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60-524: The association was founded by Louis Leakey and its first congress was held in Nairobi in January 1947. At the event, Abbé Henri Breuil was elected as the association's first president, and Robert Broom , as vice-president; a constitution was adopted. Three sub-committees were created at the event: geology and climatology, prehistoric archaeology and human palaeontology. Perhaps the most significant action taken at

120-599: A gift book , Days Before History , by H. R. Hall (1907), a juvenile fictional work illustrating the prehistory of Britain . He began to collect tools and was further encouraged in this activity by a role model, Arthur Loveridge , the first curator (1914) of the Natural History Museum in Nairobi, the predecessor of the Coryndon Museum . This interest may have predisposed him toward a career in archaeology. His father

180-511: A bank, he secured help from an English teacher in applying to St John's College, Cambridge . He received a scholarship for his high scores on the entrance exams. Louis matriculated at the University of Cambridge , his father's alma mater, in 1922, intending to become a missionary to British East Africa. He frequently told a story about his final exams. When he had arrived in Britain, he had notified

240-622: A clinic in one of the tents, and later a girls' school . Harry was working on a translation of the Bible into the Gikuyu language . He had a distinguished career in the CMS, becoming canon of the station. Louis had a younger brother, Douglas, and two older sisters, Gladys and Julia. Both sisters married missionaries: Gladys married Leonard Beecher , Anglican Bishop of Mombasa and then Archbishop of East Africa from 1960 to 1970; Julia married Lawrence Barham ,

300-496: A committee of 26 scientists and were tentatively accepted as valid. Following their marriage in 1928, Louis and Frida lived in Foxton near Cambridge. In November 1932, Frida used an inheritance to purchase a large brick house in Girton , which the family named "The Close". The following year, Frida was pregnant, suffered from morning sickness most of the time, and was unable to work on

360-532: A committee of chiefs, to help him describe the Kikuyu the way they had been. Mary excavated at Waterfall Cave. She fell ill with double pneumonia and was near death for two weeks in the hospital in Nairobi, during which time her mother was sent for. Contrary to expectation, she recovered and began another excavation at Hyrax Hill and then Njoro River Cave . Louis got an extension of his grant, which he used partially for fossil-hunting. Leakey discoveries began to appear in

420-526: A complete dinosaur skeleton, and Louis was recalled from the site by Cambridge in 1925. Louis switched his focus to anthropology, and found a new mentor in Alfred Cort Haddon , head of the Cambridge department. In 1926, Louis graduated with a " double first ", or high honours, in anthropology and archaeology. He had used some of his preexisting qualifications; for example, Kikuyu was offered and accepted as

480-647: A house in Boscombe , Hampshire . In Britain, the Leakey children attended primary school; in Africa, they had a tutor. The family spent World War I in Africa. When the sea lanes opened again in 1919, they returned to Boscombe, and Louis was sent to Weymouth College , a private boys' school, when he was 16 years old. He did not do well and, in about three years, complained of hazing and rules that he considered an infringement on his freedom. Advised by one teacher to seek employment in

540-543: A similarity to one found in Olduvai Gorge by Professor Hans Reck , a German national, whom Louis had met in 1925 in Germany while on business for Keith. The geology of Olduvai was known. In 1913, Reck had extricated a skeleton from Bed II in the gorge wall. He argued that it must have the date of the bed, which was believed to be 600,000 years, in the mid- Pleistocene . Early dates for human evolution were not widely accepted by

600-476: A staff of Kamba assistants, including Kamoya Kimeu , who later discovered many of eastern Africa's most famous fossils. At Olduvai, Mary set up Camp 5 and began work with her own staff and associates. At "Jonny's site", FLK-NN, Jonathan Leakey discovered two skull fragments without the Australopithecine sagittal crest , which Mary connected with Broom's and Robinson's Telanthropus . The problem with it

660-645: A stand against female genital cutting . He got into a shouting match in Kikuyu one evening with Jomo Kenyatta , later the president of Kenya , who was lecturing on the topic. R. Copeland at Oxford recommended he apply to the Rhodes Trust for a grant to write a study of the Kikuyu and it was given late in 1936 along with a salary for two years. In January 1937 the Leakeys travelled to Kenya. Colin would not see his father for 20 years. Louis returned to Kiambaa near Nairobi and persuaded Senior Chief Koinange, who designated

