A mosque ( / m ɒ s k / MOSK ), also called a masjid ( / ˈ m æ s dʒ ɪ d , ˈ m ʌ s -/ MASS -jid, MUSS - ), is a place of worship for Muslims . The term usually refers to a covered building, but can be any place where Islamic prayers are performed, such as an outdoor courtyard.
137-661: Palm Tree Mosque , or the Church of Jan van Bougies , or the Dadelboom Mosque , is a former residence and current mosque in Long Street , Cape Town, South Africa. It is the oldest substantially unaltered building in Long Street. The building stands on land once owned by Hermanus Smuts, south-west of a block of land granted to him in 1751. The grant was bounded by Long, Leeuwen and Keerom Streets. After his wife died in 1754, portions of
274-571: A Muslim Where are your valiant warriors and priests Where are your hunting parties and your feats? Where is that warlike mien and where are those Great armies that destroyed our county's foes? Count Iran as a ruin, as the lair Of lions and leopards. Look now and despair Right from the start of the caliphate, it was realized that there was a need to write down the sayings and story of Muhammad, which had been memorized by his followers before they all died. Most people in Arabia were illiterate, and
411-605: A Muslim emissary. Muhammad died in 632 and was succeeded by Abu Bakr , the first caliph with undisputed control of the entire Arab peninsula after the successful Ridda Wars , which resulted in the consolidation of a powerful Muslim state throughout the peninsula. Byzantine sources, such as Short History written by Nikephoros , claim that the Arab invasion came about as a result of restrictions imposed on Arab traders curtailing their ability to trade within Byzantine territory, and to send
548-460: A collection of militarily weak but geographically inaccessible principalities of Persia. It took decades to bring them all under control of the caliphate. In what is now Afghanistan—a region where the authority of the shah was always disputed—the Muslims met fierce guerrilla resistance from the militant Buddhist tribes of the region. Despite the complete Muslim triumph over Sasanid Iran as compared to
685-475: A cool atmosphere, an advantage in the hot Arab countries. Quotations from the Quran often adorn mosque interiors. These texts are meant to inspire people by their beauty, while also reminding them of the words of Allah. The prayer hall, also known as the muṣallá ( Arabic : مُصَلَّى ), rarely has furniture; chairs and pews are generally absent from the prayer hall so as to allow as many worshipers as possible to line
822-845: A decade does suggest serious deficiencies with the Visigothic kingdom, though the limited sources make it difficult to discern the precise reasons for the collapse of the Visigoths. Another Germanic people who founded a state upon the ruins of the Western Roman Empire were the Franks who settled in Gaul . Like the Visigoths, the Frankish cavalry played a "significant part" in their wars. The Frankish kings expected all of their male subjects to perform three months of military service every year, and all serving under
959-1000: A defining feature of South Asian mosque architecture during the Delhi Sultanate and reached their peak under the Mughal Empire. Influenced by Persian and Central Asian traditions, the Mughals introduced the iconic onion-shaped domes, seen in landmarks like the Jama Masjid in Delhi and the Badshahi Mosque in Lahore. These domes were not only visually striking but also represented remarkable engineering, using techniques such as iron dowels for strength and timber centering for precision. The Mughal architectural style still influences mosque design today. Modern Innovations One prime example of modern innovation
1096-509: A guerrilla war was waged by Christians in the hilly countryside of north-western Syria supported by the Byzantines. At the same time, the Byzantines began a policy of launching raids via sea on the coast of the caliphate with the aim of forcing the Muslims to keep at least some of their forces to defend their coastlines, thus limiting the number of troops available for an invasion of Anatolia. Unlike Syria with its plains and deserts — which favored
1233-553: A hill, and two wings of cavalry on either side. Little is known about the military forces of the Christian state of Ethiopia other than that they were divided into sarawit professional troops and the ehzab auxiliaries. The Ethiopians made much use of camels and elephants. The Berber peoples of North Africa had often served as a federates (auxiliaries) to the Byzantine Army. The Berber forces were based around
1370-714: A holy war in defense of the Christian faith and the Wood of the Holy Cross, as splinters of wood said to be from the True Cross were known, had been used to inspire Christian fighting zeal. The idea of a holy war against the "fire worshipers", as the Christians called the Zoroastrians, had aroused much enthusiasm, leading to an all-out effort to defeat the Persians. Nevertheless, neither empire
1507-510: A model for the construction of early mosques elsewhere. It introduced some of the features still common in today's mosques, including the niche at the front of the prayer space known as the mihrab (first added in the Umayyad period ) and the tiered pulpit called the minbar . The Umayyad Caliphate was particularly instrumental in spreading Islam and establishing mosques within the Levant , as
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#17330941381711644-508: A mutiny in Medina in 656 and 'Uthman's murder . Uthman's successor Ali was faced with a civil war, known to Muslims as the fitna , when the governor of Syria Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan revolted against him. During this time, the first period of Muslim conquests stopped, as the armies of Islam turned against one another. A group known as the Kharaji decided to end the civil war by assassinating
1781-507: A painful manner. The charge against him was that he had persuaded Heraclius not to allow the Saracens to trade from the Byzantine country and send out of the Byzantine state the thirty pounds of gold which they normally received by way of commercial gain; and for this reason they began to lay waste the Byzantine land. Some scholars assert that this is the same Sergius, called "the Candidatus", who
1918-401: A place of worship), either from Nabataean masg dhā́ or from Arabic Arabic : سَجَدَ , romanized : sajada (meaning "to prostrate "), probably ultimately from Nabataean Arabic masg dhā́ or Aramaic s ghēdh . Islam was established in Arabia during the lifetime of Muhammad in the 7th century CE. The first mosque in history could be either the sanctuary built around
2055-407: A reflection of the religious zeal of the conquerors and evidence of divine favor. The theory that the conquests are explainable as an Arab migration triggered by economic pressures enjoyed popularity early in the 20th century but has largely fallen out of favor among historians, especially those who distinguish the migration from the conquests that preceded and enabled it. There are indications that
2192-585: A similar manner in the mid-17th century, remain two of the largest mosques on the Indian subcontinent. The first mosque in East Asia was established in the eighth century in Xi'an . The Great Mosque of Xi'an , whose current building dates from the 18th century, does not replicate the features often associated with mosques elsewhere. Minarets were initially prohibited by the state. Following traditional Chinese architecture ,
