyas, and some of the Pandyan rulers claimed to be poets themselves. Pandya Nadu

10980-704: The loyalty of the amirs and the Malik clan he offered Ghazi Malik the position of army commander in the Punjab. Others were given a choice between various offices and death. After ruling in his own name for less than four years, Mubarak Shah was murdered in 1320 by one of his generals, Khusraw Khan . Amirs persuaded Ghazi Malik, who was still army commander in the Punjab, to lead a coup. Ghazi Malik's forces marched on Delhi, captured Khusraw Khan, and beheaded him. Upon becoming sultan, Ghazi Malik renamed himself Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq , becoming

11102-705: The military, historians states the standing army of sultanate during Khilji dynasty consist of 300,000-400,000 horse cavalry and 2500-3000 war elephant . Which is smaller than its successor state, the Tughlaq dynasty , which recorded to possess a standing army of 500,000 cavalry. Alauddin Khalji enforced four taxes on non-Muslims in the Sultanate - jizya (poll tax), kharaj (land tax), kari (house tax), and chari (pasture tax). He also decreed that his Delhi-based revenue officers assisted by local Muslim jagirdars , khuts , mukkadims , chaudharis and zamindars seize by force half of all produce any farmer generates, as

11224-414: The most famous Chola king, Rajaraja Chola in 1010 CE. The Chera dynasty ( Tamil : சேரர், Malayalam : ചേരൻ) ( or Cēra ), IPA: [t͡ʃeːɾɐ] , was one of the principal lineages in the early history of the present day state of Kerala and some parts of Tamil Nadu in southern India. Together with the Cholas of Uraiyur(Tiruchirappalli) and the Pandyas of Madurai , the early Cheras were known as one of

11346-484: The next Chola king Rajaraja III (1216 – 46 CE) for self-rule (to stop the Pandya invasion into the Chola country), with the help of the Hoysalas king Narasimha II (r. 1220 – 1238 CE), resulted in a battle between the Pandya and Hoysala forces at Mahendramangalam on the Kaveri Valley . Maravarman Sundara I was defeated and Rajaraja III was restored in the Chola country. Sometime later Chola prince Rajendra III attacked

11468-627: The period 1010–1153, the Chola territories stretched from the islands of the Maldives in the south to as far north as the banks of the Godavari River in Andhra Pradesh . Rajaraja Chola conquered peninsular South India , annexed parts of which is now Sri Lanka and occupied the islands of the Maldives. Rajendra Chola sent a victorious expedition to North India that touched the river Ganges and defeated

11590-619: The poems, king Peruvaludi is also mentioned in later copper-plate grant (8th–9th century CE). In the work Mathuraikkanci , the author Mankudi Maruthanar, refers to his patron, Talaihalanganum Nedunjeliyan , as the Lord of Korkai and the Warlord of the Southern Parathavar People . It contains a full-length description of Madurai and the Pandya country under the rule of Nedunjeliyan. In the famous battle of Talaiyalanganam (in east Tanjore),

11712-613: The population were slaves working as servants, concubines and guards for the Muslim nobles, amirs, court officials and commanders. Slavery in India during the Khalji dynasty, and later Islamic dynasties, included two groups of people - persons seized during military campaigns, and people who defaulted on their taxes. The institution of slavery and bondage labor became pervasive during the Khalji dynasty; male slaves were referred to as banda , qaid , ghulam , or burdah , while female slaves were called bandi , kaniz or laundi . Alauddin Khalji

11834-688: The power of the Forty . However this indirectly damaged the Turkish integrity of the nobility, which had opposed the power of the non-Turks. This left them vulnerable to the Khalji faction, which took power through a series of assassinations. One by one the Mamluk officers were murdered, and the last ruler of the Turkic Mamluk dynasty - the 17-year old Muiz ud din Qaiqabad - was killed in the Kailu-gheri Palace during

11956-453: The queen Pandaie as daughter of Heracles (by some author as Shiva or Krishna ). Madurai , capital of Pandyas is mentioned in Kautilya's Arthashastra (4th century BCE) as ' Mathura of the south'. Pandyas are also mentioned in the inscriptions of Maurya emperor Asoka (3rd century BCE). In his inscriptions (2nd and 13th Major Rock Edict), Asoka refers to the peoples of south India –

12078-470: The rulers ) everywhere the heaven-beloved Raja Piyadasi’s double system of medical aid is established- both medical aid for men and medical aid for animals. (Major Rock Edict No.2), James Prinsep translation The earliest Pandya to be found in epigraph is Nedunjeliyan , figuring in the Tamil-Brahmi Mangulam inscription (near Madurai) assigned to 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE. The record documents