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720-528: A stigma but her skill and competence eventually won over the other participants. Louis and his associates did the groundwork for future excavation at Olduvai, uncovering dozens of sites for a broad sampling, as was his method. They were named after the excavator: SHK (Sam Howard's karongo), BK (Peter Bell's), SWK (Sam White's), MNK (Mary Nicol's). Louis and Mary conducted a temporary clinic for the Maasai , made preliminary investigations of Laetoli , and ended by studying

780-475: A well and writing by oil lantern. They lived in poverty for 18 months at this low point of their fortunes, visited at first only by Mary's relatives. Louis gardened for subsistence and exercise and improved the house and grounds. He appealed at last to the Royal Society , who relented with a small grant to continue work on his collection. Louis had already involved himself in Kikuyu tribal affairs in 1928, taking

840-538: The British Museum in 1931. At that time he discovered the Acheulean site of Kariandusi , which he excavated in 1928. On the strength of his work there, he obtained a post-graduate research fellowship at St. John's College and returned to Cambridge in 1929 to classify and prepare the finds from Elmenteita. His patron and mentor at Cambridge were now Arthur Keith . While cleaning two skeletons he had found, he noticed

900-804: The International Union of Prehistoric and Protohistoric Sciences). In 1977 a new constitution was adopted, in order to better reflect the need for the PAA to be constituted by African-born scholars and to reflect their needs. At the 1983 congress, held at Jos in Nigeria , the PAA passed a resolution condemning apartheid in South Africa and called for a cessation of ties to South African institutions. The resolutions were proposed by John Onyango-Abuje , and seconded by P Sinclair and David Kiyaga-Mulindwa . According to Caleb Folorunso , some non-African attendees opposed

960-543: The Italian menace ended, but the Japanese began to reconnoiter with a view toward landing in force. Louis found himself in counter-intelligence work, which he performed with zest and imagination. In the same year, their daughter Deborah was born, but died at the age of three months. They lived in a rundown and bug-infested Nairobi home, provided by the museum . Jonathan was attacked by army ants in his crib. In 1944 Richard Leakey

1020-530: The Kikuyu. They also hunted fossils on the sly. Louis conducted interrogations, analyzed handwriting, wrote radio broadcasts and took on regular police investigations. He loved a good mystery of any sort. The white leadership of the King's African Rifles used him extensively to clear up many cultural mysteries; for example, he helped an officer remove a curse he had inadvertently put on his men. Mary continued to find and excavate sites. In 1940, their son Jonathan Leakey

1080-557: The Leakey sites. The conference restored Louis to the scientific fold and made him a major figure in it. With the money that now poured in Louis undertook the famous expeditions of 1948 and beyond at Rusinga Island in Lake Victoria , where Mary discovered the most complete Proconsul fossil up to that time. Charles Watson Boise donated money for a boat to be used for transport on Lake Victoria, The Miocene Lady . Its skipper, Hassan Salimu,

1140-581: The Mau Mau. During this period his life was threatened and a reward placed on his head. The Leakeys began to pack pistols, termed "European National Dress." The government placed him under 24-hour guard. In 1952, after a Mau Mau massacre of pro-British chiefs, the government arrested Jomo Kenyatta , president of the Kenya African Union . Louis was summoned to be a court interpreter, but withdrew after an accusation of mistranslation because of prejudice against

1200-448: The age of 27. His first child, a daughter named Priscilla Muthoni Leakey, was born in 1931. His headaches and epilepsy returned, and he was prescribed Luminal , which he took for the rest of his life. In November 1931, Louis led an expedition to Olduvai whose members included Reck, whom Louis allowed to enter the gorge first. Leakey had bet Reck that Leakey would find Acheulean tools within the first 24 hours, which he did. These verified