2329-558: A small part of the roof near the mihrab to encompassing the whole roof above the prayer hall. Although domes normally took on the shape of a hemisphere, the Mughals in India popularized onion-shaped domes in South Asia which has gone on to become characteristic of the Arabic architectural style of dome. Some mosques have multiple, often smaller, domes in addition to the main large dome that resides at
2466-651: Is a semicircular niche in the wall of a mosque that faces the qiblah (i.e. the "front" of the mosque); the imam stands in this niche and leads prayer. Given that the imam typically stands alone in the frontmost row, this niche's practical effect is to save unused space. The minbar is a pulpit from which the Friday sermon is delivered. While the minbar of Muhammad was a simple chair, later it became larger and attracted artistic attention. Some remained made of wood, albeit exquisitely carved, while others were made of marble and featured friezes . A common feature in mosques
2603-715: Is accorded to, in descending order of importance: al-Masjid al-Haram in the city of Mecca, where Hajj and Umrah are performed; the Prophet's Mosque in the city of Medina , where Muhammad is buried; and al-Aqsa Mosque in the city of Jerusalem , where Muslims believe that Muhammad ascended to heaven to meet God around 621 CE. There's a growing realization among scholars that the present-day perception of mosques doesn't fully align with their original concept. Early Islamic texts and practices highlight mosques as vibrant centers integral to Muslim communities, supporting religious, social, economic, and political affairs. During and after
2740-422: Is called maqfil (Bosnian: makfil/макфил ). It is located above the main prayer hall, elevated in the background as stairs-separated gallery or plateau (surface-shortened to the back relative to the bottom main part). It usually has a perforated fence at the front, through which the imam or mullah and the other male worshippers in the main hall can be partially seen. A miḥrāb , also spelled as mehrab
2877-724: Is credited with having built the Ka'bah in Mecca, and consequently its sanctuary, Al-Masjid al-Haram , which is seen by Muslims as the first mosque that existed. A hadith in Sahih al-Bukhari states that the sanctuary of the Ka'bah was the first mosque on Earth, with the second mosque being Al-Aqsa in Jerusalem , which is also associated with Abraham. Since as early as 638 CE, the Sacred Mosque of Mecca has been expanded on several occasions to accommodate
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#17330941381713014-648: Is known about the Battle of al-Qadisiyyah other than it lasted for several days by the banks of the river Euphrates in what is now Iraq and ended with the Persian force being annihilated. Abolishing the Lakhmid Arab buffer state had forced the Persians to take over the desert defense themselves, leaving them overextended. As a result of al-Qadisiyyah, the Arab-Muslims gained control over the whole of Iraq, including Ctesiphon ,
3151-686: Is known in the Muslim world as the "Victory of Victories". As with the Levant, this was the first time since the collapse of the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 539 BC with the Battle of Opis , that Mesopotamia was ruled again by Semitic-speaking people, after centuries of Persian ( Achaemenid , Parthian and Sasanian empires), and Roman-Greek ( Macedonian , Seleucid the Roman empires) ruling periods. After Nahavand,
3288-452: Is now Afghanistan, indicates a weakening of the power of the Shahinshah (King of Kings), suggesting the empire was already breaking down at the time of the Muslim conquest. Persian society was rigidly divided into castes with the nobility being of supposed "Aryan" descent, and this division of Persian society along caste lines was reflected in the military. The azatan aristocracy provided
3425-417: Is often elaborated into a freestanding building in the center of a courtyard. This desire for cleanliness extends to the prayer halls where shoes are disallowed to be worn anywhere other than the cloakroom. Thus, foyers with shelves to put shoes and racks to hold coats are commonplace among mosques. Modern mosques have a variety of amenities available to their congregants. As mosques are supposed to appeal to
3562-576: Is the Great Mosque of Cordoba , itself constructed on the site of a church demolished during the period of Muslim rule. Outside of the Iberian Peninsula , such instances also occurred in southeastern Europe once regions were no longer under Muslim rule. There are two holidays ( Eids ) in the Islamic calendar : ʿĪd al-Fiṭr and ʿĪd al-Aḍḥā , during which there are special prayers held at mosques in
3699-576: Is the Masjid Raja Haji Fi Sabilillah in Malaysia, which features a Low-E glass dome. The use of Low-E (low emissivity) glass allows for significant energy efficiency by reducing heat gain while still allowing natural light to illuminate the interior space. This technique helps to maintain a comfortable temperature inside the mosque, minimizing reliance on air conditioning, and promoting sustainability . In addition to advancements in materials,
3836-411: Is the minaret, the tall, slender tower that usually is situated at one of the corners of the mosque structure. The top of the minaret is always the highest point in mosques that have one, and often the highest point in the immediate area. The origin of the minaret and its initial functions are not clearly known and have long been a topic of scholarly discussion. The earliest mosques lacked minarets, and
3973-772: The Ka'bah in Mecca , known today as Al-Masjid al-Haram ('The Sacred Mosque'), or the Quba Mosque in Medina , the first structure built by Muhammad upon his emigration from Mecca in 622 CE , both located in the Hejaz region in present-day Saudi Arabia. Other scholars reference Islamic tradition and passages of the Quran, according to which Islam as a religion precedes Muhammad, and includes previous prophets such as Abraham. In Islamic tradition, Abraham
4110-647: The Arab conquests , were initiated in the 7th century by Muhammad , the founder of Islam . He established a new unified polity in Arabia based in Medina that expanded rapidly under the Rashidun Caliphate and the Umayyad Caliphate , culminating in Muslim rule being established on three continents ( Asia , Africa , and Europe ) over the next century. According to Scottish historian James Buchan : "In speed and extent,
4247-576: The Battle of the Masts off Cape Chelidonia in Anatolia in 655, the Muslims defeated the Byzantine fleet in a series of boarding actions. As a result, the Byzantines began a major expansion of their navy, which was matched by the Arabs, leading to a naval arms race. From the early 8th century onward, the Muslim fleet would launch annual raids on the coastline on the Byzantine empire in Anatolia and Greece. As part of
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4384-521: The Church of the Holy Sepulchre to remain, with the caliph praying on a prayer rug outside of the church. The loss to the Muslims of Jerusalem, the holiest city to Christians, proved to be the source of much resentment in Christendom. The city of Caesarea Maritima continued to withstand the Muslim siege—as it could be supplied by sea—until it was taken by assault in 640. It was the first time since
4521-634: The Demak Great Mosque , were first established in the 15th century. Early Javanese mosques took design cues from Hindu , Buddhist , and Chinese architectural influences, with tall timber, multi-level roofs similar to the pagodas of Balinese Hindu temples ; the ubiquitous Islamic dome did not appear in Indonesia until the 19th century. In turn, the Javanese style influenced the styles of mosques in Indonesia's Austronesian neighbors— Malaysia , Brunei , and