12200-630: The saints are black and the devils are all white. That is why they portray them as I have described. Mauryan emperor Asoka (3rd century BCE) seems to have been on friendly terms with the people of south India and Sri Lanka (the Cholas , the Pandyas, the Satiya Putras , the Kerala Putras and the Tamraparnis ). There are no indications that Asoka tried to conquer the extreme south India (the Tamilakam –

12322-531: The south. The Pallavas were finally defeated by the Chola ruler Aditya I in the 9th century CE. The Pallavas are most noted for their patronage of architecture, the finest example being the Shore Temple , a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Mamallapuram . Kancheepuram served as the capital of the Pallava kingdom. The dynasty left behind magnificent sculptures and temples, and are recognised to have established

12444-420: The states of Jaisalmer (1299) , Ranthambhor (1301) , Chittorgarh (1303), Malwa(1305) , he also conquered Gujarat and plundered the wealthy state of Devagiri during his raids in the south. He also withstood two Mongol raids. Alauddin was also known for his cruelty against attacked kingdoms after wars. Historians note him as a tyrant, and that anyone Alauddin Khalji suspected of being a threat to this power

12566-405: The subsequent sidelining of nobility and commanders serving the Mamluk dynasty. Jalal-ud-din suppressed the revolt and executed some commanders, then led an unsuccessful expedition against Ranthambhor . Jalal-ud-din used an Afghan enclave in the suburb of Delhi, Kilokhri, as his de facto capital. He also repelled several Mongol attacks on India and was successful in destroying a Mongol force on

12688-515: The succession of Alauddin Khalji. A semi-fictional poetry ( mathnawi ) by Yamin al-Din Abul Hasan, also known as Amir Khusrau , is full of adulation for his employer, the reigning Sultan. Khusrau's adulation-filled narrative poetry has been used as a source of Khalji dynasty history, but this is a disputed source. Three historical sources, composed 30 to 115 years after the end of Khalji dynasty, are considered more independent but also questioned given

12810-621: The sultanate witnessed chaos, coup and succession of assassinations. Malik Kafur became the sultan but lacked support from the amirs and was killed within a few months. Over the next three years following Malik Kafur's death, another three sultans assumed power violently and/or were killed in coups. First, the amirs installed a six-year-old named Shihab-ud-din Omar as sultan and his teenage brother, Qutb ud din Mubarak Shah , as regent. Qutb killed his younger brother and appointed himself sultan; to win over

12932-451: The third king of the Pandyas of Madurai, is known for expanding his kingdom to the Chera country (western Tamil Nadu and central Kerala ). Arikesari Maravarman (r. 670–700 CE), the fourth Pandya ruler, is known for his battles against the Pallavas of Kanchi . Pallava king Narasimhavarman I (r. 630–668 CE), the famous conqueror of Badami , claimed to have defeated the Pandyas. Chalukya King Paramesvaravarman I "Vikramaditya" (r. 670–700 CE)

13054-507: The three Tamil dynasties were referred to as the " three crowned rulers (the mu-ventar) of the Tamil country ". The origin and the timeline of the Pandya dynasty are difficult to establish. The early Pandya chieftains ruled their country ( Pandya Nadu ) from the ancient period, which included the inland city of Madurai and the southern port of Korkai . The Pandyas are celebrated in the earliest available Tamil poetry ( Sangam literature "). Graeco-Roman accounts (as early as 4th century BCE),

13176-521: The title "Chera". Khalji dynasty The Khalji or Khilji dynasty was a Turco-Afghan dynasty that ruled the Delhi Sultanate for three decades between 1290 and 1320. It was the second dynasty to rule the Delhi Sultanate which covered large swaths of the Indian subcontinent . It was founded by Jalal ud din Firuz Khalji . The Khalji dynasty was of Turko-Afghan origin whose ancestors,

13298-460: The title "Madurai Konda"). Rajasimha II received help from the Sri Lankan king Kassapa V, still got defeated by Parantaka I in the battle of Vellur, and fled to Sri Lanka. Rajasimha then found refuge in the Chera country, leaving even his royal insignia in Sri Lanka, the home of his mother. The Cholas were defeated by a Rashtrakuta-lead confederacy in the battle of Takkolam in 949 CE. By mid-950s,

13420-453: The two princes or their kins. Pandya kings (10th century–first half of 11th century CE): The Pandya empire included extensive territories, at times including large portions of south India and Sri Lanka . The rule of the empire was shared among several royals, one of them enjoying primacy over the rest. The Pandya king at Madurai thus controlled these vast regions through the collateral family branches subject to Madurai . The foundation for

13542-413: The urban population in Delhi. Price controls instituted by Khalji reduced prices, but also lowered wages to a point where ordinary people did not benefit from the low prices. The price control system collapsed shortly after the death of Alauddin Khalji, with prices of various agriculture products and wages doubling to quadrupling within a few years. The tax system introduced during the Khalji dynasty had