1260-415: The antiquity of Reck's Olduvai Man, Louis returned to Africa, excavating at Kanam and Kanjera . He easily found more fossils, which he named Homo kanamensis . While he was gone, the opposition worked up some "evidence" of the intrusion of Olduvai Man into an earlier layer, evidence that seemed convincing at the time, but is missing and unverifiable now. On his return, Louis' finds were carefully examined by

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1320-585: The attention of Melville Bell Grosvenor , president of the National Geographic Society . That contact resulted in an article in National Geographic and a large grant to continue work at Olduvai. In 1960, geophysicists Jack Evernden and Garniss Curtis dated Bed I from 1.89 to 1.75 million years ago, confirming the great antiquity of fossil hominids in Africa. In 1960, Louis appointed Mary director of excavation at Olduvai. She brought in

1380-452: The claim. Louis was not only forced to retract the accusation in his final field report in June 1935 but also to recant his support of Reck. Louis was through at Cambridge. Even his mentors turned on him. Meeting Mary in Africa, he proceeded to Olduvai with a small party. Louis' parents continued to urge him to return to Frida, and would pay for everyone in the party but Mary. Mary joined him under

1440-452: The defendant. He returned on request to translate documents only. Because of lack of evidence linking Kenyatta to the Mau Mau, although convicted, he did not receive the death penalty, but was sentenced to several years of hard labour. The government brought in British troops and formed a home guard of 20,000 Kikuyu. During this time, Louis played a difficult and contradictory role. He sided with

1500-514: The exception of a time in London from 1821 to 1825, during which he was intimate with Thomas Lawrence , David Wilkie , and other leading painters, Leakey's life was mostly passed at Exeter. He died there on 16 February 1865. Leakey exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1821 The Marvellous Tale , in 1822 The Fortune Teller , in 1838 portraits and landscapes, and in 1846 The Distressed Wife . Leakey

1560-496: The field of primatology. Leakey also encouraged and supported many other PhD candidates, most notably from the University of Cambridge . As well, Leakey played a role in creating organizations for future research in Africa and for protecting wildlife there. When I think back... of the serval cat and a baboon that I had as pets in my childhood days—and that eventually I had to house in large cages—it makes me sad. It makes me sadder still, however, and also very angry, when I think of

1620-548: The first congress was the rejection of European geological periods for Africa and the adoption of continent-wide and continent-specific nomenclature. At the 1963 congress in Tenerife , it was decided to begin publishing a systematic inventory of diagnostic archaeological assemblages from Africa, under the title of Inventaria Archaeologica Africana , following the example of the Inventaria Archaeologica series published by

1680-604: The first time a systematic study of the artifacts. Some of his names for archaeological cultures are still in use; for example, the Elmenteitan . In 1927, Louis received a visit at a site called Gamble's Cave, near Lake Elmenteita , by two women on a holiday, one of whom was Frida Avern (1902–1993). Avern had done some coursework in archaeology. Louis and Frida began a relationship, which continued upon his return to Cambridge. In 1928, they married and continued work near Lake Elmenteita. Finds from Gamble's Cave were donated by Leakey to

1740-508: The general public at the time. Reck became involved in a media uproar. He was barred from going back to settle the question by the war and then the terms of the transfer of Tanganyika from Germany to Britain. In 1929, Louis visited Berlin to talk to the now skeptical Reck. Noting an Acheulean tool in Reck's collection of artifacts from Olduvai, he bet Reck he could find ancient stone tools at Olduvai within 24 hours. Louis received his PhD in 1930 at

1800-554: The illustrations for Louis's second book, Adam's Ancestors. At a dinner party given in his honor, after a lecture of his at the Royal Anthropological Institute , Gertrude Caton-Thompson introduced her own illustrator, the twenty-year-old Mary Nicol . Louis convinced Mary to take on the illustration of his book, and a few months later companionship turned into an affair. Frida gave birth to Colin in December 1933, and

1860-497: The innumerable adult animals and birds deliberately caught and locked up for the so-called 'pleasure' and 'education' of thoughtless human beings. Louis's parents, Harry (1868–1940) and Mary (May) Bazett Leakey (died 1948), were Church of England missionaries in British East Africa (now Kenya). Harry was the son of James Shirley Leakey (1824–1871), one of the eleven children of the portrait painter James Leakey . Harry Leakey