4658-651: The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem and for making Damascus into the capital of a "superpower" that stretched from Portugal to Central Asia, covering the vast territory from the Atlantic Ocean to the borders of China. The rapidity of the early conquests has received various explanations. Contemporary Christian writers conceived them as God's punishment visited on their fellow Christians for their sins. Early Muslim historians viewed them as
4795-504: The Great Mosque of Cordoba , as they tended to reflect the architecture of the Moors instead of their Visigoth predecessors. Still, some elements of Visigothic architecture , like horseshoe arches , were infused into the mosque architecture of Spain and the Maghreb. Muslim empires were instrumental in the evolution and spread of mosques. Although mosques were first established in India during
4932-467: The Islamic call to prayer was issued on a daily basis. It is typical of mosque buildings to have a special ornamental niche (a mihrab ) set into the wall in the direction of the city of Mecca (the qibla ), which Muslims must face during prayer, as well as a facility for ritual cleansing ( wudu ). The pulpit ( minbar ), from which public sermons ( khutbah ) are delivered on the event of Friday prayer , was, in earlier times, characteristic of
5069-468: The Nile Delta were protected by water and because Amr lacked the machinery to break down city fortifications. The Arabs laid siege to Babylon, and its starving garrison surrendered on 9 April 641. Nevertheless, the province was scarcely urbanized and the defenders lost hope of receiving reinforcements from Constantinople when the emperor Heraclius died in 641. Afterwards, the Arabs turned north into
5206-561: The Ridda Wars prompted the Byzantines to send a major expedition into southern Palestine , which was defeated by the Arab forces under command of Khalid ibn al-Walid at the Battle of Ajnadayn in 634. Ibn al-Walid had converted to Islam around 627, becoming one of Muhammad's most successful generals. Ibn al-Walid had been fighting in Iraq against the Sasanians when he led his force on a trek across
5343-571: The Sarvestan Palace . Thus, Islamic architecture witnessed the introduction of such structures as domes and large, arched entrances, referred to as iwans . During Seljuq rule , as Islamic mysticism was on the rise, the four-iwan arrangement took form. The four-iwan format, finalized by the Seljuqs, and later inherited by the Safavids , firmly established the courtyard façade of such mosques, with
5480-571: The Siege of Carthage , that parts of North Africa and Iberia were reconquered by Semitic-speaking people. Among other drastic changes, the early Muslim conquests brought about the collapse of the Sasanian Empire and great territorial losses for the Byzantine Empire . Explanations for the Muslim victories have been difficult to discover, primarily because only fragmentary sources have survived from
5617-438: The adhan is called instead from inside the mosque or somewhere else on the ground. The Iqâmah (Arabic: إِقَـامَـة ), which is similar to the adhan and proclaimed right before the commencement of prayers, is usually not proclaimed from the minaret even if a mosque has one. Domes, often placed directly above the main prayer hall, may signify the vaults of the heaven and sky. As time progressed, domes grew, from occupying
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5754-401: The early Muslim conquests , mosques were established outside of Arabia in the hundreds; many synagogues , churches , and temples were converted into mosques and thus influenced Islamic architectural styles over the centuries. While most pre-modern mosques were funded by charitable endowments ( waqf ), the modern-day trend of government regulation of large mosques has been countered by
5891-403: The imam or mullah leads the five daily prayers on a regular basis. Left to the mihrab , in the front left corner of the mosque, sometimes there is a kursu (Turkish: kürsü , Bosnian: ćurs/ћурс ), a small elevated plateau (rarely with a chair or other type of seat) used for less formal preaching and speeches. Women who pray in mosques are separated from men . Their part for prayer
6028-410: The qibla wall, usually at its center, is the miḥrāb , a niche or depression indicating the direction of Mecca. Usually the mihrab is not occupied by furniture either. A raised minbar (pulpit) is located to the right side of the mihrab for a khaṭīb (preacher), or some other speaker, to offer a khuṭbah (sermon) during the ritual Friday prayers. The mihrab serves as the location where
6165-572: The "mighty" walls built by the Emperor Theodosius II in the 5th century proved their worth. The majority of the people in Syria remained Christian, and a substantial Jewish minority remained as well; both communities were to teach the Arabs much about science, trade and the arts. The Umayyad caliphs are well-remembered for sponsoring a cultural "golden age" in Islamic history—for example, by building
6302-437: The "real military leader" at Yarmuk "under the nominal command of others". Syria was ordered to be abandoned to the Muslims with Heraclius reportedly saying: "Peace be with you Syria; what a beautiful land you will be for your enemy". On the heels of their victory, the Arab armies took Damascus again in 636, with Baalbek , Homs , and Hama to follow soon afterwards. However, other fortified towns continued to resist despite
6439-466: The 11th century. These first minaret towers were placed in the middle of the wall opposite the qibla wall. Among them, the minaret of the Great Mosque of Kairouan in Tunisia, dating from 836, is well-preserved and is one of the oldest surviving minarets in the world today. Before the five required daily prayers, a Mu’adhdhin (Arabic: مُـؤَذِّن ) calls the worshippers to prayer from the minaret. In many countries like Singapore where Muslims are not
6576-401: The Arabs had a strong culture of remembering history orally. To preserve the story of Muhammad and to prevent any corruptions from entering the oral history, Abu Bakr had ordered scribes to write down the story of Muhammad as told to them by his followers, which was the origin of the Quran. Disputes had emerged over which version of the Quran was the correct one and, by 644 different versions of
6713-470: The Byzantine Empire, but much of the cavalry were either recruited from "martial" peoples in the Balkans or in Asia Minor or alternatively were Germanic mercenaries. Most of the Byzantine troops in Syria were indigenae (local), and it seems that at the time of the Muslim conquest, the Byzantine forces in Syria were Arabs. In response to the loss of Syria, the Byzantines developed the phylarch system of using Armenian and Arab Christian auxiliaries living on
6850-424: The Byzantine and Sasanian empires competed for influence in Arabia by sponsoring clients, and in turn Arabian tribes sought the patronage of the two rival empires to bolster their own ambitions. The Lakhmid kingdom which covered parts of what is now southern Iraq and northern Saudi Arabia was a client of Persia, and in 602 the Persians deposed the Lakhmids to take over the defense of the southern frontier. This left
6987-415: The Byzantine empire. Control of Egypt meant that the caliphate could weather droughts without the fear of famine, laying the basis for the future prosperity of the caliphate. The Byzantine Empire had traditionally dominated the Mediterranean and the Black Sea with major naval bases at Constantinople , Acre , Alexandria and Carthage . In 652, the Arabs won their first victory at sea off Alexandria, which