13664-473: Was again invaded and defeated by Jatavarman Vira II in 1270 CE. Sundara Pandya I (died in 1268) was succeeded by Maravarman Kulasekara I . Around 1279 the combined force of Hoysala king Ramanatha and Rajendra III was defeated by Maravarman Kulasekara I. Maravarman Kulasekara I, now virtually unchallenged, ruled over the Chola country and southern Tamil speaking portions of Hoysala kingdom. He also invaded Sri Lanka, ruled by Bhuvanaikabahu I, who "carried away to

13786-483: Was also that of the re-invigorated Hinduism during which temple building and religious literature were at their best. The Pallava dynasty, also known as Tondaimandalam, was an Indian dynasty that existed from 275 CE to 897 CE, ruling a significant portion of southern India . They gained prominence after the downfall of the Satavahana dynasty , with whom they had formerly served as feudatories . The Pallavas became

13908-527: Was an ancient dynasty of South India , and among the three great kingdoms of Tamilakam , the other two being the Cholas and the Cheras . Extant since at least the 4th to 3rd centuries BCE, the dynasty passed through two periods of imperial dominance, the 6th to 10th centuries CE, and under the 'Later Pandyas' (13th to 14th centuries CE). The Pandyas ruled extensive territories, at times including regions of present-day South India and northern Sri Lanka through vassal states subject to Madurai . The rulers of

14030-412: Was carried away by the Pandyas. During this period, the rule of the kingdom was shared among several royals, one of them enjoying primacy over the rest. An internal crisis in the Pandya kingdom coincided with the Khalji invasion of south India in 1310–11. The ensuing political crisis saw more sultanate raids and plunder, the loss of south Kerala (1312), and north Sri Lanka (1323) and the establishment of

14152-483: Was defeated by Multani who became the governor of the province. Then in 1299 Nusrat Khan was sent to conquer Gujarat itself, where he defeated its Solanki king. Nusrat Khan plundered its chief cities and sacked its temples, such as the famous temple of Somnath which had been rebuilt in the twelfth century. It was here where Nusrat Khan captured Malik Kafur who would later become a military general. Alauddin continued expanding Delhi Sultanate into South India, with

14274-525: Was home to several renowned temples, including the Meenakshi Temple in Madurai . The revival of the Pandya power by Kadungon (late 6th century CE) coincided with the prominence of the Shaivite nayanars and the Vaishnavite alvars . It is known that the Pandya rulers followed Jainism for a short period of time. The etymology of Pandya is still a matter of considerable speculation among scholars. One theory

14396-456: Was killed, along with the women and children of that family. In 1298, between 15,000 and 30,000 people near Delhi, who had recently converted to Islam, were slaughtered in a single day, due to fears of an uprising. He also killed his own family members and nephews, in 1299–1300, after he suspected them of rebellion, by first gouging out their eyes and then beheading them. In 1308, Alauddin's lieutenant, Malik Kafur captured Warangal , overthrew

14518-436: Was linked to the famous pearl fisheries and Alagankulam was also developed as a port. Several coins attributed to early historic Pandyas are found were Severalin the region. Inscriptions, datable to c. 2nd century BCE, recording royal grants – both from royals and wealthy commoners – were also discovered from the Pandya country. The Pandya seems to be the most prominent of the three "ventar" rulers. There are even references to

14640-492: Was marked by the loss of Sri Lanka and a rebellion in the Pandya country. The second half of the 12th century witnessed a major internal crisis in the Pandya country (between princes Parakrama Pandya and Kulasekhara Pandya). The neighbouring kingdoms of Sri Lanka, under Parakramabahu I , Venadu Chera/Kerala , under the Kulasekharas, and the Cholas, under Rajadhiraja II and Kulottunga III , joined in and took sides with any of

14762-659: Was ruled by the Cheras during Sangam period between c. 1st and the 4th centuries CE and it served as the eastern entrance to the Palakkad Gap , the principal trade route between the Malabar Coast and Tamil Nadu . However the southern region of present-day Kerala state (The coastal belt between Thiruvananthapuram and southern Alappuzha ) was under Ay dynasty , who was more related to the Pandya dynasty of Madurai . The early historic pre-Pallava Tamil polities are often described as

14884-503: Was soon overpowered by Pallava king Nripatunga (r. 859–99 CE). Sena II, the king of Sri Lanka, invaded the Pandya country, sacked Madurai and chose Varagunavarman II (r. c. 862–880 CE) as the new king soon after. It is proposed that the start of the Kollam Era , the Kerala calendar, in 825 CE marked the liberation of Venadu from Pandya control. During the rule of Dantivarman (r. 796–847 CE),

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