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1920-500: The iron markers Louis had used to mark the sites had been removed by the Luo tribe for use as harpoons and the sites could not now be located. To make matters worse, all the photos Louis took were ruined by a light leak in the camera. After an irritating and fruitless two-month search, Boswell left for England, promising, as Louis understood it, not to publish a word until Louis returned. Boswell immediately set out to publish as many words as he

1980-414: The newspapers again. Tensions between the Kikuyu and the settlers increased alarmingly. Louis jumped into the fray as an exponent of the middle ground. In Kenya: Contrasts and Problems , he angered the settlers by proclaiming Kenya could never be a "white man's country." The government offered Louis work as a policeman in intelligence, which he accepted. He traveled the country as a pedlar , reporting on

2040-505: The next month Louis left her and his newborn son. She would not sue for divorce until 1936. A panel at Cambridge investigated his morals. Grants dried up, but his mother raised enough money for another expedition to Olduvai, Kanam, and Kanjera, the latter two on the Winam Gulf . His previous work there was questioned by P. G. H. Boswell , whom he invited to verify the sites for himself. Arriving at Kanam and Kanjera in 1935, they found that

2100-493: The past better. Beginning in 1951, Louis and Mary began intensive research at Olduvai Gorge. A trial trench in Bed II at BK in 1951 was followed by a more extensive excavation in 1952. They found what Louis termed an Oldowan "slaughter-house", an ancient bog where animals had been trapped and butchered. Excavations stopped in 1953 but were briefly resumed in 1955 with Jean Brown. In 1959, excavations at Bed I were opened. While Louis

2160-442: The provenance of the 1913 find, now called Olduvai Man. Non-humanoid fossils and tools were extracted from the ground in large numbers. Frida delayed joining her husband and was less enthusiastic about him on behalf of Priscilla. She did arrive eventually, however, and Louis put her to work. Frida's site became FLK, for Frida Leakey's Karongo ("gully"). Back in Cambridge, the sceptics were not impressed. To find supporting evidence of

2220-484: The rebellion was being directed from urban centers, instituted martial law and detained the committees. Following Louis' suggestion, thousands of Kikuyu were placed in re-education camps and resettled in new villages. The rebellion continued from bases under Mount Kenya until 1956, when, deprived of its leadership and supplies, it had to disperse. The state of emergency lasted until 1960. In 1963 Kenya became independent, with Jomo Kenyatta as prime minister. We know from

2280-545: The registrar that he was fluent in Swahili . When he came to his finals, he asked to be examined in this language, and the authorities agreed. Then one day, he received two letters. One instructed him to report at a certain time and place for a viva voce examination in Swahili. The other asked if, at the same time and place, he would examine a candidate in Swahili. In 1922, the British had been awarded German East Africa as part of

2340-566: The resolutions, citing their opinion that archaeology was concerned with "science not politics". Two conferences have been hosted in partnership with the Society of Africanist Archaeologists : at University Cheikh Anta Diop (UCAD) in Dakar in 2010 and at the University of Witwatersrand in 2014. Louis Leakey Louis Seymour Bazett Leakey (7 August 1903 – 1 October 1972) was a Kenyan-British palaeoanthropologist and archaeologist whose work

2400-611: The rock paintings at the Kisese / Cheke region. Louis and Mary returned to England in 1935 without positions or any place to stay except Mary's mother's apartment. They soon leased Steen Cottage in Great Munden . This settlement was in Hertfordshire and had an unusual name which Louis, with his sense of humor noted in his Memoirs , Chapter 5, as "the village of Nasty ." They lived without heat, electricity, or plumbing, fetching water from

2460-608: The second Bishop of Rwanda and Burundi from 1964 to 1966; their son Ken Barham was later the Bishop of Cyangugu in Rwanda. The Leakey household came to contain Miss Oakes (a governess ), Miss Higgenbotham (another missionary), and Mariamu (a Kikuyu nurse). Louis grew up, played, and learned to hunt with the native Kikuyus. He also learned to walk with the distinctive gait of the Kikuyu and speak their language fluently, as did his siblings. He