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#17330941381717124-414: The Byzantines to the Muslims (namely Egypt , Palestine , and Syria ) had been reclaimed from the Sasanians only a few years prior to the Muslim conquests. Arabia was a region that hosted several cultures, some urban and others nomadic Bedouin . Arabian society was divided along tribal and clan lines, with the most important divisions being between the "southern" and "northern" tribal associations. Both
7261-410: The Cape, but specified that it continue to operate as a mosque, the second oldest in Cape Town. The second storey was presumable added after the house had been turned into a mosque some time between 1811 and 1821. There was once a garden in front of the house, in which two palm trees grew. Today there is one of the remaining trees, with a new tree planted on the 8 November 1965, to replace the one that
7398-406: The Caspian Sea when an invading Muslim army was almost wiped out by the cavalry of the Khazar Khanate , and, seeing a chance to take back Egypt, the Byzantines launched an amphibious attack which took back Alexandria for a short period of time. Though most of Egypt is desert, the Nile Delta has some of the most productive and fertile farmland in the entire world, which had made Egypt the "granary" of
7535-463: The Christians in Damascus. Overall, Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (Al-Waleed's father) is said to have transformed 10 churches in Damascus into mosques. The process of turning churches into mosques were especially intensive in the villages where most of the inhabitants converted to Islam. The Abbasid caliph al-Ma'mun turned many churches into mosques. Ottoman Turks converted nearly all churches, monasteries, and chapels in Constantinople , including
7672-456: The Great Mosque of Xi'an, like many other mosques in eastern China, resembles a pagoda , with a green roof instead of the yellow roof common on imperial structures in China. Mosques in western China were more likely to incorporate elements, like domes and minarets, traditionally seen in mosques elsewhere. A similar integration of foreign and local influences could be seen on the Indonesian islands of Sumatra and Java , where mosques, including
7809-464: The Mediterranean region, being used in religious ceremonies. However, the conversion of the Mediterranean world to Christianity had significantly reduced the demand for these commodities, causing a major economic slump in southern Arabia which helped to create the impression that Arabia was a backward region. Little is known of the pre-Islamic religions of Arabia, but it is known that the Arabs worshipped gods such as al-Lat, Manat, al-Uzza and Hubal, with
7946-429: The Middle East, India and even from as far away as China. In turn, the Yemeni were great sailors, travelling up the Red Sea to Egypt and across the Indian Ocean to India and down the east African coast. Inland, the valleys of Yemen had been cultivated by a system of irrigation that had been set back when the Marib Dam was destroyed by an earthquake in about 450 AD. Frankincense and myrrh had been greatly valued in
8083-409: The Muslim community to share in beginning and breaking the fasts, as providing charity during Ramadan is regarded in Islam as especially honorable. Following the last obligatory daily prayer ( ʿIshāʾ ) special, optional Tarāwīḥ prayers are offered in larger mosques. During each night of prayers, which can last for up to two hours each night, usually one member of the community who has memorized
8220-407: The Muslim shipwrights switched from the hull-first method of building ships to the frame-first method. After an Arab incursion into Sasanian territories, the shah Yazdgerd III , who had just ascended the Persian throne, raised an army to resist the conquerors, although many marzbans refused to help. The Persians suffered a devastating defeat at the Battle of al-Qadisiyyah in 636. Little
8357-402: The Muslims were allowed to retain their churches and the towns captured by Muslims had many of their churches converted to mosques. One of the earliest examples of these kinds of conversions was in Damascus , Syria, where in 705 Umayyad caliph Al-Walid I bought the church of St. John from the Christians and had it rebuilt as a mosque in exchange for building a number of new churches for
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#17330941381718494-456: The Muslims, while the people retreated into castles and fortified towns when the Muslims invaded; instead, Byzantine forces ambushed Muslim raiders as they returned to Syria carrying plunder and people they had enslaved . In the frontier area where Anatolia met Syria, the Byzantine state evacuated the entire population and laid waste to the countryside, creating a no man's land where any invading army would find no food. For decades afterwards,
8631-415: The Nile Delta and laid siege to Alexandria. The last major center to fall into Arab hands was Alexandria, which capitulated in September 642. According to Hugh Kennedy , "Of all the early Muslim conquests, that of Egypt was the swiftest and most complete. [...] Seldom in history can so massive a political change have happened so swiftly and been so long lasting." In 644, the Arabs suffered a major defeat by
8768-434: The Ottoman period are still scattered across Eastern Europe , but the most rapid growth in the number of mosques in Europe has occurred within the past century as more Muslims have migrated to the continent. Many major European cities are home to mosques, like the Grand Mosque of Paris , that incorporate domes, minarets, and other features often found with mosques in Muslim-majority countries. The first mosque in North America
8905-434: The Persian state collapsed with Yezdegird III fleeing further east and various marzbans surrendering to the Arabs. As the conquerors slowly covered the vast distances of Iran punctuated by hostile towns and fortresses, Yazdgerd III retreated, finally taking refuge in Khorasan , where he was assassinated by a local satrap in 651. In the aftermath of their victory over the imperial army, the Muslims still had to contend with
9042-412: The Persians exposed and over-extended, helping to set the stage for the collapse of Persia later that century. Southern Arabia, especially what is now Yemen, had for thousands of years been a wealthy region that had been a center of the spice trade . Yemen had been at the center of an international trading network linking Eurasia to Africa, and Yemen had been visited by merchants from East Africa, Europe,
9179-490: The Philippines. Several of the early mosques in the Ottoman Empire were originally churches or cathedrals from the Byzantine Empire , with the Hagia Sophia (one of those converted cathedrals) informing the architecture of mosques from after the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople . The Ottomans developed their own architectural style characterized by large central domes (sometimes surrounded by multiple smaller domes), pencil-shaped minarets, and open façades. Mosques from
9316-425: The Quran were accepted in Damascus , Basra , Hims , and Kufa . To settle the dispute, the Caliph Uthman had proclaimed the version of the Quran possessed by one of Muhammad's widows, Hafsa , to be the definitive and correct version, which offended some Muslims who held to the rival versions. This, together with the favoritism shown by 'Uthman to his own clan, the Banu Umayya , in government appointments, led to
9453-399: The Turkic peoples of Central Asia the "most formidable foes" faced by the Muslims. The Jewish Turkic Khazar khanate , based in what is now southern Russia and Ukraine, had a powerful heavy cavalry. The Turkic heartland of Central Asia was divided into five khanates whose khans variously recognized the shahs of Iran or the emperors of China as their overlords. Turkic society was feudal with
9590-413: The Umayyad period, the caliphate had a standing army, including the elite Ahl al-Sham ("people of Syria"), raised from the Arabs who settled in Syria. The caliphate was divided into jund , or regional armies, stationed in the provinces being made of mostly Arab tribes who were paid monthly by the Diwan al-Jaysh (War Ministry). The infantry of the Byzantine army continued to be recruited from within
9727-403: The Umayyads constructed among the most revered mosques in the region — Al-Aqsa Mosque and Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem , and the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus . The designs of the Dome of the Rock and the Umayyad Mosque were influenced by Byzantine architecture , a trend that continued much later with the rise of the Ottoman Empire . The Great Mosque of Kairouan in present-day Tunisia
9864-426: The archangel Gabriel had told him that he was the last of the prophets continuing the work of Jesus Christ and the prophets of Tanakh . After coming into conflict with the elite of Mecca, Muhammad fled to the city of Yathrib, which was renamed Medina . At Yathrib, Muhammad founded an Islamic state and by 630 conquered Mecca. The prolonged and escalating Byzantine–Sasanian wars of the 6th and 7th centuries and
10001-487: The arms race, both sides sought new technology to improve their warships. The Muslim warships had a larger forecastle , which was used to mount a stone-throwing engine. The Byzantines invented Greek fire , an incendiary weapon that led the Muslims to cover their ships with water-soaked cotton. A major problem for the Muslim fleet was the shortage of timber, which led the Muslims to seek qualitative instead of quantitative superiority by building bigger warships. To save money,
10138-406: The call to prayer was often performed from smaller structures or elevated platforms. The early Muslim community of Medina gave the call to prayer from the doorway or the roof of the house of Muhammad , which doubled as a place for prayer. The first confirmed minarets in the form of towers date from the early 9th century under Abbasid rule and they did not become a standard feature of mosques until
10275-682: The capital city of the Sassanids. The Persians lacked sufficient forces to make use of the Zagros Mountains to stop the Arabs, having lost the prime of their army at al-Qadisiyyah. The Persian forces withdrew over the Zagros, and the Arab army pursued them across the Iranian plateau, where the fate of the Sasanian Empire was sealed at the Battle of Nahavand in 642. The crushing Muslim victory at Nahavand
10412-471: The cavalry, the paighan infantry came from the peasantry and most of the greater Persian nobility had slave soldiers, this last being based on the Persian example. Much of the Persian army consisted of tribal mercenaries recruited from the plains south of the Caspian Sea and from what is now Afghanistan. The Persian tactics were cavalry based with the Persian forces usually divided into a center, based upon
10549-667: The center. Structural and Functional Roles Domes not only serve as architectural focal points but also enhance mosque acoustics, amplifying prayers. Structurally, they allow vast interior spaces with minimal internal supports. Their placement above the prayer hall symbolizes the connection between the earthly and the divine, reinforcing the mosque's spiritual purpose. Persian and Byzantine Influence Whilst squinches and pendentives were not first used in mosques, they were later incorporated in dome design and were essential in transitioning from square rooms to circular domes. Squinches, which originated in Persian and Roman architecture, fill
10686-879: The central city mosque, but has since become common in smaller mosques. To varying degrees, mosque buildings are designed so that there are segregated spaces for men and women . This basic pattern of organization has assumed different forms depending on the region, period, and Islamic denomination . In addition to being places of worship in Islam , mosques also serve as locations for funeral services and funeral prayers , marriages ( nikah ), vigils during Ramadan , business agreements, collection and distribution of alms , and homeless shelters. To this end, mosques have historically been multi-purpose buildings functioning as community centres, courts of law, and religious schools . In modern times, they have also preserved their role as places of religious instruction and debate. Special importance
10823-411: The collapse of the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 539 BC with the Battle of Opis , that Mesopotamia and Levant were ruled again by neighboring Semitic -speaking people, after centuries of Persian ( Achaemenid , Parthian and Sasanian empires), and Roman-Greek ( Macedonian , Seleucid the Roman and Byzantine empires) ruling periods. And the first time since the fall of Ancient Carthage in 146 BC with
10960-409: The collapse of the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 539 BC, that the Levant was ruled again by Semitic-speaking people, after centuries of Persian ( Achaemenid Empire ), and Roman-Greek ( Macedonian , the Roman and Byzantine empires) ruling periods. In the mountains of Asia Minor, the Muslims enjoyed less success, with the Byzantines adopting the tactic of "shadowing warfare" — refusing to give battle to
11097-403: The community usually provide meals periodically throughout the night During the last ten days of Ramadan , larger mosques within the Muslim community will host Iʿtikāf , a practice in which at least one Muslim man from the community must participate. Muslims performing itikaf are required to stay within the mosque for ten consecutive days, often in worship or learning about Islam. As a result,
11234-511: The community, thereby creating daily potluck dinners. Because of the community contribution necessary to serve iftar dinners, mosques with smaller congregations may not be able to host the iftar dinners daily. Some mosques will also hold Suḥūr meals before dawn to congregants attending the first required prayer of the day, Fajr . As with iftar dinners, congregants usually provide the food for suhoor, although able mosques may provide food instead. Mosques will often invite poorer members of
11371-481: The community, they may also have additional facilities, from health clinics and clubs (gyms) to libraries to gymnasiums , to serve the community. Early Muslim conquests This is an accepted version of this page Byzantine Empire Sassanid Persia Caucasus Other regions The early Muslim conquests or early Islamic conquests ( Arabic : الْفُتُوحَاتُ الإسْلَامِيَّة , romanized : al-Futūḥāt al-ʾIslāmiyya ), also known as
11508-425: The concept of the mosque as the focal point of the Islamic city. The Prophet's Mosque is considered by some scholars of Islamic architecture to be the first mosque. The mosque had a roof supported by columns made of palm tree trunks and it included a large courtyard, a motif common among mosques built since then. Rebuilt and expanded over time, it soon became a larger hypostyle structure. It probably served as
11645-511: The conquests started as initially disorganized pillaging raids launched partly by non-Muslim Arab tribes in the aftermath of the Ridda Wars and were soon extended into a war of conquest by the Rashidun caliphs , although other scholars argue that the conquests were a planned military venture already underway during Muhammad's lifetime. Fred Donner writes that the advent of Islam "revolutionized both