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2520-463: The second modern language in which he was required to be proficient, even though no one there could test him on it. The university accepted an affidavit from a Kikuyu chief signed with a thumbprint. From 1925 on Louis lectured and wrote on African archaeological and palaeontological topics. On graduation he was such a respected figure that Cambridge sent him to East Africa to study prehistoric African humans. He excavated dozens of sites, undertaking for

2580-576: The settlement of World War I. Within the Tanganyika Territory the Germans had discovered a site rich in dinosaur fossils, Tendaguru . Louis was told by C. W. Hobley , a friend of the family, that the British Museum of Natural History was going to send a fossil-hunting expedition led by William E. Cutler to the site. Louis applied and was hired to locate the site and manage the administrative details. In 1924 they departed for Africa. They never found

2640-432: The settlers, serving as their spokesman and intelligence officer, helping to ferret out bands of guerrillas. On the other hand, he continued to advocate for the Kikuyu in his 1954 book Defeating Mau Mau and numerous talks and articles. He recommended a multi-racial government, land reform in the highlands, a wage hike for the Kikuyu, and many other reforms, most of which were eventually adopted. The government then realized

2700-562: The study of evolution that, again and again, various branches of animal stock have become over-specialized, and that over-specialization has led to their extinction. Present-day Homo sapiens is in many physical respects still very unspecialized ... But in one thing man, as we know him today, is over-specialized. His brain power is very over-specialized compared to the rest of his physical make-up, and it may well be that this over-specialization will lead, just as surely, to his extinction. ... if we are to control our future, we must first understand

2760-561: The talk. In September 1939, when Britain went to war, the Kenyan government drafted Louis into its African intelligence service. Apart from some bumbling around, during which he and some settlers stalked each other as possible saboteurs of the Sagana Railway Bridge , his first task was to supply and arm Ethiopian guerrillas against the Italian invaders of their country . He created a clandestine network using his childhood friends among

2820-491: The upper hand and were insisting on a "white" government of a "white" Africa. In 1949 the Kikuyu formed a secret society, the Mau Mau , which attacked settlers and especially loyalist Kikuyu. Louis had attempted to warn Sir Philip Mitchell , governor of the colony, that nocturnal meetings and forced oaths were not Kikuyu customs and foreboded violence, but was ignored. Now he found himself pulled away from anthropology to investigate

2880-578: Was able, beginning with a letter in Nature dated 9 March 1935, destroying Reck's and Louis's dates of the fossils and questioning Louis's competence. Despite the searches for the iron markers, Boswell averred that "the earlier expedition (of 1931–32) neither marked the localities on the ground nor recorded the sites on a map." In a field report of March 1935, Louis accused Boswell of reneging on his word, but Boswell asserted he had made no such promise, and now having public opinion on his side, warned Louis to withdraw

2940-511: Was also a role model: Canon Leakey co-founded East Africa and Uganda Natural History Society. Neither Harry nor May were of strong constitution. From 1904 to 1906 the entire family lived at May's mother's house in Reading, Berkshire , in England, while Harry recovered from neurasthenia , and again in 1911–1913, while May recovered from general frailty and exhaustion. During the latter stay, Harry bought

3000-526: Was assigned to an established post of the Church Mission Society among the Kikuyu at Kabete , in the highlands north of Nairobi . The station was at that time a hut and two tents. Louis's earliest home had an earthen floor, a leaky thatched roof , rodents and insects, and no heating system except for charcoal braziers . The facilities slowly improved over time. The mission, a center of activity, set up

3060-714: Was best known for his delicate miniatures, painted in oils on ivory. These brought him a local celebrity. In the Exeter Guildhall there is a portrait by him of Henry Blackhall, mayor of Exeter; also a copy by him of Reynolds's portrait of John Rolle Walter . His portrait of John Haddy James (1788-1869), surgeon, is in the Royal Devon and Exeter Hospital . In 1846 Leakey published a plate by Samuel Cousins , from his portrait of John Rashdall, minister of Bedford Chapel, Exeter. By his marriage in 1815 with Eliza Hubbard Woolmer, Leakey had eleven children. They included Caroline Leakey