11782-592: The corners of a square space to support a dome, while pendentives, a Byzantine innovation, allowed smooth transitions from a square base to a circular dome. These techniques are exemplified by the Dome of Soltaniyeh. After the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453, Byzantine domes, such as Hagia Sophia’s, greatly influenced Ottoman mosque design. Domes in South Asian Mosque Architecture Domes became
11919-615: The deserts to Syria to attack the Byzantines from the rear. In the Battle of the Mud fought at or near Pella (Fahl) and nearby Scythopolis (Beisan) , both in the Jordan Valley , in December 634 or January 635, the Arabs scored another victory. After a siege of six months the Arabs took Damascus, but Emperor Heraclius later retook it. At the battle of Yarmuk (636), the Arabs were victorious, defeating Heraclius. Ibn al-Walid appears to have been
12056-399: The designs of later Timurid , and also Mughal , mosque designs. The Ottomans introduced central dome mosques in the 15th century. These mosques have a large dome centered over the prayer hall. In addition to having a large central dome, a common feature is smaller domes that exist off-center over the prayer hall or throughout the rest of the mosque, where prayer is not performed. This style
12193-472: The earliest type of mosques, pioneered under the Umayyad Dynasty. These mosques have square or rectangular plans with an enclosed courtyard ( sahn ) and covered prayer hall. Historically, in the warm Middle Eastern and Mediterranean climates , the courtyard served to accommodate the large number of worshippers during Friday prayers. Most early hypostyle mosques had flat roofs on prayer halls, which required
12330-535: The early Muslim polities at the conquests' peak have been as high as 13,000,000 square kilometres (5,000,000 sq mi). Most historians also agree that, as another primary factor determining the early Muslim conquests' success, the Sasanians and the Byzantines were militarily and economically exhausted from decades of warfare against each other . It has been suggested that Jews and some Christians in Sasanian and Byzantine territory were dissatisfied and welcomed
12467-521: The edge of the Nile River valley, and then defeated a Byzantine counter-attack at Bibays . Contrary to expectations, the Arabs did not head for Alexandria , the capital of Egypt, but instead for a major fortress known as Babylon located at what is now Cairo. Amr was planning to divide the Nile River valley in two. The Arab forces won a major victory at the Battle of Heliopolis in 640, but they found it difficult to advance further because major cities in
12604-480: The entire Quran (a Hafiz ) will recite a segment of the book. Sometimes, several such people (not necessarily of the local community) take turns to do this. During the last ten days of Ramadan, larger mosques will host all-night programs to observe Laylat al-Qadr , the night Muslims believe that Muhammad first received Quranic revelations. On that night, between sunset and sunrise , mosques employ speakers to educate congregants in attendance about Islam. Mosques or
12741-494: The entrance to the prayer hall is the qibla wall (the direction of Mecca , and thus the direction towards which Muslims should face for prayer), the visually emphasized area inside the prayer hall. The qibla wall should, in a properly oriented mosque, be set perpendicular to a line leading to Mecca , where the Kaaba is located. Congregants pray in rows parallel to the qiblah wall and thus arrange themselves so they face Mecca. In
12878-474: The famous Hagia Sophia , into mosques immediately after capturing the city in 1453 . In some instances mosques have been established on the places of Jewish or Christian sanctuaries associated with Biblical personalities who were also recognized by Islam. Mosques have also been converted for use by other religions, notably in southern Spain, following the conquest of the Moors in 1492. The most prominent of them
13015-674: The first Arab conquests were matched only by those of Alexander the Great , and they were more lasting." At their height, the territory that was conquered by the Arab Muslims stretched from Iberia (at the Pyrenees ) in the west to India (at Sind ) in the east; Muslim control spanned Sicily , most of the Middle East and North Africa , and the Caucasus and Central Asia . It was the first time since
13152-477: The first residence in about 1788. The property was bought by J. P. Roux in 1790. Freed slaves Jan van Bougies and Frans van Bengalen bought the property in 1807 and Jan van Bougies became the sole owner in 1811. Jan and Frans, along with some followers, broke away from the Auwal Mosque , when the former failed to succeed as imam . When Jan van Bougies died in 1846, aged 112, he left the property to his wife Samida of
13289-477: The frontier to provide a "shield" to counter raiding by the Muslims into the empire. Overall, the Byzantine army remained a small but professional force of foederati . Unlike the foederati who were sent where they were needed, the stradioti lived in the frontier provinces. During the last decades of the Sasanian empire, the frequent use of royal titles by Persian governors in Central Asia, especially in what
13426-525: The holiday of Eid ul-Fitr , mosques also collect a special zakat that is supposed to assist in helping poor Muslims attend the prayers and celebrations associated with the holiday. The frequency by which Muslims attend mosque services vary greatly around the world. In some countries, weekly attendance at religious services is common among Muslims while in others, attendance is rare. A study of American Muslims did not find differences in mosque attendance by gender or age. Arab-plan or hypostyle mosques are
13563-518: The horse and camel but seemed to have been hampered by a lack of weapons or protection, with both Byzantine and Arab sources mentioning the Berbers lacked armour and helmets. The Berbers went to war with their entire communities, and the presence of women and children both slowed down the Berber armies and tied down Berber tribesmen who tried to protect their families. The British historian David Nicolle called
13700-457: The increasing number of Muslims who either live in the area or make the annual pilgrimage known as Hajj to the city. Either way, after the Quba Mosque, Muhammad went on to establish another mosque in Medina , which is now known as Al-Masjid an-Nabawi ('The Prophet's Mosque'). Built on the site of his home, Muhammad participated in the construction of the mosque himself and helped pioneer
13837-459: The invading Muslim troops, largely because of religious conflict in both empires. However, confederations of Arab Christians , including the Ghassanids , initially allied themselves with the Byzantines. There were also instances of alliances between the Sasanians and the Byzantines, such as when they fought together against the Rashidun army during the Battle of Firaz . Some of the lands lost by
13974-464: The khans only being pater primus among the aristocracy of dihquans who lived in castles in the countryside, with the rest of Turkic forces being divided into kadivar (farmers), khidmatgar (servants) and atbai (clients). The heavily armored Turkic cavalry played a significant role in influencing subsequent Muslim tactics and weapons; the Turkic peoples, who were mostly Buddhists at
14111-441: The king's banner were paid a regular salary. Those called up for service had to provide their own weapons and horses, which contributed to the "militarisation of Frankish society". At least part of the reason for the victories of Charles Martel was he could call up a force of experienced warriors when faced with Muslim raids. The province of Syria was the first to be wrested from Byzantine control. Arab-Muslim raids that followed