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3120-560: Was born. In 1945 the family's income from police work all but vanished. By now Louis was getting plenty of job offers but he chose to stay on in Kenya as Curator of the Coryndon Museum, with an annual salary and a house, but more importantly, to continue palaeoanthropological research. In January 1947 Louis conducted the first Pan-African Congress of Prehistory at Nairobi. Sixty scientists from 26 countries attended, delivering papers and visiting

3180-542: Was born. She worked in the Coryndon Memorial Museum (later called the National Museums of Kenya ) where Louis joined her as an unpaid honorary curator in 1941. Their life was a melange of police work and archaeology. They investigated Rusinga Island and Olorgesailie . At the latter site they were assisted by a team of Italian experts recruited from the prisoners of war and paroled for the purpose. In 1942,

3240-821: Was important in demonstrating that humans evolved in Africa, particularly through discoveries made at Olduvai Gorge with his wife, fellow palaeoanthropologist Mary Leakey . Having established a programme of palaeoanthropological inquiry in eastern Africa, he also motivated many future generations to continue this scholarly work. Several members of the Leakey family became prominent scholars themselves. Another of Leakey's legacies stems from his role in fostering field research of primates in their natural habitats, which he saw as key to understanding human evolution . He personally focused on three female researchers, Jane Goodall , Dian Fossey , and Birutė Galdikas , calling them " The Trimates ." Each went on to become an important scholar in

3300-514: Was initiated into the Kikuyu ethnic group, an event of which he never spoke, as he was sworn to secrecy. Louis requested and was given permission to build and move into a hut, Kikuyu style, at the end of the garden. It was home to his personal collection of natural objects, such as birds' eggs and skulls. All the children developed a keen interest in and appreciation of the pristine natural surroundings in which they found themselves. They raised baby animals, later turning them over to zoos. Louis read

3360-474: Was its contemporaneity with Zinjanthropus . When mailed photographs, Le Gros Clark retorted casually "Shades of Piltdown ." Louis cabled him immediately and had some strong words at this suggestion of his incompetence. Clark apologized. Not long afterwards, in 1960, Louis, his son Philip and Ray Pickering discovered a fossil he termed "Chellean Man", ( Olduvai Hominid 9 ), in context with Oldowan tools. After reconstruction Louis and Mary called it "Pinhead." It

3420-426: Was later to deliver Jane Goodall to Gombe. Philip Leakey was born in 1949. In 1950, Louis was awarded an honorary doctorate by Oxford University . ... I sought a personal interview with the governor, hoping to make him appreciate that it was no longer possible to continue along the lines of the old colonial regime. ... Colonial governors and senior civil servants are not easy people to argue with; and, of course, I

3480-474: Was not popular, because of my criticism of the colonial service ... Had it been possible to make the government open its eyes to the realities of the situation, I believe that the whole miserable episode of what is frequently spoken of as ' the Mau Mau rebellion ' need never have taken place. While the Leakeys were at Lake Victoria, the Kikuyu struck at the European settlers of the Kenyan highlands, who seemed to have

3540-417: Was sick in camp, Mary discovered the fossilized skull OH 5 at FLK, Paranthropus boisei , famously identified as " Zinjanthropus " or "Zinj." The question was whether the fossil belonged to a previous genus discovered by Robert Broom , Paranthropus , or a member of a different genus ancestral to humans. Louis opted for Zinjanthropus , a decision opposed by Wilfrid Le Gros Clark , but one which attracted

3600-659: Was subsequently identified as Homo erectus , contemporaneous with Paranthropus at 1.4 million years old. James Leakey James Leakey (1775–1865) was an English landscape and portrait artist. Born on 20 September 1775 in Exeter , Devon , he was the son of John Leakey, who was in the wool trade. At the time of Sir Joshua Reynolds 's death he was about to become his pupil. Leakey established himself at Exeter, painting portraits, miniatures and landscapes. He also produced small interiors with groups of rustic figures and Sir Francis Baring purchased one of those for £500. With

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