14248-463: The leaders of both sides. However, the fitna ended in January 661 when Ali was killed by a kharaji assassin, allowing Mu'awiya to become caliph and found the Umayyad dynasty . The fitna also marked the beginning of the split between Shia Muslims who supported Ali, and Sunni Muslims who opposed him. Mu'awiya moved the capital of the caliphate from Medina to Damascus, which had a major effect on
14385-489: The majority, mosques are prohibited from loudly broadcasting the Adhān (Arabic: أَذَان , Call to Prayer), although it is supposed to be said loudly to the surrounding community. The adhan is required before every prayer. Nearly every mosque assigns a muezzin for each prayer to say the adhan as it is a recommended practice or Sunnah ( Arabic : سُـنَّـة ) of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. At mosques that do not have minarets,
14522-412: The majority, will also host Eid prayers outside in courtyards, town squares or on the outskirts of town in an Eidgah . Islam's holiest month, Ramaḍān , is observed through many events. As Muslims must fast during the day during Ramadan, mosques will host Ifṭār dinners after sunset and the fourth required prayer of the day, that is Maghrib . Food is provided, at least in part, by members of
14659-425: The morning. These Eid prayers are supposed to be offered in large groups, and so, in the absence of an outdoor Eidgah , a large mosque will normally host them for their congregants as well as the congregants of smaller local mosques. Some mosques will even rent convention centers or other large public buildings to hold the large number of Muslims who attend. Mosques, especially those in countries where Muslims are
14796-417: The most important being Allah (God). There were also Jewish and Christian communities in Arabia, and aspects of Arab religion reflected their influence. Pilgrimage was a major part of Arabian paganism, and one of the most important pilgrimage sites was Mecca , which housed the Kaaba , considered an especially holy place to visit. Muhammad, a merchant of Mecca, started to have visions in which he claimed that
14933-450: The offensive — the mountainous terrain of Anatolia favored the defensive, and for centuries afterwards the line between Christian and Muslim lands ran along the border between Anatolia and Syria. The Byzantine province of Egypt held strategic importance for its grain production, naval yards, and as a base for further conquests in Africa. The Muslim general Amr ibn al-As began the conquest of
15070-493: The only partial defeat of the Byzantine Empire, the Muslims borrowed far more from the vanished Sassanian state than they ever did from the Byzantines. However, for the Persians the defeat remained bitter. Some 400 years later, the Persian poet Ferdowsi lets Yazdgerd III speak in his popular poem Shahnameh ( Book of Kings ): Damn this world, damn this time, damn this fate, That uncivilized Arabs have come to Make me
15207-514: The opportunities for further development, the mosques consequently losing popularity. The first departure within mosque design started in Persia (Iran). The Persians had inherited a rich architectural legacy from the earlier Persian dynasties, and they began incorporating elements from earlier Parthian and Sassanid designs into their mosques, influenced by buildings such as the Palace of Ardashir and
15344-426: The period. American scholar Fred McGraw Donner suggests that Muhammad's establishment of an Islamic polity in Arabia coupled with ideological (i.e., religious) coherence and mobilization constituted the main factor that propelled the early Muslim armies to successfully establish, in the timespan of roughly a century, one of the largest empires in history . Estimates of the total area of the combined territory held by
15481-408: The politics and culture of the caliphate. Mu'awiya followed the conquest of Iran by invading Central Asia and trying to finish off the Byzantine Empire by taking Constantinople. In 670, a Muslim fleet seized Rhodes and then laid siege to Constantinople . Nicolle wrote the siege of Constantinople from 670 to 677 was "more accurately" a blockade rather than a siege proper, which ended in failure as
15618-470: The profits of their trade out of Byzantine territory. As a result, the Arabs murdered a Byzantine official named Sergius whom they held responsible for convincing the Emperor Heraclius to impose the trade restrictions. Nikephoros relates that: The Saracens, having flayed a camel, enclosed him in the hide and sewed it up. As the skin hardened, the man who was left inside also withered and so perished in
15755-408: The property were sold off. At the time the property had stables on it. It was purchased by one J. M. Vogel and again, after Vogel's death in 1777, by Baron Willem Ferdinand van Reede van Oudtshoorn. In 1782 it was transferred to one of his sons. Successive owners were Daniel Hugo (1785), Daniel Krynauw (1786) and Carel Lodewijk Schot (1787). Schot went bankrupt, but is probably responsible for building
15892-527: The province on his own initiative in 639. The majority of the Byzantine forces in Egypt were locally raised Coptic forces, intended to serve more as a police force; since the vast majority of Egyptians lived in the Nile River valley, surrounded on both the eastern and western sides by desert, Egypt was felt to be a relatively secure province. In December 639, Amr entered the Sinai with a large force and took Pelusium , on
16029-584: The recurring outbreaks of bubonic plague ( Plague of Justinian ) left both empires exhausted and weakened in the face of the sudden emergence and expansion of the Arabs. The last of these wars ended with victory for the Byzantines: Emperor Heraclius regained all lost territories and restored the True Cross to Jerusalem in 629. The war against Zoroastrian Persia, whose people worshiped the fire god Ahura Mazda , had been portrayed by Heraclius as
16166-490: The rest of the Muslim community is responsible for providing the participants with food, drinks, and whatever else they need during their stay. The third of the Five Pillars of Islam states that Muslims are required to give approximately one-fortieth of their wealth to charity as Zakat . Since mosques form the center of Muslim communities, they are where Muslims go to both give zakat and, if necessary, collect it. Before
16303-496: The rest of the prayer area, and to the rest of the mosque complex (although such uses may be restricted by the conditions of the waqf that owns the mosque). In many mosques, especially the early congregational mosques, the prayer hall is built in the hypostyle form (the roof held up by a multitude of columns). One of the finest examples of the hypostyle-plan mosques is the Great Mosque of Kairouan in Tunisia . Usually opposite
16440-634: The rise of privately funded mosques, many of which serve as bases for different streams of Islamic revivalism and social activism. The word 'mosque' entered the English language from the French word mosquée , probably derived from Italian moschea (a variant of Italian moscheta ), from either Middle Armenian մզկիթ ( mzkit‘ ), Medieval Greek : μασγίδιον ( masgídion ), or Spanish mezquita , from [مسجد] Error: {{Lang}}: invalid parameter: |3= ( help ) (meaning "site of prostration (in prayer)" and hence
16577-526: The room. Some mosques have Islamic calligraphy and Quranic verses on the walls to create a more religious atmosphere for worshippers. Often, a limited part of the prayer hall is sanctified formally as a masjid in the sharīʿah sense (although the term masjid is also used for the larger mosque complex as well). Once designated, there are onerous limitations on the use of this formally designated masjid , and it may not be used for any purpose other than worship; restrictions that do not necessarily apply to
16714-406: The rout of the imperial army and had to be conquered individually. Jerusalem fell in 638, Caesarea in 640, while others held out until 641. After a two-year siege, the garrison of Jerusalem surrendered rather than starve to death; under the terms of the surrender Caliph Umar promised to tolerate the Christians of Jerusalem and not to turn churches into mosques. True to his word, Umar allowed
16851-662: The seventh century, they were not commonplace across the subcontinent until the arrival of the Mughals in the 16th and 17th centuries. Reflecting their Timurid origins, Mughal-style mosques included onion domes , pointed arches , and elaborate circular minarets, features common in the Persian and Central Asian styles . The Jama Masjid in Delhi and the Badshahi Mosque in Lahore , built in
16988-604: The time of the Islamic conquest, later converted to Islam and came to be regarded as the foremost Muslim warriors, to the extent of replacing the Arabs as the dominant peoples in the Dar al-Islam (House of Islam). During the migration period , the Germanic Visigoths had traveled from their homeland north of the Danube to settle in the Roman province of Hispania , creating a kingdom upon
17125-420: The towering gateways at every side, as more important than the actual buildings themselves. They typically took the form of a square-shaped central courtyard with large entrances at each side, giving the impression of gateways to the spiritual world. The Persians also introduced Persian gardens into mosque designs. Soon, a distinctly Persian style of mosques started appearing that would significantly influence
17262-747: The use of geodesic domes offers a modern solution to structural and environmental needs. These domes, with their network of triangular units, distribute weight evenly, allowing for expansive spaces without the need for internal supports. This is particularly useful in creating large, unobstructed prayer halls. Geodesic domes also boast greater energy efficiency due to their minimal surface area relative to volume, which reduces heating and cooling demands. As ritual purification precedes all prayers, mosques often have ablution fountains or other facilities for washing in their entryways or courtyards. Worshippers at much smaller mosques often have to use restrooms to perform their ablutions. In traditional mosques, this function
17399-557: The use of numerous columns and supports . One of the most notable hypostyle mosques is the Great Mosque of Cordoba in Spain, the building being supported by over 850 columns. Frequently, hypostyle mosques have outer arcades ( riwaq ) so that visitors can enjoy the shade. Arab-plan mosques were constructed mostly under the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties. The simplicity of the Arab plan limited
17536-583: The wreckage of the Western Roman Empire . The Visigothic state in Iberia was based around forces raised by the nobility whom the king could call out in the event of war. The king had his gardingi and fideles loyal to himself, while the nobility had their bucellarii . The Visigoths favored cavalry with their favorite tactics being to repeatedly charge a foe combined with feigned retreats . The Muslim conquest of most of Iberia in less than
17673-651: Was "killed by the Saracens" as related in the 7th century Doctrina Jacobi document. In Arabia, swords from India were greatly esteemed as being made of the finest steel and were the favorite weapons of the Mujahideen . The Arab sword known as the sayfy closely resembled the Byzantine gladius . Swords and spears were the major weapons of the Muslims, and armour was either mail or leather. In northern Arabia, Byzantine influence predominated; in eastern Arabia, Persian influence predominated; and in Yemen, Indian influence
17810-453: Was blown over by a strong wind. The low sash window and shortened door are not by design; Long Street was raised over the years. Mosque Originally, mosques were simple places of prayer for the early Muslims , and may have been open spaces rather than elaborate buildings. In the first stage of Islamic architecture (650–750 CE), early mosques comprised open and closed covered spaces enclosed by walls, often with minarets , from which
17947-508: Was felt. As the caliphate spread, the Muslims were influenced by the peoples they conquered—the Turkic peoples in Central Asia, the Persians , and the Byzantines in Syria. The Bedouin tribes of Arabia favored archery, though contrary to popular belief Bedouin archers usually fought on foot instead of horseback. The Arabs usually fought defensive battles with their archers placed on both flanks. By
18084-529: Was followed by the temporary Muslim conquest of Cyprus . As Yemen had been a center of maritime trade, Yemeni sailors were brought to Alexandria to start building an Islamic fleet for the Mediterranean. The Muslim fleet was based in Alexandria and used Acre, Tyre and Beirut as its forward bases. The core of the fleet's sailors were Yemeni, but the shipwrights who built the ships were Iranian and Iraqi. In
18221-668: Was founded by Albanian Americans in 1915, but the continent's oldest surviving mosque, the Mother Mosque of America , was built in 1934. As in Europe, the number of American mosques has rapidly increased in recent decades as Muslim immigrants, particularly from South Asia , have come in the United States. Greater than forty percent of mosques in the United States were constructed after 2000. According to early Muslim historians , towns that surrendered without resistance and made treaties with
18358-479: Was given any chance to recover, as within a few years they were overrun by the advances of the Arabs (newly united by Islam), which, according to James Howard-Johnston, "can only be likened to a human tsunami". According to George Liska, the "unnecessarily prolonged Byzantine–Persian conflict opened the way for Islam". In late 620s Muhammad had already managed to conquer and unify much of Arabia under Muslim rule, and it
18495-471: Was heavily influenced by Byzantine architecture with its use of large central domes. Islam forbids figurative art , on the grounds that the artist must not imitate God's creation. Mosques are, therefore, decorated with abstract patterns and beautiful inscriptions. Decoration is often concentrated around doorways and the miḥrāb . Tiles are used widely in mosques. They lend themselves to pattern-making, can be made with beautiful subtle colors, and can create
18632-516: Was the first mosque built in the Maghreb (northwest Africa), with its present form (dating from the ninth century) serving as a model for other Islamic places of worship in the Maghreb. It was the first in the region to incorporate a square minaret , which was characteristic of later Maghrebi mosques, and includes naves akin to a basilica . Those features can also be found in Andalusi mosques, including
18769-406: Was under his leadership that the first Muslim-Byzantine skirmishes took place in response to Byzantine incursions. Just a few months after Heraclius and the Persian general Shahrbaraz agreed on terms for the withdrawal of Persian troops from occupied Byzantine eastern provinces in 629, Arab and Byzantine troops confronted each other at the Battle of Mu'tah as a result of Byzantine vassals murdering
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